Glossary
Akusō (悪僧)
Militant monks belonging to rival sects of
Buddhism
Bunbu no tassha (文武の達者)
Man accomplished in civil and military arts
Bunbu ryōdō (文武両道)
Combination of learning and military arts
Gekokujō (下克上)
Social description of those lower on the social
ladder displacing the upper classes
Gokenin (御家人)
Direct retainers of the shōgun
Harifube
Hereditary shrine officials
Heihō（兵法）
Art or method of warfare
Jisha bugyō (寺社奉行)
Bakufu official in charge of shrines and
temples
Koku (石)
Method of measurement, approximately 180
liters. The amount of rice deemed necessary
to support 1 person for 1 year
Mukaijō
Makeshift stronghold built facing existing
strongholds to isolate it from others
Musha shugyō
`Warrior training` related to budō, method of
self-discipline derived from yamabushi
Naginata
Pole sword, or halberd
Nairan (内覧)
Personal assistant to the emperor charged
with governmental authority
Okugi
Innermost secret of an art or craft
Seki
Barrier, border post, where taxes levied and
movement between provinces controlled
Shikken
Regent to an infant shōgun
Sōhei
Warrior monks of great temples (ahistorical
term-was not used during medieval period)
Sōjutsu
Art of naginata fighting
Taitō
Long sword (like a tachi)
Taryū shiai
`contest between two schools`, swordfight
duel
Tsuitōshi
Punitive expedition to quell a revolt
Wakō
Japanese pirates who pillaged the Chinese
and Korean coasts
Yamabushi
Mountain priests who practiced esoteric
rituals
Yari
Spear or lance
Shōen (荘園)
An estate, normally the property of the
upper classes and major temples
Geshi (下司)
Local shōen manager. Ranked below a Jitō
Migyōsho (御教書)
Directive issued by the shōgun
Jitō gokenin (地頭御家人)
Bakufu vassal, same position as a jitōshiki.
Term used from the mid 1300s
Daikan (代官)
Shōen
`general
manager`
or
overseer,
responsible for collection of all rents. Both
Shugo and Jitō were types of Daikan
Heinō bunri (兵農分離)
Classification of all warriors and peasants
into one class or the other
Gōshi (郷士)
Lowest strata of warrior class, essentially
wealthy peasants (17th century term)
Hatamoto (旗本)
Flag bearers, samurai of high rank
Honke (本家), or Ryōke (領家)
`Central proprietors`, rulers over a shōen,
usually aristocratic or religious institutions
Jitōshiki (地頭職)
Shōen
administrator, appointed
by
the
Bakufu. Ranked lower than a Daikan
Hanzei (半済)
Act of giving property rights to a local
supporter, irrespective of original shōen
owner. Often employed by the Ashikaga
Bakufu, particularly Takauji
Mandokoro (政所)
Bakufu chancellery
Samurai dokoro (侍所)
Bakufu agency for vassal affairs. Overseer of
bugyo affairs
Onshōgata (恩賞方)
Bakufu official in charge of distribution of
honours
Gunsei saisokujō (軍勢催促状)
Urgent order to take up arms
Kyōto (凶徒)
Ruffians
Inzen (院宣)
Directive issued from the office of a retired
emperor
Chokkatsugun (直轄軍)
Troops directly under the control of the
shōgun
Kinjū (近習)
Closest vassals to the shōgun within the
Chokkatsugun
Zuihei(髄兵)
Attendants to the Kinjū
Shin`eigun(親衛軍)
Shōgunal bodyguard
Hōkōshū(奉公衆)
Retainers ranked below the Shin`eigun and
Kinjū
Keigoyaku (警護役)
A guard within either the shōgunal or
imperial procession
Sankei (参詣)
A religious pilgrimage by either the shōgun
or the emperor
Hōjōe (放生会)
A ceremony of the imperial court, consisting
of the release of live birds and fish in honour
of the Buddhism injunction against killing
sentient beings
Tokusei ikki (徳政一揆)
Debt amnesty – a call for the removal of all
debts via uprising
Chōhon yoriki (張本与力)
The ringleaders of uprisings and revolts
Myōshu (名主)
A village leader
Kunyūnin (口入人)
A mediator
Buichi tokusei (分一徳政)
Conditional debt amnesty – if debtor paid
1/10 of debt to bakufu, the remainder would
be cancelled
Buninjō (補任状)
Document of appointment
Kubari hikitsuke (賦引付)
The bakufu office handling lawsuits and
their preliminary paperwork
Baiken (売券)
Bill of sale
Shichikenchi (質券地)
Pawning of land for a loan, where the land
was collateral
Kajishi Myōshushiki (加地子名主職)
Office that allowed a rich peasant to absorb
agricultural surplus, placed a surtax on
cultivators but did not take land from them.
Made rich peasants local landlords,
extracting rents or taxes from other
peasants. Totally outside old shōen system
Kokujin (国人)
Provincial warrior, subordinate to a Shugo,
status as a bakufu vassal. More common in
central Japan than eastern Japan. Leader
with strong ties to the local area. Also called
Kokushu (国衆)
Isshikiden (一色田)
Lands sold with all rights included, like that
of proprietorship – outright control of land
through sale
Sōryō (惣領)
System of divided inheritance – land could
not be sold to outsiders, stayed within a
family. Also refers to a warrior family or
household, as distinct from a Shoshi(庶子) or
commoners
Ichien chigyō (一円知行)
Total control over lands in the shōen system
Jizamurai (地侍)
Low-level warrior, lived in villages.
Independent of bakufu
Dogō (土豪)
A wealthy peasant (Not a medieval word)
with great authority in a village – often led
peasant rebellions. Also translated as
`prominent peasant family`
Tadokoro (田所)
Lower officer concerned with tax collection
on the shōen
Jōshi (上司)
Special agent, dispatched by central
proprietors (Honke) to take charge of shōen
affairs
Kokujin ikki (国人一揆)
Regional confederation of local lords –
emerged in the late 14th century. Not aligned
to central proprietors, but by historical
precedent tied to Bakufu system
Kuni ikki (国一揆)
Province-wide revolt
Ichimi shinsui(一味神水)
Ritual oath made by drinking a mixture of
water and ash in order to bind participants
into a pact. A peasant practice
Ichimi dōshin (一味同心)
`Of one disposition and like mind`, ritual
similar to that of the ichimi shinsui
Hyakushō mōshijō(百姓申状)
An extra-judicial code, introduced during the
12th century allowing peasants to make a
petition to their social superiors. Replaced
the 住人等の下 or the `ge from residents
and others`
Hereon, this glossary mainly quotes Togawa Atsushi (editor), Sengoku Jidai Yōgo Jiten
(Dictionary of Sengoku era vocabulary), Gakken, Tokyo, 2007
Tenka fubu (天下布武)
To spread the rule of arms throughout the
country – first used by Oda Nobunaga from
1567 onwards
Tenka ittō (天下一統)
To unite the country under one rule – first
used by Toyotomi Hideyoshi from 1590
onwards
Tenka bito (天下人)
Person who controls the nation – the shōgun
or emperor (originally), or the most powerful
warlord
Kōgi(公儀)
Possessor
of
legitimate
authority
–
confirmed by the central government
Gokinai (五畿内)
The provinces of Yamashiro, Yamato, Settsu,
Kawachi, and Izumi
Hatagashira (旗頭)
The head of an organization of warriors.
Synonymous with shugo
Yakata (屋形)
Originally referred to the residence of an
official of shugo rank (during Muromachi
era). Came to refer to the shugo or lord
himself
Fudai (譜代)
Senior official in a warlord`s household –
hereditary position of support, thus came
with a large amount of trust and dependency
Karō (家老)
One of the highest levels of retainer within a
warlord`s household. Of illustrious
background and possessing ability. Other
variations were Shukurō （宿老）for the Oda,
and Toshiyori (年寄) for the Ōtomo
Kasai (家宰)
Most important position in certain
households, such as that of the Uesugi
Gundai (郡代)
Person in control of a number of provinces
Shikken (執権)
The exercise of authority as a senior
household official
Moriyaku (守役)
Person charged with bringing up the
children of the daimyō, educating them, and
protecting them
Ichizoku (一族)
Family with blood or relative ties to a
daimyō or the bakufunate
Koshō (小姓)
Retainer close to the lord (daimyō) – often
close friend and occasionally lover
Yūhitsu (右筆)
The retainer charged with writing
documents for the daimyō
Sōja (奏者)
Retainer responsible for receiving petitions
or claims on behalf of the shōgun. This
position also began to be called 申次
Mōshitsugi on account of the action of
presenting petitions
Toritsugi (取次)
Within the Takeda household, the retainer
responsible for receiving petitions
Chabōzu (茶坊主)
A priest responsible for the everyday affairs
of the daimyō
Yakukata (役方)
Amid the retainers of a household, the
retainer with the most knowledge of civil
affairs and government
Bugyo (奉行)
Person charged with the authority to carry
out the laws of the daimyō, pursue civil cases
and prosecute criminals. Also called a
Bugyonin (奉行人)
Honbugyo (本奉行)
Bugyonin given the authority to solely deal
with a claim or petition
Aibugyo (合奉行)
Bugyonin with the duty to ensure the
Honbugyo legitimately performed his office
Metsuke (目付)
The retainer with the duty to prevent crime
and ensure social stability
Sakujibugyo (作事奉行)
Retainer with the responsibility over the
construction of buildings
Machibugyo (町奉行)
Retainer with the responsibility over towns
and public order within them
Kubō (公方)
A public official This changed to refer to the
shōgun from the Edo era onward
Genji chōja (源氏長者)
The person with the most responsibility
amidst families that identified themselves
with Genji ancestry
Muromachi dono (室町殿)
The name originally given to the residence of
the third shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu. This
eventually came to refer to the shōgun
himself
Taiju (大樹)
In Tang era China, this referred to the
general in chief, the shōgun. Separate term
for this office
Gaki (牙旗)
To take one`s position. When the 8th shōgun
Ashikaga Yoshimasa presented a gaki to
Hosokawa Katsumoto, it meant that
Yoshimasa trusted Katsumoto unreservedly
Uesama (上様)
Illustrious term of respect for a leader by
their senior retainers. Term eventually used
to refer to the shōgun. The emperor went by
the term お上 (Okami)
Kanrei (管領)
Name of official position within the Bakufu.
Essentially an assistant to the shōgun
Mandokoro shitsuji (政所執事)
Name of official position in the Bakufu.
Position that controlled the affairs of the
household
Shishiki (四職)
4 families that served as heads of the
Mandokoro – the Yamana, Kyōgoku,
Akamatsu, and Isshiki
Shōbanshū (相伴衆)
One of the formalities observed during the
era of Muromachi rule. When the shōgun
would visit the residence of a daimyō, a
person appointed as a Shōbanshū would
accompany him. This system was set in
place during the Eikyō era (1429-41), with a
number of powerful shugo daimyō appointed
to the position. It was eventually regarded
as an honour to be granted such a post,
hence the title was given greater prestige
during the Sengoku era and allocated to
powerful families such as the Asakura and
the Miyoshi (both Sengoku daimyō).
Otomoshū(御供衆)
Another of the formalities of the Muromachi
government. Essentially the same position
as the Shōbanshū – to accompany the
shōgun on visits and at banquets – yet was
lower on the hierarchy of positions that the
Shōbanshū. Both the Hatakeyama and
Yamana families, in short influential shugo
daimyō, served in this position, as did
Hosokawa Katsumoto (Yūsai).
Mōshitsugishū (申次衆)
One of the functionary positions within the
Muromachi bakufunate. The person charged
with asking visitors to the shōgunate what
their name and purpose of their visit was. A
position given to trusted shugo daimyō or
those with a closer relationship to the
shōgun. Also known as a Sōja (see above).
Hōkōshū(奉公衆)
A group of councilors affiliated with the
shōgun during the Muromachi era. As the
Ashikaga shōgunate did not possess forces
directly under its control, this became one of
the fundamental weak points preventing it
from exercising its power. The third shōgun
Yoshimitsu then decided to create the
Hōkōshū system to compensate for this. It
was arranged from the 1st group to the 5th
group, and had about 300 retainers, yet
when taking the total number of attendants
to the Hōkōshū into account, the actual
military strength of the organization was
something like 3000. This organization
eventually lost power during the Sengoku
era and disappeared altogether with the fall
of the Ashikaga shōgunate.
Kamakura Kubō (鎌倉公方)
Official position giving the holder the
authority to oversee developments in the
Kanto area by decree of the Ashikaga
shōgunate. The origins of the post lay in
Ashikaga Takauji appointing his adopted
son Yoshiakira to this position to administer
all of the Kanto region.
Kanto Kanrei (関東管領)
Position that gave the bearer to right to
administer over the Kanto region. Originally
the Kamakura Kubō was described as the
Kanto Kanrei, although eventually the latter
title became one for an advisor. First held by
the Sekitō and Kō households, however after
1363 it became associated with the Uesugi.
The position eventually weakened and
collapsed when faced with the growing
power of the Go Hōjō(後北条) in the Kanto
area.
Koga Kubō (古河公方)
Ashikaga Takauji`s son, Nariuji, was
appointed to rule over the Kanto as the
Kamakura Kubō, yet as he was unable to
lodge in Kamakura, he moved to Koga in
Shimosa, and thus the name changed to
reflect this development. Often clashed with
the Uesugi as Kanto Kanrei, however arrival
of the Go Hōjō ended the use of the office.
Kokushi (国司)
Within the old court legal records, the
Kokushi was supposed to be dispatched to
the provinces to administer them as an
overseer (or Chihōkan), however by the
Middle Ages it had become a hollow
institution. By the Sengoku era, the
Kitabatake of Ise, the Ichijō of Tosa, and the
Inegoro of Hida had proceeded to
appropriate this title for themselves.
Shugo(守護)
A regional administrator, given territory to
rule over during the Kamakura era. The
system was carried over into the Muromachi
era. Would act as a Gokenin during
emergencies, and dispense with justice and
laws during times of peace. Differences in
the powers of the shugo changed according
to the region. The Yamana family, of the 66
provinces in Japan, ruled eleven of them as a
shugo, and thus were known as `Lord 1/6`.
Shugo Daimyō (守護大名)
A shugo who had begun his career at the jito
level, but who secured tax rights for himself,
extended his authority, and eventually came
to rule over the territory under his command
as a daimyō. A term that is retroactive (came
into being after WWII), for it did not exist at
the time. Describes a concept rather than an
actual position.
Shugodai (守護代)
As a shugo was, in principle, supposed to
reside in Kyoto, the actual administration of
their property was handled by the shugodai.
However, it was often the case that rather
than having a fully fledged shugodai active
in their entire property, many shugo
preferred using smaller units of shugodai
dispatched to cover only one `gun` part of the
entire property. In the Sengoku era, many
shugodai became daimyō, such as the
Asakura of Echizen and the Nagao of Echigo.
Tandai (探題)
A position established in the Kamakura era
and continued into the Muromachi –
essentially a government organization
devoted to administration. Placed in regions
far from the capital – such as the Kyushu
Tandai and the Mutsu Tandai. The Imagawa
were appointed as the Kyushu Tandai, and
during the early stages of the Muromachi
era the term came to mean a form of regional
government. During the Kōji period
(1555-58) the Date family of Mutsu held the
title of Mutsu Tandai, but this came with no
authority, it merely was a title used to give
prestige to this Sengoku daimyō household.
Shugosho (守護所)
The place that the shugo resided in, or the
residence from which the shugo exercised his
authority. The centre of a provinces`
administrative, military, and financial
matters. As in the case of the Ōuchi of
Yamaguchi, a jōkamachi (城下町) could
develop as part of a Shugosho.
Kuge (公家)
An official title given to those in support of
the court – in other words, a courtier`s
position. When a warrior`s fortunes
improved, at the same time as being titled as
a Buke, it became standard practice to
award him with the title of Kuge as well.
Whereas Buke was the title at the center of
the Bakufu, Kuge dictated one`s position at
court, with the emperor as the head of the
organization.
Kugyō (公卿)
Name given to the higher ranks of Kuge.
These included the Tasei Daijin, the Sessei,
the Kanpaku, Sadaijin, Udaijin, and the
Nai(Uchi)daijin, as well as the Dainogon,
Chūnogon, and Sangi. Gekkei (月卿) and
Kandachime (上達目) were other titles for
this position. The most important ranks in
the court system of government.
Danka (檀家)
Group of Buddhist parishioners, supporters
of a buddhist temple
Denjōbito (殿上人)
Amidst court officials of the fourth or fifth
rank, a Denjōbito was a person who had
been elevated to the Seiryōden (清涼殿). The
Seiryōden was where the emperor spent
most of his time, hence a Denjōbito was
responsible for duties related directly to the
emperor. However, in the Sengoku era, a
person who had personal access to the
emperor without being limited to the fourth
or fifth rank was called a Denjōbito, and
included higher officials such as the Sessei
and Kanpaku. It was an illustrious position,
hence the title Unjōnin (雲上人) or else
Unkyaku (雲客) also referred to the same
post.
Dōjōke (堂上家)
An official title for a Kuge. Dōjō meant to be
elevated to the inner circle of the Seiryōden,
and had virtually the same meaning as
Denjōbito. With the passing of generations,
those families who had often been elevated
in rank were referred to as Dōjōke. During
the Sengoku era, some sixteen or so families
were of this rank. To be allowed access to the
court meant that you were of significance
within the Kuge system, so those who
weren`t granted access were referred to as
Jige (地下), thus revealing a degree of
discrimination. The ranks of Dōjōke
decreased in importance from the
Sekkanke(摂関家), to the Seiga (清華家), the
Daijin (大臣家), the Urinke (羽林家), the
Meika (名家), to the Hanke (判家).
Sekkanke (摂関家)
This meant a court official with suitable
lineage to be able to serve as either a Sessei
or Kanpaku. Specifically, this referred to the
five families of Konoe (近衛), Takatsukasa
(鷹司), Kujō (九条), Nijō (二条), and Ichijō (一
条). During the Sengoku era, in the
Sekkanke system, Ichijō Norifusa (教房), and
Konoe Sakitsugu (前嗣) proved to be two
unusual examples. Norifusa escaped the
chaos that engulfed Kyoto during the Onin
war to Nakamura in Tosa province, and thus
laid the foundation of family of Tosa Ichijō
Takamori (隆盛). Sakitsugu came to depend
on Uesugi Kenshin, travelled about the
Kanto region, witnessed battles, remained
separate from the capital but actively sought
to restore some of the prestige to the Kuge
system.
Seigake (清華家)
Within the system of Sekkanke, chief
minister (or person with highest rank) to
serve as Sadaijin. The Kanin (閑院),
Hanayamain (花山院), and Chūin (中院)
were the three houses with the title of
Seigake. After the Insei era, these families
were given the prestige of being associated
as distant relatives to the emperor. In the
Sengoku era, the three houses gradually
developed into seven, these being the
Tenpōrin (天法輪) Sanjō, Saionji (西園寺),
Tokudaiji (徳大寺), Kikutei (菊亭),
Hanayamain, the Ōimikado (大炊御門), and
the Kuga (久我). Although the Daijin
position was located one rank below that of
the Seigake, the difference between the two
remains unclear.
Urinke (羽林家)
One of the formal titles for Kuge. One of the
highest positions for the Dainogon (大納言),
and held by many illustrious Kuge families.
It is unclear how many served in this
position during the Sengoku era, but by the
Edo era the number reached around 30.
Meika (名家)
One of the formal titles for Kuge. Again, one
of the highest positions for the Dainogon.
Held by three particular families – the Hino
(日野), Kajūji (勧修寺), and Taira (平) (those
descended from the 高棟 household).
During the Heian era, these three houses
served as the Sekkanke, and were prime
examples of Denjōbito.
Zuishinke (隋身家)
A Kuge who served either the Sekkanke or
the emperor in retirement (or in, 院). The
position involved responsibility for
household duties and general
administration.
Mikura Kotoneri (御蔵小舎人)
An official of lower rank responsible for the
maintenance of court documents and
records. The position was contested between
the Yamashina (山科) and Matsugi (真継)
households. They also had presiding control
over all of the currency makers throughout
the realm, and thus earned quite a lot
through their operation. Though the image
of the Sengoku era is one of hardship, the
Mikurakotoneri were blessed with a varied
income, and thus did not suffer as others did.
Buketensō (武家伝奏)
A Kuge position that involved liaising with
the military government. At the beginning of
the Muromachi bakufunate, liaison from the
Buketensō went via the Bukeshisō (武家執
奏) to the emperor, however shogun
Yoshimitsu abolished the position of
Bukeshisō, thus making the Buketensō sole
agent between the court and Bakufunate.
The title itself was gradually solidified
during the Eishō era (1504-21), and played
an important role in streamlining
communications between the two entities.
Tennō (天皇)
The reigning emperor – applied since the
seventh centuryA.D.
Kinri (禁裏)
The building(s) in which the emperor
resided. Also known as the Kinchū (禁中),
the Kinketsu (禁蕨), the Dairi (内裏), the
Uchi (内), the Kōi (皇居), the Kyūchū (宮中),
the Kokonoe (九重), the Kumoi(雲居), and
the Unjō (雲上). The central part of the
emperor`s residence was referred to as the
Shishinden (紫宸殿), with the personal
quarters called the Seiryōden (清涼殿).
Satodairi (里内裏)
A temporary residence of the emperor. In the
Heian era, the emperor may have moved his
residence to the private estate of the
Sekkanke, however by the Nambokucho era,
the Tsuchi Gomon Dairi (土御門内裏) had
become a common name for the emperor`s
residence and continued to be used through
the Sengoku era. Afterwards, since the Dairi
was never rebuilt, the Tsuchi Gomon Dairi
continued to be used, and is still part of the
modern complex in Kyoto`s Gosho (御所)
palace.
Kaigen (改元)
The system of naming reigns. A prerogative
of the court, it was one of the few remaining
rights that the court could still exercise
during the Sengoku era. It was only after the
Meiji restoration that one specific title would
refer to the reign of an emperor. Before then,
a change in position, the start of a new
government, natural calamity, or astrology
would bring about a change in the name of
the reign. As a result of pressure from the
Ashikaga shogunate, the right of the court of
issue kaigen decreased.
Shinengō (私年号)
A system of naming years separate to that of
the court. Normally a government practice,
used during periods of backlash against
government rule and an expression of
unrest. Though the reign of Ashikaga
Nariuji had been changed from (享徳)
Kyōtoku to (寛正) Kanshō, the old
designation continued to be used (as
evidence that news of the change did not
reach the provinces).
Sokui (即位)
The appointment of an emperor. Whilst the
passing of the three sacred objects to the
next emperor was described as the Senso (践
祚)、the Sokui announced the accession of the
next emperor to the realm. Both were
supposed to happen in the same year,
however the disturbances of the Sengoku era
meant that the Senso could be delayed for
some time – in the case of emperor
Gokashiwara, twenty one years.
Kaisan (開山)
The founder of a religious sect or temple.
Zasu (座主)
A priest responsible for the activities held
within and on behalf of a major temple.
Usually a priest of upstanding moral
character, however occasionally the relative
of an emperor or Sekkanke would serve in
this position.
Monseki (門跡)
The name given to a temple in which the
emperor, having left his own lodgings, chose
to reside in. In the Sengoku era, this
privilege was afforded to Ninnaji (仁和寺),
Shōgoin (聖護院), Byōdōin (平等院),
Daikakuji (大覚寺), and Kajūji (勧修寺).
Originally all temples were known as
Monseki, however to reside and work in a
temple gradually meant one became known
as either Monseki or Monshu (門主).
Kanshu (貫主)
The highest priestly position within Hōkōji
(方広寺) temple, built by Toyotomi
Hideyoshi.
Hosshu (法主)
The highest priestly position within the Ikkō
sect. All direct descendants of Shinran were
given this designation. Also read as Hōshu.
Bōkan (坊官)
Within Monseki designated temples, this
title was given to semi secular priests
working on behalf of the major temple.
Responsible for the administration of the
temple as assistants to the Monshu.
Sōroku (僧録)
A position of responsibility created for the
control of Zen temples. Originally created by
the Muromachi bakufu and given to
councilors, however in time this duty was
passed to the priests themselves. After
members of the imperial family and
Sekkanke were appointed to the position, it
took on an air of honor and refinement.
Ajyari (阿闍梨)
A highly placed priestly position within
esoteric sects (such as Tendai and Shingon)
and charged with the duty of teaching
acolytes.
Shuto (衆徒)
Priests of Kōfukuji and Enryakuji etc.
Originally meant one who sought to
specialize in the study of Buddha and
learning. Many young men from Kuge
families served in this position, rising in
status with the passing of years and
learning.
Gakuryo (学侶)
One of the levels of priesthood within a
major temple. Other included Gakumonsō
(学問僧), Gakusō (学僧), and Gakusei (学生).
Persons engaged in research into Buddhism,
pilgrimages and additional prayers, and
primarily concerned with practice and
learning were known as Gakuryo.
Gyōnin (行人)
One of the lower levels of Gakuryo,
responsible for maintenance of buildings,
cooking meals, in other words the odd jobs of
the temple. Many were half secular priests.
Many disputes broke out at Kōyasan
between Gyōnin and Gakuryo, which did
occasionally lead to armed violence.
Daishu (大衆)
A gathering of priests within a major temple.
A meeting of both Gyōnin and Gakuryo was
also called a Daishu. The Nippo Jiten (日葡
辞典) states that the Daishu of Enryakuji
usually combined their resolutions with
military strength.
Kōyahijiri (高野聖)
A group of half secular priests who traveled
the country, eventually arriving at Kōyasan.
Made up of members of warrior houses down
to commoners, they received alms on their
way to Kōyasan. Some sold clothes on behalf
of clothes makers, many were hired by
daimyō to gather information during their
pilgrimage.
Katsujiki (渇食)
Young boys who looked after the priests
within Zen temples. In the Sengoku era,
they often wore brightly coloured clothing,
and were the subject of homosexual
relations.
Midera (未寺)
A temple affiliated with the main branch of a
religion or sect.
Gūji (宮司)
The head of the series of officials in charge of
shrines. His deputy (or aid) was known as a
(権宮司) Gongūji
Shake (社家)
A family specially appointed to supervise
matters within designated shrines. This
included such families as the Tōba (籐波)
and the Kawabe (河辺) in Ise, the Aso family
(阿蘇) for Aso shrine, and the Tsumori (津守)
family for the Sumiyoshi shrine.
Negi (禰宜)
The general name for a shrine official.
Hafuri (Hauri) (祝)
The next rank down in the scale of shrine
officials from a Negi.
Ōhōri (大祝)
The highest official in charge of duties at
Suwa shrine. The Suwa family (諏訪)
claimed this position as their own, and
continued to hold it until they were
overthrown by Takeda Shingen.
Jinin (神人)
A lower class shrine worker, also known as a
Yoriudo (寄人). They were in charge of
defending shrines, and thus armed
themselves in a similar manner to akusō. In
the medieval period, merchants, fishermen,
and artisans would be employed in this
position, for by borrowing the name of the
shrine they could conduct business in its
vicinity as Jinin.
Kuninomiyatsuko (国造)
Originally the name given to a regional
official, however with the passing of time
this meaning was lost. The Chika and
Kitajima families, who served as shrine
officials to Izumo Taisha (出雲大社), revived
the appellation for themselves, becoming the
Kuninomiyatsuko for Izumo.
Miyaza (宮座)
A village organization centered around a
Chinjū(鎮守, or village head). A meeting of
senior village members was also known as
Miyaza. Ordinarily, a Miyaza consisted of an
Otona (乙名) or a Toshiyori (年寄), who acted
as spokesmen. The Chinjū was not only
responsible for festivals, but also made all of
the important decisions in relation to the
village
Oshi (御師)
The name given to persons who wandered
about the country on pilgrimages to Ise and
Kumano shrines. In contrast to the
Danna(檀那, who were more common
pilgrims) Oshi carried around fans and `obi`
to offer as gifts, for which they received
money and rice in return. Their pilgrimages
went throughout the country, from Mutsu
and Dewa in the north to the south (apart
from the provinces of Kaga and Noto under
Ikkō sect control).
Sendatsu (先達)
The name given to Yamabushi who
inhabited the three mountains around
Kumano. The Oshi of Kumano would make
brief contracts with the Sendatsu, who
would then act as guides for the Danna on
their way to worship at Kumano shrine. The
Sendatsu were originally situated in
Kumano, but with the onset of the Sengoku
era, they became affiliated with Danna
living in Kyoto and other regional areas.
Dōsha (道者)
Persons who set out on pilgrimages to Ise
and Kumano, and were led by Oshi and
Sendatsu. Essentially the same as a Danna
(檀那). During the Sengoku era, in spite of
the danger, pilgrimages continued to thrive.
Jige (地下)
Refers to a commoner. Originally, the term
meant the opposite of a Denjōbito, or a lesser
grade of Kuge. By the medieval period the
term had come to refer in general to
commoners and peasants. Other similar
terms were Jigenin (地下人) and Jigeshū (地
下衆). Commoners eventually adopted the
term for themselves for use in
correspondence in order to show their
humble position, yet by the Sengoku era Jige
were by no means powerless.
Hyakushō (百姓)
In ancient records, this title was pronounced
Hyakusei, and meant `persons of one
hundred names`. It referred to all people,
including aristocrats, who weren`t members
of the royal family. In the medieval era, the
term was applied not only to farmers, but
also merchants, builders, and artisans. It
was only from the Edo era onwards that
Hyakushō began to be specifically associated
with farmers (aka peasants).
Myōshu (名主)
From ancient times up until the medieval
era, this term was applied to the division of
lands within a shōen. A myōshu was
formally meant to administer and collect
taxes for the shōen owner from his own
property. A Myōshu Hyakushō (名主百姓)
basically referred to a peasant, however as
the division of warriors and peasants was
not very clear during the Sengoku era, many
Myōshu Hyakushō had fealty ties with
Sengoku Daimyō. From the Edo era, the title
changed to `Nanushi`, and came to have a
completely different meaning.
Otona (乙名)
The leader of a sō (惣), an independently
governed village organization. Within a sō,
not all villagers could attend the assembly,
hence only Otona (大人、老長、長老、宿老、
長秀、老人) were admitted to village
meetings. Incidently, the character (老) had
nothing to do with a person`s age.
Mōdo (間人)
One of the social levels within a village.
Those at the bottom of the village hierarchy,
for if the Myōshu were at the apex, then the
Mōdo were the furthest removed from them.
There was a strong trend towards expelling
them from the sō organization altogether.
Kōotsunin (甲乙人)
Originally was similar to the expression
nanigashi (某), and referred to a third party
with no particular title. Often appears in old
records and diaries. In the Sengoku era, it
referred to a person with no land rights,
property, or employment. As such, it had a
nuance implying humiliation of the person
concerned.
Domin (土民)
In the medieval era, this meant commoners
subject to a hierarchical system. Almost the
same meaning as Jige. Not a discriminatory
term, in spite of appearances.
Hikan Hyakushō (被官百姓)
Hikan had the same meaning as Kerai (家
来), hence a Hikan Hyakushō referred to a
peasant who had fealty ties with warriors or
upper level farmers. In the Sengoku era, a
peasant who owned even a small piece of
land was given this title, hence a majority of
Japanese people at the time were described
as Hikan Hyakushō.
Shojū (所従)
Similar in meaning to Jige, referred to a
person in a subservient relationship to a
warrior or upper level farmer. Lower in
social status than a Hikan Hyakushō,
treated as property together with livestock.
In the Sengoku era, such people were taken
as prizes by victorious armies and subject to
grueling work and often sold at
marketplaces (so in essence a type of slave).
The lowest form of retainer to a samurai was
also known as a Shojū or Jige.
Honhyakushō (本百姓)
A term that was more commonly used from
the Edo era onwards, however was also
included in the land survey conducted by the
Taiko (Hideyoshi). Referred to a peasant who
tilled his own land under his own name (ie,
not on behalf of someone else).
Chōshū (町衆)
A self-governing organization comprising the
upper class residents of Kyoto. In principle,
to become a member of the Chōshū one had
to possess land and a house, and debtors
were not allowed. The Chōshū levied its own
funds in order to administer its own
neighborhood. A Toshiyori would be
appointed to lead the organization according
to a revolving system of periodic tenure.
During the Sengoku era, the Chōshū
administered the gates between
neighborhoods, and thus imposed curfews
and established regulations for conduct and
thus possessed as reasonably large number
amount of local authority.
Chōgumi (町組)
A self-governing organization made up of the
various Chōshū of Kyoto. It was created as a
means to administer the city after the
decline in Bakufu authority during the
Sengoku era.
Egōshū (会合衆)
In the Sengoku era, this was a combined
self-governing organization that arose
within major cities. The Egōshū of Sakai was
particularly strong, with close ties between
members and great authority, so that at its
peak it had a membership of 360
townspeople. It was formed from wealthy
and powerful merchants, hence the Jesuits
visiting Sakai described the city as being
`like Venice`. Though it allowed free
discussion, it was not a democratic
institution. The Eigōshū began to lose its
independence after Eiroku 11 (1568) with
the rise of Oda Nobunaga and his imposition
of a war-tax (Yasen – 矢銭) on Sakai,
although merchants still maintained
independence in their business dealings.
Nengyōji (年行事)
A self-governing organization formed by the
merchants of Hakata. Operated on the same
scale as the Egōshū of Sakai. During the
Sengoku era, it came under the control of the
Ōuchi, and later on was controlled by Ōtomo
Sōrin who developed it as a focal point for
trade with Europeans.
Nayashū (納屋衆)
A Naya originally referred to a storehouse on
the waterfront in which goods were kept,
hence people who administered these
buildings and the goods therein were called
Nayashū. The Nayashū of Sakai did not
merely deal with storage, but also included
finance, transport, and trade. They
conducted this on such a large scale that
they grew very wealthy. Powerful members
of the Nayashū later went on to head the
Egōshū and develop the city of Sakai.
Shōningashira (商人頭)
In the Sengoku era, this referred to a
merchant who was granted extensive rights.
This position was also called referred to as a
Shōnintsukasa (商人司). Sengoku daimyō, in
order to ensure a continuation of trade
through their lands and to stimulate
business, appointed a trustworthy merchant
to the position of Shōningashira. Along with
the system for control of merchants within
castle towns, the Shōningashira was
responsible for collection of taxes and the
operation of business conditions. Hence they
were close to the ruling family of the
territory, and often served as the financial
advisor to the local daimyō.
Shingi Shōnin (新儀商人)
A newly established merchant who
challenged older business forms. In the
Sengoku era, as a result of the protection of
certain rights by the guilds (or Za, 座), the
Shingi Shōnin and guilds fought one another
for greater access to markets and greater
rights. The title Shingi Shōnin was created
by the older established businesses who
already had secure forms of income and who
looked down upon the newer businesses.
Furiuri (振売)
This title referred to a merchant who did not
own a store. It primarily referred to farmers
who would come in from the villages
surrounding cities and towns in order to sell
their wares to the townspeople. The opposite
of this title was Tanauri (店売). Both sides
were competing with each other, hence with
the progress of the Sengoku era more
Tanauri pressed local authorities to restrict
the operating rights of Furiuri. For Daimyō,
although they saw the town merchants as
important sources of tax revenue, they also
wanted to encourage enterprise, hence
restricting trade might bring negative
effects. Thus such rivalries tended to go
unresolved.
Imoji (鋳物師)
An artisan who shaped metal (in other
words, a blacksmith). Also known by the
characters 鋳治師. Goods produced by an
Imoji included Buddhist statues and bells,
pots and sickles, to nails and general farm
goods. In the medieval period, Imoji were
organized into 座 (Za, a form of guild), in
order to protect their rights and property.
Nushi (塗師)
A tradesman specializing in applying
lacquer. From `Nurishi`, this title was
changed to `Nusshi` before finally becoming
known as `Nushi`. In the Sengoku era, the
area around Negoroji (根来寺) in the Kii
（紀伊） peninsula produced a type of
lacquerware known as Negoro nushi, which
became particularly famous form of this art.
Together with the Sengoku era`s fondness
for Maki-e (蒔絵) and Raden (螺鈿),
improvements in lacquerware technology
soon helped to spread its practice
throughout the nation.
Deshoku (出職)
To travel about in order to find work.
Working within one`s own establishment
was known as Ishoku (居職). In the Sengoku
era, deshoku became a regular type of
activity, thus it appeared in contrast to
ishoku, and became the reason for the
spread of technology and techniques to other
parts of Japan.
Banshō (番匠)
A carpenter. In the medieval period, Banshō
were organized into groups in order to work
on the promotion and construction of
temples. In the midst of these groups, Nanto
(南都) (in other words, Nara（奈良) Banshō
were particularly famous for their skills. The
Nakai (中井) family of Nara carried on the
Banshō skills of Hōryūji (法隆寺), which
were used in the construction of Osaka
castle and Edo castle. The title of `Daiku` (大
工) for carpenters did not become widespread
until the Edo era.
Ōtonuriza (大舎人座)
In the Muromachi era, this referred to an
organization that ran the weaving trade in
Kyoto. As a result of the Ōnin war, the
weavers of Kyoto moved to Nara and Sakai,
thus starting up businesses in those areas.
However the establishment of the western
army`s main position (Honjin, 本陣) in
Kyoto soon drew these tradesman back to
the capital, and thus led to the birth of the
name `Seijin ori (西陣織)` (literally, western
camp weaving`). Before the Ōnin war, the
weavers worked as deputies of the
Madenokōji (万里小路) household (a Kuge
family) or else as representatives of Gion
shrine, yet in Tenbun 17 (1548), these
tradesmen were recognized as retainers of
the Ashikaga Bakufunate, and thus
established a monopoly over the weaving
trade.
Kijishi (木地師)
A type of itinerant tradesman who wandered
the mountain areas looking for lumber. In
the Sengoku era, in addition to working as
administrators for lacquerware merchants,
many of these tradesmen resided in
mountain regions. Some were taken into the
service of daimyō and were given the
responsibility of manning borderposts and
toll gates.
Katanakaji (刀鍛冶)
A tradesman who specialized in the
manufacture of swords and knives.
Particularly famous Katanakaji were given
official titles by the Imperial court. In the
Sengoku era, the need to secure skills in
metallurgy and sword making meant that
most Katanakaji came under the control of
local daimyō. Particularly famous
swordmakers of the Sengoku era included
the Osafune (長船) family of Bizen(備前),
Tsunahiro (綱広) of Sagami (相州),
Muramasa (村正) of Ise (伊勢), and
Tomoyasu (Tomosada) (兼定) and Tomomoto
(兼元) of Mino (美濃).
Teppōkaji (鉄砲鍛冶)
As the name suggests, a tradesman who
specialized in the manufacture of firearms.
Ever since the arrival of the first firelock
muskets to Japan in Tenbun 12 (1543), effort
had been made to produce local versions of
the product, beginning with the factories of
Yasaka Kiyosada (八坂清定) on Tanegashima
（種子島）. Although specialized knowledge
was necessary to manufacture muskets, the
manufacture of the muskets themselves did
not require highly complex technology, hence
the manufacture of muskets soon spread to
the entire nation in a relatively short period
of time. Kunitomo (国友), which became a
famous manufacturing place for muskets,
did not start production until the Edo era.
Chōkinshi (彫金師)
A tradesman who used a chisel to carve
patterns into metal. This was originally used
for Buddhist sculptures and Buddhist goods,
yet in the Sengoku era, such techniques
were used to create sword hilts, decorative
designs for sword blades, and kōgai (笄) (a
type of metal comb inserted under a helmet
or headpiece and used to scratch an itch).
Genpeitōkitsu (源平藤橘)
Since the Heian era, these were the four
surnames that defined the Japanese state.
They were also known as the Shisei (四姓),
or `the four surnames`. In the medieval
period, it became common practice to adopt
one of these four names as one`s own –
Minamoto (源), Taira (平), Fujiwara (藤原),
or Tachibana(橘). For example, in official
documents, Ashikaga Takauji (足利尊氏)
took on the name of `Minamoto no Takauji`.
However, despite the fact that Tokugawa
Ieyasu took on the name of the Niita no
Minamoto（新田源）, as they had unified the
province of Mikawa and in order to be
granted the title of `Lord of Mikawa`
(Mikawa no Kami 三河守) there was a
period in which they used the surname of
the Fujiwara. This particular division and
use of names was common practice, and was
thus accepted as a means of legitimization of
one`s post.
Genpeikōtai (源平交代)
A method of thought that outlined the
sharing of military authority between the
Minamoto and Taira families. Taira no
Kiyomori (平清盛) created Japan`s first
military-based power, yet the territory that
the Taira ruled over was eventually
conquered by Minamoto no Yoritomo (源頼
朝). Afterwards, the Hōjō family inherited
the military traditions of the Taira
household, and by obtaining executive power
ruled over the Kamakura bakufunate. After
this government fell, the Ashikaga
descended from the Kiyokazu no Minamoto
established their rule, which was later
overthrown by Oda Nobunaga. Finally,
Tokugawa Ieyasu, descended from Niita no
Minamoto, found that the idea of the
exchange of power between the Minamoto
and Taira to be quite intriguing, but was
never convinced that it should be revived.
Kamon (家紋)
A design meant to show the ownership of
person and property. Also known as a
Monshō (紋章), Mondokoro (紋所), or Teimon
(定紋). The origins of this practice lay in the
Heian era, when aristocratic families would
apply the design to their clothes and
personal belongings. During the Kamakura
era, this practice spread to the warrior
families.
Myōseki (名跡)
To inherit a name and carry on a family`s
tradition. Katoku (家督) and Sekime (跡目)
were synonyms of this word. As a result of
death in battle or from punishment, the
blood line of a family could be broken. Hence
in order to prevent this, the practice of
myōseki was widely used by military
families. From the bloodline, a successor
would be chosen from among non-blood
related retainers. Takeda Shingen was
particularly fond of giving surnames to
illustrious retainers (the surnames
themselves came from families that had
already disappeared) such as the Naitō (内
藤) and the Baba (馬場).
Imina (諱)
One`s formal name. This word had
synonyms in Jitsumyō （実名）and Honmyō
(本名). In a similar manner to the Imperial
tradition of Okurina (諡), which was used
after an emperor passed away (such as the
Kōmei Tennō (考明天皇) and the Shōwa
Tennō（昭和天皇）), an Imina was used both
after a person died and (in contrast to a
Okurina) whilst a person was still alive. It
stood for the formal name of a person, as
opposed to their common name (Tōrina, 通
り名). Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, Ieyasu were all
examples of Imina.
Henki/Hengi (偏諱)
The practice of granting a character from
one`s own name to a retainer. This was also
known as Ichiji Hairyō (一字拝領). According
to this practice, if the second part of one`s
name (for an Imina was in principle
supposed to consist of two characters) had
been granted by the shōgun or a daimyō, this
could be granted to form the first part of a
retainer`s name.
For example, in the
Takeda household, Ōbu Toramasa and
Amari Torayasu both received the Henki
`tora` from their lord, Takeda Nobutora. It
was considered a great honour to receive a
name from one`s lord. Documents that
formally acknowledged the granting of a
name were known as Ichiji Kakidashi (一字
書き出し).
Tōriji (通字)
An Imina character that was passed on
down through the generations. Some
examples of this was the use of the `Yoshi`
character (義) within names of the Ashikaga
shōguns and the Ie character (家) within the
names of the Tokugawa shōguns. When one
received a Henki (that was also a Tōriji), this
could form part of one`s name.
Tōrina (通り名)
A common name. The opposite of an Imina.
Examples of this included Kikuchirō (藤吉
郎), Hanpe`ei (or Han Hyōe) (半兵衛),
Ueimon (右衛門) and so forth. These names
were also known as Kamyō (仮名). A great
majority of Tōrina had their origins in court
positions. Hyōe (兵衛) originally referred to a
courtier appointed to guard the emperor.
Under the law, two military posts of `the
Right and Left` were directly attached to the
court, hence the prevalence of U and Sa
(右・左) within Tōrina.
Yōmei・Yōmyō (幼名)
An infant name. Such examples include
Kichihōshi（吉法師）for Oda Nobunaga,
Takechiyo (竹千代) for Tokugawa Ieyasu,
Torachiyo (虎千代) for Uesugi Kenshin (上杉
謙信) and Hikichimaru (日吉丸) for Toyotomi
Hideyoshi. However, Maru (丸) was a Yōmei
that only the imperial family were allowed to
hold, hence it is thought that Hideyoshi`s
infant name it was invented by later
generations. Within daimyō families, it
wasn`t unusual for successive legitimate
sons to be granted the same Yōmei.
Hōgō (法号)
A name given to a person upon entering the
priesthood. Examples of this include
Shingen (信玄) for Takeda Harunobu, and
Kenshin (謙信) for Nagao (later Uesugi)
Kagetora.
Kojigō (居士号)
A name given to a person who had become a
Buddhist acolyte but had not left their
secular household. The most famous
example of this was the sixteenth century
tea ceremony master Rikyū (利休). This
name was granted in order to allow Rikyū to
conduct tea ceremonies within the imperial
court despite holding no formal position or
rank.
Taishō (大将)
The highest rank within an army – in effect,
a `general`. The Taishō would sit within the
Honjin (本陣, or main camp) and give orders
to subordinates.
Jindai (陣代)
A military strategist who would fulfill the
role of general instead of the daimyō or
family head. Recruited from among the more
talented councilors of a household.
Gunshi (軍師)
A councilor who would sit by the daimyō or
Jindai and give advice on strategy and
tactics. Within a daimyō`s organization,
there was no official position of Gunshi, for
the title itself was derived from allusions to
the types of general described in the
Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
Gunbaishi (軍配師)
A councilor who served his daimyō as a type
of soothsayer, giving advice according to
divination or fengshui. Apparently Ōtomo
Sōrin (大友宗麟) had a Gunbaishi by the
name of Tsunokuma Ishimune (角隈石宗),
yet he rarely listened to his advice. As a
result, Sōrin was defeated at the battle of
Mimigawa (耳川) (or so it was said).
Samurai Taishō (侍大将)
A samurai charged with leading units of
hundreds or thousands of troops. Within an
army of the Sengoku era, the Samurai
Taishō was expected to use his initiative in
order to best use the troops under his direct
command. Hence placing a number of
talented Samurai Taishō within one`s forces
could make the difference between victory
and defeat. The position of Monogashira (物
頭) resembled that of a Samurai Taishō,
however it was regarded as being one rank
below a Samurai Taishō.
Bushō (部将)
This title is pronounced the same as Bushō
(武将), however the positions were
completely different. A Bushō (部将) was
appointed by a daimyō to lead large units in
a battle or siege. It was a position virtually
identical to that of a Samurai Taishō.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi was appointed as a
Bushō under Oda Nobunaga. Upon his
victory at the Battle of Yamazaki (山崎) in
Tenshō 10 (1582), in which he defeated
Akechi Mitsuhide (明智光秀), Hideyoshi, by
establishing himself as a talented
commander, took the first steps towards
becoming a Bushō (武将).
Ashigaru Taishō (足軽大将)
A soldier appointed to lead units of Ashigaru
(足軽). Ashigaru Taishō were appointed to
musket, spear, or archer units (as most
Ashigaru were organized according to
distribution of the above weapons). The
organization of troops would begin with the
distribution of Ashigaru Taishō, with
Samurai Taishō appointed after them. In
principle, Ashigaru would be paid directly by
the daimyō, not by their Ashigaru Taishō.
Kumigashira (組頭)
The leader of the smallest unit in an army
(consisting of squads of ten men). A
Kumigashira was virtually identical to the
position of Ashigaru Taishō, however the
name used and the type of role played by a
Kumigashira varied among the daimyō
households.
Bankata (番方)
Person within the retinue of a daimyō
entrusted with military affairs. The opposite
of a Yakukata (役方). During the Kamakura
era this position referred to a person in
charge of the everyday security of the
daimyō`s household, however gradually it
became a central role. In a Sengoku daimyō
household, all retainers were expected to be
Bankata, thus there was no formal position
of Yakukata among the Sengoku daimyō`s
retinue, and retainers who predominantly
dealt with administrative matters were not
highly regarded.
Gunyaku (軍役)
The responsibility that a warrior had
towards his lord. During the Sengoku era,
there were many positions that were known
as `O-yaku` (お役). In the society of warriors,
a vassal relationship was referred to as `御恩
と奉公` (Go-on and Hōkō – fealty and public
duties). The Gunyaku was the most
important duty that a warrior had within
the range of Hōkō. In exchange, the daimyō
would use Go-on towards his retainers,
granting them a steady income or else
ordering them to lead troops in battle. The
numbers and formation of the army was
decided by the yield of produce. In earlier
stages of the Sengoku era a high rate of
produce was described as Kandaka (貫高),
which meant that payment was made in
coin, yet by the age of Nobunaga, this had
changed to the Kokudaka (石高). In other
words, payments for war materials were
decided using rice.
Chakutō Bugyō (着到奉行)
A position to ensure that retainers were
performing their military duties as directed.
Once an order was passed down to
subordinates, it was their responsibility to
raise the requisite number of troops. Once
the Chakutōbugyō had confirmed the right
number of troops assembled, he would write
a Chakutōjyō (着到状) and hand this to the
retainer. It was very important to a retainer
to be able to prove his loyalty, hence together
with the Gunchūjyō (軍忠状), the Chakutōjyō
was highly valued.
Senpō (先鋒)
The unit at the very head of an army –
literally, the spear point. Also known as the
Senjin (先陣) and the Senteshū (先手衆). A
position of great importance to an army as
the performance of the Senpō could decided
the fate of a battle, hence this position was
entrusted to retainers with particularly
astute military skills (normally these
persons belong to the samurai taishō class).
It was also a chance to earn considerable
military glory, hence the number of
volunteers for the Senpō was great.
Shingari (殿)
The unit at the rear of an army. If their own
side was forced to retreat, it would be the
responsibility of the Shingari to prevent the
lead elements of the enemy army from
attacking the rear of their own army.
During an attack, the Shingari had a fairly
easy time at the rear of the army, however if
the situation should reverse, they were
expected to sacrifice themselves for the
safety of the army. A famous example of a
Shingari stems from the first year of Genki
(元亀) (1570) during Nobunaga`s attack on
Asakura Takakage. He led his troops as far
as Kanegazaki in Echizen, yet as a result of
treachery from Asai Nagamasa, Nobunaga
was forced to retreat. He entrusted the
position of Shingari to Hashiba Hideyoshi.
Many times Hideyoshi faced death in the
Shingari position, however he successfully
managed to bring the rear of the army back
to Owari, thus earning Nobunaga`s trust.
Honjin (本陣)
The position taken by the key leaders in an
army – the head camp, in other words. When
a battle commenced, the Honjin would watch
proceedings from a small hill overlooking the
battlefield. The Honjin consisted of the
Umamawari (馬廻) who formed the personal
retinue to the daimyō, as well as messengers
and other Gunbugyō.
Umamawari (馬廻)
Ordinarily these troops were responsible for
the everyday security of the daimyō, yet in
times of battle they were a troop of mounted
warriors who protected the Honjin. The
Umamawari had something of a `decorative`
function to the chief councilors of the
daimyō`s retinue. When the enemy was
retreating, the Umamawari could be sent
out to intercept the opposing forces and
launch an attack on them, or if in the case of
defeat, the Umamawari could ensure that
the daimyō or chief general was able to
escape.
Hatamoto (旗本)
Very similar to the Umamawari. A troop of
warriors personally loyal to the daimyō and
responsible for his protection. The origins of
the word lay in the fact that the Hatamoto
would hold the flag of the daimyō in battle.
Tsukaiban (使番)
A mounted warrior who would convey the
orders of the general in a battle. When a
battle commenced, orders would be
transmitted using a conch shell or on a taiko
drum, yet more detailed orders would
require a messenger, hence the Tsukaiban.
The Tsukaiban would also convey situation
reports from the front line to the Honjin.
Tsukaiban were not particularly skilled
horsemen, but spoke eloquently and were
good judges of situations.
Horomusha (母衣武者)
The Horo used to be a piece of armor used to
deflect arrows, yet by the Sengoku era it had
become a type of flag holder. In order to
distinguish the Horomusha from other
warriors, their flag was increased in size. As
they were often used to convey orders, one
could say that they were the same as the
Tsukaiban.
Gunkan (軍監)
A councilor given the task of ensuring that a
battle went to plan, overseeing the
movement of troops and deployment. Also
known as the Ikusametsuke (軍目付). A
Sengoku daimyō had no way of absolutely
knowing whether their orders were being
carried out as they wished (by the Bushō),
hence the Gunkan had the important task of
acting as the eyes and ears of the daimyō.
On the other hand, they weren`t particularly
valued for their military skills, yet if a battle
went badly and orders were disobeyed, they
would be the ones who would be unfairly
blamed.
Ikusabugyō (軍奉行)
An office that required the holder to create
military strategies for his lord. The name
and duties of this office varied according to
the individual lord. An Ikusabugyō could
work as either a Gunkan, Bushō, or as a
Gunshi (軍師).
Yumishū (弓衆)
A unit within an army whose principal
weapon consisted of bows and arrows. Their
role was gradually reduced following the
spread of the use of Teppō (muskets).
Gunshi (軍使)
A messenger with the task of conveying
orders to subordinates. He could be
dispatched to relay a message to a unit
leader, to call on reinforcements, or to speak
with the enemy.
Hata Bugyō (旗奉行)
An office within the Honjin that held the
standards and flags of the general or
daimyō. If the flag of the Honjin fell,that
meant the battle was lost, hence
responsibility for the flags was quite
important.
Akazonae (赤備)
A unit that had all of its armour and clothing
dyed the same colour. A tradition started by
the Takeda, specifically by the councilor Ito
Toramasa (飯富虎昌). After the downfall of
the Takeda household, the surviving
councilors were employed by the Ii (井
伊)household, and thus the tradition passed
on to them.
Bunkokuhō (分国法)
Laws created by a Sengoku daimyō within
his own territory. An historical term, not
used during the Sengoku era.
Kabegaki (壁書)
Laws and proscriptions pasted or hung from
walls. From the Muromachi era through to
the Sengoku, the Bakufu and daimyō wrote
and pasted the laws and regulations of their
household on the walls and trees within
their compounds. This was the origin of the
expression, and was to ensure that their
retainers well understood the boundaries of
acceptable behaviour within the compound.
Kakun (家訓)
A series of instructions left for the
descendants of a daimyō. The most famous
example of this document was that written
by Hōjō Sōun (北条早雲）to his heir Ujitsuna
（氏綱）. Detailed everyday affairs of the
household and how to rule effectively.
Gunpō (軍法)
The laws handed down by a daimyō to his
subordinates on the eve of battle or at the
outset of a war. The details varied according
to the individual daimyō, however basically
they forbade arguing within the main camp,
disobedience on the battlefield, or drawing
swords without consent. These laws were
absolute, hence to disobey them meant a
death sentence for the perpetrator.
Hatto (法度)
Laws. Proscriptions. In the Edo era, the
term Hatto came to signify banned activities
within the household.
Okitegaki (掟書)
Laws that had been announced via a
document approved by the daimyō. In order
to control his territory, various laws were
drafted according to the situation, and were
strictly followed. The daimyō would have the
laws written out, an Okitegaki would be
drafted codifying the articles, and then it
would be confirmed as law within the
territory. Both Sensenrei (選銭令) and
Tokuseirei (徳政令) were made public as
Okitegaki.
Seisatsu (制札)
Laws introduced for the purpose of
preserving and sustaining social order
within the territory of a Sengoku daimyō.
Most Seisatsu were displayed in front of the
gates of temples and shrines, or at the
entrances to cities. Many were displayed on
wooden boards erected on platforms. This
was also known as Kōrei (高礼) or Kinsei (禁
制). A type of Okitegaki.
On the battlefield, random violence and theft
were commonplace, hence when the leaders
of units came to the main camp to give their
respects, they would receive a Seisatsu
detailing what was and wasn`t permissible.
The practice of using Seisatsu to convey laws
lasted until the Meiji era.
Kabai no Goinban (加媒の御印判)
An official document released by the Go Hōjō
family (後北条) to prevent random violence
on the battlefield. Also written as 加倍 and
加媒, with origins in the expression 庇う
(kabau, to secure). To receive a Seisatsu was
referred to as a Kabai no Gi (加媒の儀).
Okime (置目)
Laws. Proscriptions. Same meaning as Okite
(置手). Punishments enacted for violations of
laws.
Shikimoku (式目)
Laws verified by a military family. Examples
include the Goseibaishikimoku (御成敗式目)
of the Kamakura Bakufunate and the
Kenmushikimoku (建武式目) of the Ashikaga
Bakufunate. Really just a body of laws. Upon
entering the Sengoku era, these form the
basis of the Bunkokuhō, which themselves
eventually came to be used as a series of
laws.
Seppuku (切腹)
Common punishment metered out to
retainers, involving cutting the stomach
open with a sharp sword. Also known as
Warifuku (割服), Tofuku (屠服), and Harakiri
(腹切). Considered a means of retaining
honour when disgraced because of one`s
actions.
Nokogiribiki (鋸引)
Punishment involving cutting the guilty
party with a saw (usually cut in half), thus
leading to death from excessive blood loss.
Oda Nobunaga, when he caught Sugitani
Senjūbō (who had attempted to assassinate
Nobunaga by firing his musket at him),
sentenced him to this punishment.
Haritsuke (磔)
Punishment involving nailing the guilty
party to a wooden cross or board – in other
words, crucifixion. Another version of
Haritsuke, called Gyakusa Haritsuke (逆さ
磔) involving nailing the culprit upside down
to a cross or other wooden structure.
Gokumon (獄門)
To publicly display the head of an executed
person. Also known as Sarashikubi (梟首).
Kessho (闕所)
To lose all of one`s territory. It was the
opposite side of the Sengoku era practices of
Go-on (御恩) and Hōkō (奉公). To some extent
it was a worse punishment than execution.
Incidently, territory with no owner (or lord)
was called a Kessho.
Hōkōkamae (奉公構)
Going into the service of a new lord without
the permission of one`s former lord. Also
known as Kamae (構).
Issengiri (一銭切)
Despite a literal meaning of sentencing a
person to death for the theft of a single coin
(or Issen), this term normally meant seizing
a person`s property so that they had nothing
left.
Renza (連座)
A law that extended a sentence to the family
of the culprit. This occasionally extended to
one`s retainers and their families as well.
Gizetsu（義絶）
To cut off one`s relations with one`s family
out of fear of being sentenced to a Renza.
Cutting off one`s children or grandchildren
from their inheritance if they were deemed
to be unsuitable was also known as Gizetsu.
In order for this to happen, a retainer had to
present a Gizetsujō (義絶状) to his lord and
have it verified.
Kenka Ryōseibai (喧嘩両成敗)
To punish retainers who were involved in a
private conflict by adding further
punishment regardless of the circumstances.
Mushi Danzetsu (無嗣断絶)
A family dies out with no-one to inherit the
name. In the Sengoku era, it was not
unusual to adopt a person into one`s family
so that the family name would continue (if
one had no direct descendents). To die
without naming a heir to one`s family was
considered disloyal to one`s lord.
Ando (安堵)
Confirmation of holding rights to territory.
The character 堵 refers to a fence or hedge,
which meant that the land inside a hedged
or fenced area would be acknowledged. In
the
same
manner
as
the
expression
Isshokenmei (一所懸命), a retainer would be
allotted land which he would be expected to
defend. When appointed to a position (Buge
– 奉公), one would receive an Ando as a type
of reward, or Go-on (御恩).
Onshō (恩賞)
A reward given by a lord to his retainer. This
could be land, money, or military goods.
Usually, most retainers expected to receive
land. As a Sengoku daimyō was expected to
grant land to his retainers after a victorious
battle, and in order to confirm their loyalty,
it was imperative that he expand his
territorial holdings.
Jonin (叙任)
To grant a position to a retainer. This was
also referred to as Jomoku (除目), and Bunin
(補任). Sengoku daimyō, as a form of reward,
granted to retainers titles such as Izu no
Kami (伊豆守) or Uemonnosuke (右衛門督)
and the like. Landed titles such as Kami (守)
were originally used by Kokushi (国司), yet
these allocated titles had no actual authority
with them, and were at the most just a title.
Atome (跡目)
A successor. Also referred to as a Gokeisha
( 後 継 者 ) or Aizokusha ( 相 続 者 ). In the
Sengoku
era,
the
eldest
son
did
not
necessarily inherit the position of head of the
household, and thus like the Ōnin War there
were many occasions when siblings fought
over inheritance. For that reason, the
retainers of the household would decide on
the Atome, making him the head of the
family.
Onchi (恩地)
Land granted to a retainer in the aftermath
of a battle. Also referred to as Onryō (恩領).
Newly acquired territory would be referred
to as Shinon (新恩) or Shinchi (新地). The
lands of retainers were separated privately,
with the rights to sell and exchange land
strictly limited.
Musoku (無足)
Despite having no land or money to one`s
name, a Musoku was a person acknowledged
by a lord as having retainer status. Eldest
sons who did not become head of the
household, second or third sons, priests or
shrine officials, or else specialist technicians
could be referred to as Musoku. They would
not be entitled to land or money as a reward,
however they would be considered retainers,
and thus were expected to perform retainer
tasks.
Inkyobun (隠居分)
Land granted to a retainer who retired from
their official position. In the Sengoku era,
there are many examples of retainers
retiring around the age of 50. As `hidden
persons` (not visibly present among the
retainers of the lord) they would receive
landed rights according to the qualifications
for
Inkyobun. As confirmation
of
this
amount fell under the rights held by the
lord, Inkyobun could be seen as a form of
`reward`
for
services
rendered.
Many
Inkyobun came about from rivalry between
fathers and their children. Inkyobun were
supposed to be inherited by the offspring of
the deceased (except from the lord himself)
according to their will, and this became
another source of contention within Sengoku
era families.
Ranbō Rōzeki (乱暴狼藉)
This four character word refers to the
random violence and theft that lower level
soldiers would engage in within conquered
territories. Armies with large numbers of
troops found that many of those troops had
only a superficial sense of loyalty to the lord,
and when forced into service, their desires
and wants would take over, resulting in theft
and sexual violence. However, in order to
preserve the fighting spirit of their troops,
commanders occasionally allowed a certain
degree of Ranbōrōzeki to occur. Any person
who broke the provisos in place to control
Ranbōrōzeki would be executed.
Oshikai (押買)
Buying goods at a cheaper price than the set
rate. Daimyō often enacted laws against
Oshikai (which were directed at the
commoners in their territories). Selling
goods at a rate higher than the set price was
called Oshiuri (押売). According to
Bunkokuhō and Okitegaki, Oshiuri and
Oshikai were strictly prohibited, however
within the markets of their territories both
practices still continued.
Ōbō (押妨)
To invade someone`s land in order to take it
over. Also refers to a whole range of illegal
actions, such as forging documents.
Shitō (私闘)
An internal squabble not involving the
daimyō. A private feud, in other words. An
attempt by one`s retainers to solve disputes
over territorial borders by using violence
was known as Shitō, and was regarded as an
illegal action. For daimyō, a private feud
that occurred under his rule defied his
authority as lord over his territory, and was
thus an act of disloyalty. Toyotomi Hideyoshi
extended the concept of banning Shitō to the
entire nation.
Kakeochi (欠落)
Moving into another territory without the
permission of one`s lord. In the Sengoku era,
peasants might loathe the taxes and
oppressive government forced on them, and
thus would gather together and move into a
neighbouring territory. This process was
known as Kakeochi, or Chōsan (逃散).
Fleeing peasants meant that the population
of villages would drop and that would mean
a drop in income, hence daimyō outlawed the
practice of Kakeochi.
Hachigyaku (八虐)
Eight violations proscribed under law. These
were Muhen (謀反) (treason against the
state), Mudaigyaku (謀大逆) (destroying or
causing the downfall of the emperor or an
imperial household), Muhon (謀叛) (revolt
against the state), Akugyaku (悪逆) (murder
of one`s lord), Fudō （不道）(murder of one`s
parents), Daifukei (大不敬) (destruction of a
shrine), Fukyō (不孝) (abuse towards one`s
lord), and Fugi (不義) (murdering one`s lord
or an aristocrat etc). In the Sengoku era,
Akugyaku, Fudō, Fukyō, and Fugi were
heinous crimes, and thus earned the
harshest of all punishments.
Katai (過怠)
Not fulfilling the task one was appointed to
do. In the case of war camp, it meant not
performing one`s duty. On an everyday
basis, it meant not fulfilling one`s duties as a
retainer. In Monjo (文書), the term
Katainaku (過怠なく) was used as a type of
admonition, meaning `do your job properly`.
Osso (越訴)
Bringing a legal action against one`s lord
without using formal procedures. In the
Sengoku era, together with a militarily
backed protest or Gōso (強訴), an Osso was
regulated by law. The term Osso was also
used in the sense of re-examination.
Bōshobōhan (謀書謀判)
Forging (counterfeiting) documents and/or
seals. In a case involving land, possession of
certain documents could mean the difference
between winning and losing, hence forgery
was quite common. To judge whether a
document was genuine or not, a process
known as Ruisho (類書) and Ruihan (類判)
would be used that compared the document
against a genuine version. The type of
document and its form would also be
investigated. The Rokkaku family, within
their `Rokkakushi Shikimoku` (a type of
Bunkokuhō), judged incidents of Bōsho and
Bōhan to be worth the death penalty. Thus
the crime of forgery was treated seriously.
Ategaijyō (宛行状)
A document dispatched by a daimyō to
confirm a retainer`s right over territory. Also
known as an Ateokonaijyō. The name of the
document came from the practice of writing
“宛行ものなり、宛行ところ、件の如し” as a
final flourish (or conventional literary
ending). These documents were vitally
important in order to determine who was the
owner of a certain piece of land, and would
definitely be used in cases of litigation
involving land. Hence they were stored with
great care. During the Edo period, peasants
used Ategaijō in order to prove the
illustriousness of their ancestors, and thus
again there was a strong chance that such
documents would be preserved for posterity.
Andojyō (安堵状)
A document released by a daimyō to a
retainer confirming the retainer`s right to
territory. The largest difference between this
document and an Ategaijyō was that the
phrase `Ategaijyō` was omitted from an
Andojyō. Also, an Andojyō would confirm
lands that a retainer already held, whereas
an Ategaijyō would confirm lands captured
through warfare.
Hanachijyō (放状)
A document that would abolish the right of
the land holder to his property and land.
When there was a danger of a Renza being
issued, or where relations would prove
difficult to repair, the release of a
Hanachijyō would sever the ties between the
lord and the retainer.
Yuzurijyō (譲状)
A document that requested the repeal of
rights to territory. When land was to be
handed to a successor that was not a
member of the family, a Yuzurijyō would be
issued so that any debts would passed on to
the (non-related) inheritor.
Kuigaeshi(悔返)
If a Yuzurijyō was not issued, then any
attempt to yield land to another would be
legally invalid. If one then wished to grant
land to a person who wasn`t part of the
family, then a Kuigaeshi would confirm this
process.
Wayojyō(和与状)
A type of Yuzurijyō. After yielding up one`s
land, both parties would reach an
agreement. Once the land had been handed
over, a Wayojyō would be issued. Sengoku
daimyō wished to avoid drawn out legal
battles over property, thus after talking with
the opposite party, the content of the
agreement would be confirmed in the
Wayojyō.
Azukarijyō(預状)
A certificate of receivership for either money
or rice held by a public office.
Okibumi (置文)
A document written by a lord for his
successors. Though the inheritor of an estate
may have been confirmed, the successor did
not possess the type of legal authority
conveyed by a Yuzurijyō. An Okibumi would
instruct retainers on the everyday matters
that needed attention, and the rules of the
household.
Keijyō (契状)
A promissory note that vowed to complete
some sort of action in the future. Often the
many retainers of the household would also
make the same pledge, thus making the
document a Renpanjyō (連判状).
Jungyōjyō (遵行状)
An order issued by the Ashikaga bakufunate
to the regionally based shugo. It was often
issued in an attempt to halt internal
conflicts.
Segyōjyō (施行状)
A document passed along by the Kanrei after
it had been issued to the daimyō. These were
quite popular documents.
Hōken (封建)
A system of control over the nation by means
of granting lands to retainers for them to
administer on the lord`s behalf. This was
developed in Ancient China, and had come to
be commonly used by the Edo period. The
word `feudal` itself has been criticized as
indicative of an outdated way of thinking,
lacking in flexibility, although this was not
necessarily the case.
Oibara (追腹)
To follow one`s lord into death and commit
suicide. Also known as 殉死 (Junshi) and 共
腹 (Tomobara). One particular example of
this was the downfall of the Takeda
household, for upon the death of Takeda
Katsuyori, all of his retainers committed
suicide by seppuku, thus creating a
precedent. If a lord died from illness, to
commit an act of Oibara was considered the
clearest form of loyalty to one`s lord and a
form of public duty. Hence rather than being
seen as just an act of suicide, it was also
regarded as a means to protect the status of
one`s children and heirs as it was regarded
as the ultimate form of public service. After
the realm had been pacified and the number
of Oibara incidents stemming from nefarious
deeds, the practice was outlawed, with
punishment to be inflicted on any household
that produced incidents of Oibara.
Yorioya (寄親)
A section chief that controlled lesser
retainers known as Yoriko (寄子). Yorioya
ordinarily kept watch over the actions of the
Yoriko, whilst they were also used as 取次
(Toritsugi) for court cases. In times of war,
the Yoriko would be added to an army and
would fall under the direction of a Shinan
(指南). These Yoriko had a relationship of
fealty to the daimyō, hence if they received
land from the daimyō, the donation would be
made from land controlled by the Yorioya.
The relationship between Yorioya and Yoriko
was not one of subservience, neither were
they equal, hence this was one of the unique
features of the Sengoku era military system.
Shinan (指南)
This title originally referred to instructing
people, and was used in a similar manner to
Yorioya. In the eastern provinces, jizamurai
(rural-based samurai) who had preserved
their independence were asked to act as
Shinan for influential retainers in the
daimyō`s household. Any difficulties that
might have emerged between the Yorioya
and Yoriko were referred to as 指南問答
(Shinan Montō).
Dōshinshū (同心衆)
A group of Yoriko that had accepted the rule
of a Yorioya. Also known as a 寄騎衆
(Yorikishū).
Shosan (初参)
The first meeting between a retainer and his
lord. Also read as `ういざん` (Uizan). Those
retainers who were not directly in the lord`s
service and whose characters were relatively
unknown were called Shinsansha (新参者),
whereas those that had been serving for
some time in the lord`s service and were well
known were called Fudai(譜代).
Gesan (見参)
To have a meeting with one`s lord. Also
known as a Gensan and Kezan.
Sakikatashū (先方衆)
A group of new retainers who came to serve
a new lord after that lord had expanded his
control into their lands. In the case of the
Takeda household, when Takeda Shingen
expanded his control from Kai into Shinano,
those samurai in service within Shinano
became known as the Sakikatashū.
Yaribataraki (槍働)
A soldier particularly skilled in the use of
spears. Also referred to as a 戦功 (Senkō)
and a 勲功 (Kunkō). Up until the
Kamakura era, the main weapon used by
troops on the battlefield was the bow and
arrow, yet by the Sengoku era, the squad
leader class had adopted the spear. For this
reason, such leaders were referred to as
Yaribataraki. Though this was an official
title and their service was expected, the
Yaribataraki would put their own interests
first over the victory of any allies. On the
battlefield, the first soldier to engage the
enemy directly was known as the Ichiban
Yari (the first spear), the first soldier to
arrive at an enemy castle or fortification was
known as the Ichiban Nori (the first
`climber` 一番乗), and the first soldier to
take the head of an enemy was known as the
Ichiban Kubi (一番首). These were all
suitably rewarded （恩賞）.
Uchijini (討死)
To die in battle. This was regarded as the
ultimate form of service to one`s lord and a
sign of one`s loyalty, hence to sacrifice one`s
life in battle for the sake of one`s lord was
highly valued. One`s family and heirs would
be suitably rewarded with added lands and
income. Hence the desire of many soldiers to
take the title of `the first…`, despite the
great risks that this involved.
Banyaku (番役)
To serve as a form of security guard. Those
retainers who were ordered to perform this
task would, if living separately from their
lord, would have to endure the cost of
moving to their lord`s residence and
re-establishing themselves there.
Kyūyaku (給役)
A Sengoku daimyō was obliged to distribute
a wage to all of his retainers. This was
known as a Chigyōyaku (知行役) or an
Onyaku (恩役). Those retainers then had the
obligation to ensure the stability and
security of the lands of the daimyō. Those
retainers who were given the task of
maintaining the lord`s domain(s) were
known as Kyūnin (給人). The most difficult
office amidst those distributed was that of
the Gunyaku (軍役). It was on the orders of
the Gunyaku that an army was formed and
other retainers were obliged to send men
and materials for that army. There were
other offices dealing with repairs, building,
opening up new fields, fisheries and so forth.
Unlike the Gunyaku, these other offices
were not covered by the prospect of added
rewards, and since they had to meet the
expenses of their endeavours from the
money distributed to them, their`s was not a
particularly thankful task.
Jingari (陣借)
To participate in a battle as part of an army
to which one had ties. If one belonged to the
army of a lord, there was always the chance
that one would be recognized as a Bukō (武
功), or person of skill, yet for Rōnin (浪人),
this opportunity was not available. If a rōnin
was allowed to act as a Jingari and achieved
notable success, the family that allowed him
to serve as a Jingari might employ him. This
was a common practice during the Sengoku
era.
Kandaka (貫高)
A system of land administration expressed
through coinage (bronze coins) that reflected
taxation rates on farming land. After
Toyotomi Hideyoshi ordered the Taiko
cadastre, the productive value of land was
measured in Kokudaka (石高), and was
based on the intake of rice from a field.
However, until cadastre surveys were
conducted, Kandaka was the common form
of measuring productive output.
Under the Kokudaka system, the Kokudaka
of a village would be valued at 100 koku.
Where the rate of tribute (or tithe) was set at
six kō and four min (or a 60% rate of
taxation), this meant that 60 koku would be
paid as a tithe for the year.
Under the Kandaka system, when the
kandaka rate for one village was set at 10
kan, kandaka did not measure the
productive output, but the amount of tax
funds (or kan) that a village created. Hence
10 kan would be the amount of annual tithe.
Many peasants were able to harvest enough
rice to match the value of 10 kan, hence
there weren`t many instances of people
paying their taxes in cash.
The difficulty of the Kandaka system was
that despite tithes being paid off in kind, the
basic element of the taxation system was
expressed in coinage, hence the amount of
tithe paid was expressed using coin values.
Incidently, one kan = one thousand mon (文).
Tansen (段銭)
A type of temporary tax applied to one`s
lands. The original purpose of tansen was to
aid in the repair of the Dairi (内裏) and for
the costs involved in the ceremony
appointing a new emperor. By the
Muromachi era, Tansen was being collected
for projects arranged by the bakufunate, and
thus the name changed to Kuhō Tansen (公
方段銭).
Shitansen (私段銭)
Tansen collected for private purposes by
Sengoku daimyō. In the Sengoku era, as it
was impossible to gain complete control over
the production capacity of a village, instead
of applying a Kandaka system to this for
payment of tithes in coinage, a Shitansen
tax would be used, thus ensuring that the
local peasantry continued to produce whilst
gathering up any extraneous tax.
Kuji (公事)
A non-tithe related tax paid by the
peasantry. Originally meant to support the
village, eventually it came to be used as
another form of taxation. Interest accrued
from the buying and selling of special goods,
payment of grains, or the provision of labour
were all counted as Kuji.
Fuyaku (夫役)
A tax collected from labour. Ever since the
time of the Ritsuryō system, the
accumulation of taxes from labour was
always the most difficult to accept. With the
emerge of Ashigaru for use in battle, and in
order to pay for the defence of bridges,
repairs of wharfs, transport of goods, and
planting of crops etc., a fuyaku would be
imposed on commoners. When Ashigaru
were being raised, foodstuffs would need to
be distributed and money paid for services,
thus placing a burden of the payment for
such expenses on the peasantry.
In the Sengoku era, labour was a commodity
in great demand, hence when attacking a
neighbouring province, in order to secure a
labour force, commoners were quite often
captured and sold (into slavery).
Hyōrōmae（兵糧舞）
Food for military camps. In battles during
the Nambokuchō conflict, soldiers that
attended camp, in principle, carried their
own food, yet during the Sengoku era,
hyōrōmae was distributed to ashigaru and
hitoashi. Those daimyō that couldn`t
perform this in principle had problems with
their supply system.
Nengu (年貢)
The taxes collected for payment to the
landowner. The Hibo Jisho notes that it was
the annual taxes paid to the land owner. As a
word, the term derived from the initial
payment of goods to the owner of a shōen
from the Nara era to the early Heian era.
Mononari（物成）
The same meaning as `Nengu`. This word
came to be commonly used from the Edo
period onwards, yet sometimes examples of
it are found in Sengoku era documents.
Kakesen(懸銭)
A tax on fields implemented by the Hojo
family. The Hojo were particularly proud of
their detailed system of control of their
lands. Although a variety of taxes were
applied to fields, most of the taxes were
unified as Kakesen. The taxes themselves
were paid twice a year, in the sixth and
tenth months, in other words at the
beginning of summer and autumn.
Funyū (不入)
An area within a shōen in which
investigations for criminals could not
venture, or where taxes could not be applied.
Shugo, in principle, carried out an
examination of their entire estate to see
which could produce taxes, yet part of the
shōen or temple/shrine lands would be
designated as funyū. During the Sengoku
era, funyū were not recognized as special,
and thus they died out together with the
shōen.
Onden（隠田）
Agricultural land kept hidden by a peasant
from the landowner. Peasants would often
keep the development of new fields secret,
such as those in mountain valleys where
they wouldn`t easily be found. As they
weren`t reported, they were exempt from
taxation. However Sengoku daimyō made
Onden subject to taxation, and thus boosted
their income. Occasionally, the retainers of a
daimyō would use onden in order to escape
the burdens of Gunyaku (軍役, military
taxes).
Ittchi Issaku Nin（一地一作人）
Ownership rights to land meant that one
piece of land could only be owned by one
person, thus avoiding the problems that
could emerge if there were multiple
claimants to a piece of land. More of a
system of land administration introduced by
the Kanpaku land survey. Before this time,
one piece of land could have many owners,
such as the Honsho and temples/shrines, as
well as the cultivator.
Tanmai (段米)
A temporary tax applied to the size of a field.
The tan (段) was reflected in the area that
the field covered. When taxes were paid in
coin, this was known as Tansen.
Jōbun（上分）
Produce from agricultural land. Land itself
was referred to as 下地, whereas Jōbun
covered not only the taxes taken from the
land, but also the produce, hence the name.
Natsunari
(夏成)
A tax applied to produce taken from the
fields during summer.
Ironari (色成)
A `varied tax` applicable a number of
different produce from the fields. The iro
refers to `iroiro` (various), whereas the `nari`
is in reference to goods.
Hakudami (薄濃)
This referred to an object that had been
lacquered and gold leaf added to it. A
particularly famous example of this was Oda
Nobunaga`s use of three skulls that had
been subjected to Hakudami. Rumour had it
that these were the skulls of Asakura
Yoshikage, Asai Hisamasa and Nagamasa,
yet the rumour is false. The skulls
Nobunaga had were a mixture of male and
female skulls which apparently had been
lacquered with `sexual effluent`. According
to common belief, after eight years the spirit
of the skull would return and bestow the
power of the other world upon the person
who kept the skulls. This practice was a
derivative of the `secret teachings` of the
Tachikawa (立川流) sect of Shingon. The sect
itself had been declared a heresy by the
Shingon faith, yet its practices had spread
among the commoners, thus becoming a folk
religion
Munabetsusen (棟別銭)
A temporary tax imposed for the purpose of
constructing buildings. This tax was also
known as `Munebechi` （むねべち）and
`Munayaku` (棟役). Munabetsusen was
collected from residences, as opposed to
Tansen which was collected from villages,
although in principle both taxes were the
same. In the Sengoku era, daimyō would
collect this tax as a pretext for constructing
or renovating temple and shrine buildings,
and thus it shouldered some of the burden
on a daimyō`s finances.
Kurayaku (蔵役)
A tax imposed on merchants and financiers
in charge of warehouses (dosō 土倉). The
Kurayaku that the Bakufu applied to the
warehouses of Kyoto was one of their main
sources of income, and thus was regarded as
particularly important. The warehouses of
the Imagawa family`s castle town of Sunpu
thrived as the city grew, hence Kurayaku
was one of the basic taxes imposed by the
Imagawa.
Yasen（矢銭）
A temporary tax imposed by the Bakufu or
daimyō for military purposes. A large
number of arrows were necessary in any
battle, hence the name of the tax, literally
`arrow money`. However, even though the
arquebus and spear were considered
important weapons, the name of the tax did
not change. The Muromachi Bakufu applied
this tax to territory under its control in
addition to Tansen and Munabetsusen. Oda
Nobunaga, when he was involved in battle
against Kennyo of Honganji, ordered the
Egōshū (会合衆) of Sakai to pay a Yasen
(which they subsequently did).
Utokusen (有徳銭)
In the medieval period, a wealthy person
would be known as an Utokujin (有徳人),
hence as the name suggests, this was a tax
imposed on the wealthier members of
society. As it was a temporary tax, it had a
lot in common with Munabetsusen, although
in terms of the usage of the tax it was
probably more akin to a Kurayaku. The
taxes that the Muromachi Bakufu drew from
the merchants of Kyoto were known as
Utokusen, and although the term did not
spread nationwide, many other forms of tax
collection resembled that for Utokusen.
Ichibasen (市場銭)
A tax imposed on markets. The `daikan` (or
administrator) for a market, in addition for
being responsible for the market`s safety
and maintenance, was also responsible for
collecting Ichibasen. However, in order to
encourage the flow of goods, a high taxation
rate was not imposed on markets, thus they
did not provide much revenue.
Jishisen (地子銭)
A tax applied to farming and residential
land. This tax was originally one of the many
forms of taxation directed at farming land,
yet during the Muromachi era it came to be
applied to residential land as well. In the 1st
year of Eiroku (1558), Miyoshi Nagayoshi (長
慶) imposed a Jishisen on all residential land
in Kyoto, however in Eiroku 10 (1568), Oda
Nobunaga abolished this tax upon his
arrival in the capital. In doing so, he raised
his popularity and stimulated the local
economy.
Shoyakumenjō (諸役免除)
To exempt from taxation after consideration
of a number of factors. As far as daimyō of
the Sengoku era were concerned, the
imposition of taxes were essential in order to
ensure their survival, yet the collapse of the
livelihoods of people in territory under the
control of these daimyō would mean a drop
in tax revenue, hence the need for tax
exemptions.
Tax exemptions were also used by daimyō as
a means to protect the manufacturing of
distinct local products as well as to stimulate
the economy in territory under their rule.
The word `Shoyakumenjō` often referred to a
reduction in military taxes.
Denma (伝馬)
A horse used by officials for public purposes.
However, in the Sengoku era, this did not
refer to horses alone, but to the entire
transport system employed by daimyō.
Denma yaku (伝馬役) was a tax applied to
horses and laborers in order to pay for the
construction of roads and bridges. Daimyō
would use Denma to transport materials and
weapons during conflict, and would use
them to transport goods in times of peace.
Kubōdenma (公方伝馬)
The use of a Denma by a public official or
aristocrat. When a daimyō produced a
Denma bill (or promissory note), this was
acknowledged as a form of Kubōdenma, thus
allowing the daimyō to use the Denma. A
Denma bill (or Denma Tegata 伝馬手形) was
also known as a Kasho (過書) or Kajo (過所).
Ichiri Issen (一理一銭)
A fee for the use of a Denma, in which 1 sen
(銭) was applied to 1 ri (理). This fare was
charged in instances where a Kubōdenma
had been approved, and was officially
sanctioned.
Sekisho (関所)
A facility used to stop and inspect traffic. In
the Sengoku era, castles were constructed in
border areas in order to close any roads
during a conflict. Sekisho (or toll gates) were
then constructed in the area around the
castle. In times of peace, these gates kept
watch over who entered and left one`s
territory.
Sekisen (関銭)
A toll fare applied at a toll gate. In the
medieval period, the purpose of a toll gate
was to monitor traffic and to raise revenue
from tolls. Although toll gates had a negative
impact on economic growth, payment of tolls
did provide a form of security (physical and
financial), thus they were not completely
abandoned.
Bashaku (馬借)
A person who transported goods during the
medieval period. These people were experts
in moving material such as tithes and local
products, and in great volume. They not only
used horses, but also made use of carts.
Those persons who mainly relied on carts
were called Shashaku (車借). Occasionally
Bashaku would demand the removal of toll
gates or protest an increase in transport
fares. These demonstrations were known as
Bashaku Ikki (馬借一揆).
Kaidō (海道)
Coastal roads. Originally this expression
referred to the Tōkaidō (東海道), Nankaidō
(南海道), and Seikaidō (西海道), however by
the medieval period, roads which weren`t
anywhere near the coast were still referred
to as Kaidō. The Nippo Jisho (日葡辞書)
translated the word Kaidō as meaning `a
wide road, or else a national highway`.
Shiodome (塩留)
Measures to prevent the export of salt to
other provinces. Also known as Nidome (荷
留). The most effective form of ban on the
transport of goods was that of salt, hence the
name of the ban. In the event of a ban on sea
or canal transport, this would be known as
Tsudome (津留). In the Sengoku era, the
transport of goods between territories and
allies was a matter of course, yet on occasion
trade continued between territories that
were at war. In order to weaken an enemy, a
daimyō would impose a ban on road and sea
transport (with that enemy`s territory).
Sairyō (宰領)
A person responsible for all aspects of the
transport of goods, from acquiring horses
and men to providing security for the goods.
Bōmichi (棒道)
A system of roads created by Takeda
Shingen in order to provide swift military
transport in the direction of Yatsudake (八つ
岳).
Shukuba (宿場)
An essential facility in the transport system
of any province, which provided lodgings for
travelers. The development of Shukuba did
not really get underway until the Edo
period, yet the Hōjō, Takeda, and Imagawa
all placed an emphasis on the provision of
Shukuba.
Santo (三都)
Three important cities. In the Edo period
these cities were Edo, Kyoto, and Osaka,
however in the Sengoku era they were
Kyoto, Sakai, and Nara. Kyoto was rebuilt in
the wake of the Ōnin War through the effort
of the Chōshū (町衆). Throughout the
medieval period, Kyoto remained the largest
of all the cities in terms of size and
population. Sakai, on the other hand,
thrived as a city of trade, whilst Nara, as a
city steeped in religious tradition, took it
upon itself to preserve this heritage.
Negoya (根小屋)
An area reserved in the land surrounding a
castle for the lord of the castle to conduct his
everyday affairs. In mountain castles, the
Honmaru（本丸）or `keep` was usually
located in an inconvenient area and its space
was limited, hence the lord of a castle
normally spent his time in an area below the
castle known as the Negoya. This area was
also called the Fumoto (麓), Jōka (城下), and
Sange (山下). On the other hand, the space
from which a lord gave orders in a time of
war was known as the Tsumenomaru (詰丸)
or else the Tsumenoshiro (詰城).
Jōkamachi (城下町)
A town or city built around a castle. Many
Sengoku daimyō build Jōkamachi for the
purpose of assembling their retainers. The
families of these retainers would in effect be
hostages, hence a Jōkamachi helped to
solidify the control a daimyō exercised over
his retainers.
Machiba (町場)
The scene of a row of houses, in other words
`towns`. The word continued to be used from
the medieval period onwards. On the other
hand, words such as Jōkamachi and
Monzenmachi were, according to historical
research, used in order to divide up a city
into parts, and thus their use during the
Sengoku period was limited.
Shuku (宿)
A row of houses that functioned as lodgings
for travelers. In the Sengoku period, these
lodgings existed in order to provide for those
traveling to and from one`s territory. In one
section of a Jōkamachi, there were areas
known as Honjuku (本宿), Uchijuku (内宿),
and Tojuku (外宿).
Ichibamachi (市場町)
A small scale market in areas dominated by
farms and villages. An area known as
Futsukaichi (二日市) (`two-day market`) was
so called because a market would be held in
that area on the second and twenty second of
each month. A market that was held three
times a month was known as a Sanzaiichi
(三斎市), however when this was expanded
to six times a month, it would be called a
Rokuzaiichi (六斎市). In the Sengoku era,
markets sprang up in places where people
congregated and goods were gathered, such
as in front of temples and shrines, and
important points along the road (such as toll
gates or Jōkamachi).
Monzenmachi (門前町)
A town that grew up in front of the main
gate of a temple complex or shrine. As
temples and shrines were gathering places
for worshippers, the areas surrounding them
were perfect to engage in businesses such as
selling foodstuffs and gifts, as well as
providing lodgings. Some of the most
renowned Monzenmachi of the Sengoku era
included places such as Mien (身延) in the
province of Kai (甲斐), Ōmiya (大宮） in
Suruga (駿河) province, Zenkōji (善光寺) and
Suwa (諏訪) in Shinano (信濃) province,
Yamada (山田) in Ise (伊勢) province,
Sakamoto (坂本) in Ōmi (近江) province,
Yamazaki（山崎）in Yamashiro (山城)
province, Kōyasan (高野山) in Kii (紀伊)
province, Izumo Taisha (出雲大社) in Izumo
province, Kibitsu (吉備津) in Bizen (備前)
province, Itsukushima (厳島) in Aki (安芸)
province, Konpira（金毘羅）in Sanuki (讃岐)
province, and Usa (宇佐) in Buzen (豊前)
province. Monzenmachi were under the
control of the temple or shrine, and thus
were able to develop as a result of this
protection.
Tsu (津)
A bay, or a port town. When one mentions
the word `Tsu`, the image of Tsu in Ise
province comes to mind, however the word
itself did not have a fixed connotation, but
was generally used as a noun referring to a
bay or bays. In terms of a Tsu, or port town,
the most famous example was that of Sakai
in Izumi (和泉) province, yet there were
others such as Tsuruga (敦賀) in Echizen (越
前) province, Obama (小浜) in Wakasa (若狭)
province, and Hakata (博多) in Chikuzen (筑
前) province. The port towns of Hirato (平戸)
in Hizen (肥前) province and Funai (府内) in
Bungo (豊後) province also flourished as a
result of the opening of trade with the
Portuguese and Spanish (known as Namban
Bōeki 南蛮貿易).
Kangō (勘合)
A form of gift from the Ming government to
the Ashikaga shogunate that was used as
proof of trade between the two governments.
Using Kangōsen (勘合船) (or ships), gifts
such as swords, horses, and fine arts were
sent from the Ashikaga shogun to the Ming
emperor, and in return the Ming sent bronze
coins and woven silk. There was an inherent
risk in trading with foreign courts, however
when a Kangōsen made a successful return
journey to Japan, it would increase the
profits of the shogunate tenfold. Hence trade
with the Ming was another important source
of wealth for the Muromachi Bakufu. During
the Sengoku era, the number of Kangōsen
sent by the Bakufu decreased dramatically,
while those of the Ōuchi family of Suō (周防)
province and the Kanrei (管領) Hosokawa
family increased. As a result of the
prevelance of pirates in the inland sea who
demanded protection money (or Keikosen 警
固銭), Kangōsen used a route that took them
off the shore of Tosa (土佐) province.
Sakuhō (冊封)
A measure by which the Ming emperor
would bestow upon the ruler of a
neighbouring country the title of `king`. The
Nao (尚) family of the Ryukyu (琉球)
kingdom received a Sakuhō in the middle of
the Muromachi period, was declared to be
the king, and continued to send tribute to
China up until the Meiji Restoration. The
Muromachi shogunate also received a
Sakuhō, by which they were granted the
name of `King of Japan`. The Ming dynasty
made a truce with an envoy from Japan
during the Bunroku period (between 1592
and 1596, while Japan was engaged in an
invasion of the Chōsen peninsula), however
it did not recognize Japan as a rival nation.
It did attempt to name Toyotomi Hideyoshi
as `King of Japan`, however this became one
of the reasons behind the second invasion of
the Chōsen peninsula in the 1st year of
Keichō (1596).
Karamono (唐物)
Goods from China. This did not refer to all
goods, but to artistic pieces such as
paintings, porcelain, and lacquerware.
During the Sengoku period, Kangōsen, as
well as Wakō (倭寇) and Nambansen (南蛮船)
traded in Karamono. Excavations of
Jōkamachi and the ruins of Sengoku era
castles have unearthed a large amount of
broken Karamono.
Wakan (倭館)
Lodgings provided in the Chōsen peninsula
for Japanese residents. In the Muromachi
era, Wakan were established in Pusan bay
(富山（釜山）浦), Naiji (乃至浦) bay, and En (塩
浦) bay, which were collectively known as the
`Three Bays`. Trade was conducted under
the authority of the Lee Dynasty, however in
the 7th year of Eishō (1510), trade rivalry led
to the outbreak of fighting in the so-called
`War of the Three Bays`. Trade was restored
after two years, however the Mune (or Shū )
family (宗) of Tsushima (対馬) claimed a
monopoly over all trade with the Chōsen
peninsula. The Wakan were closed during of
the invasions of the Bunroku and Keichō
eras, however they were re-opened during
the Edo era and trade between the two
countries was restored.
Wakō (倭寇)
The general title given to groups of pirates
that operated around the Chōsen peninsula,
coast of China, and whose activities
stretched as far as the islands of Indonesia.
At first, these pirates, starting with the fleet
of the Matsura (松浦), gathered on the
islands of Iki (壱岐) and Tsushima and set
out across East Asia. During the Sengoku
era, although these groups were known as
Wakō, an overwhelming majority of their
numbers were drawn from the Chōsen
peninsula and from China. The cessation of
Kangō trade brought about the decline in
official trade routes between the Ming and
Japan, however in reality trade continued
because of the efforts of the Wakō.
Ezoyaku (夷役)
Part of the profit derived from trading with
the chief of the Ainu. In the 2nd year of Kōshō
(1456), a war broke out between the Ainu
and Yamato people that would last around
one hundred years. When peace was finally
declared, trade resumed between the
province (or territory) of Ezo (蝦夷) and the
territory of the Yamato (or Naichi 内地). The
Kakizaki (蠣崎) family, who represented the
Yamato (and who were later known as the
Matsumae 松前), were allowed to keep a
proportion of the profit of their trade with
the Ainu. This allowed them to secure
control over their territory, to make treaties
of cooperation with the Ainu, and helped to
streamline trade between the two peoples.
Namban (南蛮)
Territories to the south in which southern
barbarians (or Nambanjin 南蛮人) resided.
In the Sengoku period, this name referred to
the Portuguese and Spanish. The Dutch and
English were known as Kōmō (紅毛, or `red
haired`). In the 12th year of Tenbun (1543), a
Portuguese ship landed on the island of
Tanegashima (種子島). This established
trade between Japan and the southern
nations. The trade did introduce artifacts
and culture from Europe, yet a majority of
goods traded were textiles and materials
from China.
Waboku (和睦)
To call a truce as a result of negotiations.
Also known as a Wagi (和議), a Wadan (和談),
and an Ichiwa (一和). When the terms of a
Waboku had been decided, such as an
increase or decrease in territory or an
exchange of hostages, a Seishi (誓詞) would
be exchanged and both armies would
withdraw. Waboku were, however, only a
temporary measure to bring a cessation to
fighting, and there are many examples of
them being broken.
Shisō (使僧)
A monk acting as a messenger. Monks, in
general, did not present a threat to warriors
and were steeped in learning, hence they
were often used for negotiating alliances and
truces. When the three province alliance
between Kai, Sagami, and Suruga was
formed, Imagawa Yoshimoto dispatched
Daigen Sūfu (太原崇孚) as its messenger,
who then ensured that negotiations
proceeded smoothly. In events leading to the
Battle of Sekigahara, the well-renowned
monk Mokujiki Ōgo (木食応其) was sent as a
messenger to the castles of Anōzu (安濃津)
and Ōtsu (大津) which were about to fall,
thereby saving the lives of many of the
soldiers defending these castles.
Seishi (誓詞)
A document that vouchsafed for a truce or
alliance. The right half of the document laid
out what the conditions for the truce or
alliance were, while the left half described
vows made to the gods and Buddhas. This
would then be signed with a blood seal (or
Ketsuhan 血判). Traditionally this
document would then be burnt and its ashes
drunk, however in order to preserve the
content of the document it was often stored
for safe keeping.
Goōhōin (牛王法印)
Paper used for writing a Seishi or a
Kishōmon (起請文). This was also known as
a Gogyōhōin (牛玉法印) and a Goōhōmei (牛王
宝命). The most famous of all of these forms
of paper was that from Kumano shrine (熊野
神社) which used a particular wood taken
from trees hollowed out by crows, upon
which vows to the gods would be written,
and which promised divine vengeance for
those who violated the vow`s conditions.
Crows were considered to be the messengers
of Kumano Kengen (権現), and so the design
of the paper mimicked the shape of a crow.
Commoners often made use of this paper,
upon which they would write promises, and
thus there was a trade in Goōhōin.
Hitojichi (人質)
A person (literally a `hostage`) who would be
exchanged between two different parties in
order to preserve an alliance. Sengoku
daimyō often had the families of their
retainers and other affiliates live as
hostages within Jōkamachi and around a
castle in order to prevent any betrayal by
their retainers. When a castle came under
siege, commoner wives and children were
moved into the castle grounds as hostages so
as to prevent their husbands and fathers
allying themselves with the enemy. In the
event of any violations of an alliance,
hostages would be the first to be put to
death, however as it was more prudent to
wait until events had played themselves out,
the number of executions of hostages was
quite small.
Shōnin (証人)
A form of hostage who would be sent to one`s
ally in the event of an alliance between two
daimyō houses. When an alliance was made,
in order to reduce any feelings of humiliation
associated with the term `hostage`, the word
Shōnin was preferred as it implied that a
person was `proof` of the alliance. When an
alliance was formed between Kai, Sagami,
and Suruga, the families of Takeda, Hōjō,
and Imagawa exchanged their daughters as
Shōnin. However, when Takeda Shingen
invaded the territory of the Imagawa in
Eiroku 11 (1568), this broke their alliance,
hence the Shōnin were sent back to their
families.
Tegire (手切)
To break an alliance. The Nippo Jisho states
that this term meant `to rise up, or to
revolt`. It was generally translated as
meaning that a retainer had revolted
against his lord.
Za (座)
A union of workers or tradesmen. Za first
appeared during the Heian era, and by the
Muromachi period they were the basis for all
trade and manufacturing organizations. Za
would produce their own unique products, or
else they would combine together workers in
the same trade. In return for the right to
monopolize their trade or product, they
would pay a fee to the ruler of their territory
and thus also receive his protection. In
Kyoto, many aristocrats were protectors of
the Za, known as Honsho (本所). Even
though these aristocrats could lose control of
their shōen, the money they received from
the Za allowed them to maintain financial
solvency.
Rokusaiichi (六斎市)
A periodic market held six times a month.
The character `斎` refers to a festival, and it
is thought that the practice of trade by
temporary stores that took place on
auspicious days was eventually codified and
made periodic. While a Sansaiichi (三斎市)
would take place on the 1st, 11th, and 21st
days of the month, a Rokusaiichi took place
on the 1st, 6th, 11th, 16th, 21st, and 26th days of
the month (with five day intervals). After the
Nambokuchō era, Rokusaiichi became more
prominent, leading to the development of
permanent stores. Sengoku daimyō, in order
to raise their tax revenue, established new
areas for markets within their territory
which, while providing protection for these
markets, meant that the daimyō could then
stimulate the local economy.
Rakuichi Rakuza (楽市楽座)
An economic policy enacted by Sengoku
daimyō in which a certain area would be
declared a free trade zone. Other similar
expressions included Rakuichi (楽市),
Rakubairakubai (楽売楽買), and
Muzamuyaku (無座無役). Even though the
name `Rakuza` was attached to these areas,
in truth the special rights associated with a
Za were often excluded from or denied
within these zones. Although the term
`Rakuza` derived from that of `Rakuichi
Rakuza`, Rakuichi, meaning a place of free
trade, was the more common expression. The
Za themselves were one of the basic sources
of revenue for a daimyō, yet they could be
disbanded leading to a drop in tax revenue,
and thus weren`t a very effective economic
strategy. As in the case of the Jōkamachi of
Azuchi castle, a Rakuichirei (楽市令) could
be issued by a daimyō (in this case Oda
Nobunaga) in order to establish a permanent
thriving business community in his territory.
This order not only allowed free trade to
flourish, but meant that the market itself
would not be taxed, that criminals caught in
the market would not be extradicted, and
that tolls would not be collected.
Kugonin (供御人)
The term `Kugo` referred to the meals of the
Emperor, and a `Kugonin` was a person who
offered up his produce to the Emperor.
Kugonin were exempt from taxation, and
were granted special monopolies on their
produce. They were many Kugonin in and
around the Kyoto area. Some examples
included the Uji Confectionary Kugonin (Uji
Kashi Kugonin 宇治菓子供御人), the Kohata
Bamboo Shoots Kugonin (Kohata Takenoko
Kugonin 木幡竹子供御人), the Fire Brazer
Kugonin (Hibachi Kugonin 火鉢供御人), the
Sōmen Noodle Kugonin (Sōmen Kugonin 素
麺供御人), Straw Mat Kugonin (Mushiro
Kugonin 筵供御人), and the Ice Storage
Kugonin (Himuro Kugonin 氷室供御人).
Honsho (本所)
The ruler of a shōen. During the Sengoku
era, warriors gradually ceased making
revenue payments to aristocratic and
temples/shrine shōen owners. Instead, the
head of a certain Za, or else the guardian of
the estate (at the local level) would be
designated as a Honsho. For the aristocrats
or temples/shrines that ruled over the Za,
having the Za or guardian (in the form of a
Honsho) in charge of their estate guaranteed
them a fixed income. Note that a Honsho
also referred to the ruler of a Za, such as a
temple, shrine, or aristocratic family.
Zayaku (座役)
A tax imposed on a Za. In exchange for
providing goods, labour, or money to the
ruler of a territory or its Honsho, a Za would
be granted a monopoly over trade in certain
wares. This arrangement ensured the
protection the Za members` businesses.
Aburaza (油座)
A union of merchants who manufactured oil
from such ingredients as sesame seeds and
held a monopoly on trade of such products.
Oil was an essential product for temples and
shrines, hence the Honsho of an Aburaza
was often a temple or shrine. The Ō
Yamazaki Jinin (大山崎神人) organized
themselves into an Aburaza whilst in the
service of Ō Yamazaki Hachimangū, and
traveled throughout the Kinai region selling
sesame seeds. The main goal of these
Aburaza was to secure a `right of monopoly`
from the Muromachi Bakufu, giving them
sole rights over the raw and finished
products of their trade. In the Sengoku era,
daimyō encouraged the spread of free trade
from other provinces into their own, which
reduced the economic sphere of influence of
the Aburaza. It is said that the father of the
Sengoku daimyō Saitō Dōsan (斉藤道三) was
originally one of the Ō Yamazaki Jinin.
Komeza (米座)
A union of merchants who traded in rice. In
Kyoto, the Shifu Kayo Chōza (四府駕輿丁座)
had a monopoly over all sales of rice within
the capital, and extended their authority to
the upper echelons of Za dealing in silk,
wooden products, and bronze. The Shifu
Kayo Chōza itself was affiliated with the
office of Shifu (the Sau Konoe Fu 左右近衛府
and the Sau Hyōe Fu 左右兵衛府) and
originally consisted of those persons granted
permission to pull the personal carriage of
the emperor. After the collapse of the
Ritsuryō system, this organization turned its
attention to the transport industry and
re-invented itself as a group of traders.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi revoked the Shifu Kayo
Chōza`s various monopolies, however with
the establishment of the Edo era, the
organization was allowed to continue its
trade. Admission to the Shifu Kayo Chōza
was considered a great honour by the
merchants of the capital.
Komebaza (米場座)
In the Muromachi era, this title referred to
the rice markets that operated in Kyoto
between Sanjō (三条) and Nanajō (七条).
They were administered by Komeba Satanin
(米場沙汰人) and monopolized the import
and export of rice to the capital until they
were extinguished by the establishment of
Rakuichi Rakuza by Oda Nobunaga and
Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
Tōjinza (唐人座)
A union of merchants with a monopoly over
trade in imported goods. A Tōjinza existed in
Echizen province from the era of Asakura
family rule (1460s onwards), with the port of
Tsuruga (敦賀) playing an important role in
handling medicines brought in from the
continent. After the fall of the Asakura,
Shibata Katsuie (柴田勝家) established a
Rakuichi Rakuza in his newly constructed
Jōkamachi of Kitanoshō (北庄). In spite of
this development, the Tōjinza continued in
its trade and did not disappear (contrary to
expectations).
Konpaiza (紺灰座)
A union of merchants who bought and sold
the ash used in the process of blue dyeing.
Konpai (紺灰) was a special product of
Tamba (丹波) province, and there were a
number of warehouses belonging to
Konpaiza situated in the Nagasaka (長坂)
area near Kyoto`s northern Genkan gate (玄
関口). The aristocratic Oshikōji (押小路)
family was the Honsho to these merchants,
who continued their trade throughout the
Sengoku era.
Uoza (魚座)
A union of merchants with a monopoly over
trade in fish. Fish that had been preserved
in salt were known as Shioaimono (塩合物),
hence these merchants were also known as
Aimonoza (合物座, 相物座) and Shiouoza (塩
魚座). These merchants were found in many
Jōkamachi, including the Takeda territory of
Kai.
Kamanza (釜座)
A union of merchants with a monopoly over
the manufacture and sale of worked metal,
including pots, urns, and cauldrons. The
Kamanza of Sanjō in the capital is a typical
example of a Kamanza. They began during
the Kamakura era and were granted a
monopoly of sales by the imperial court. In
addition to everyday metal objects, they also
controlled the manufacture of bells and
metal lanterns. In the era of Oda-Toyotomi
rule, the tea urns produced by the Sanjō
Kamanza were particularly prized. The
temple bell of Hōkōji (方広寺), considered to
be one of the causes of the Osaka Winter
Campaign (launched by the Tokugawa), was
manufactured by the Sanjō Kamanza.
Obiza (帯座)
A union of merchants with a monopoly over
trade in waistbands and broad sashes in the
capital. At the beginning of the Muromachi
era, the head (or Zasu) of the Tendai temple
of Enryakuji (延暦寺) was the Honsho of this
trade, while the manufacturers held right of
sale. However, during the Chōkyō years
(1487-1489) Obi traders formed themselves
into a Za and secured a monopoly over the
product. This is but one example of the right
of sale being transferred from the
manufacturers to the traders.
Aosoza (青苧座)
A union of merchants with a monopoly over
trade in the Chinese silk plant, which was a
material used for the production of Sarashi
(晒), or silk threads, and Chirimen (縮緬), a
form of woven silk. The Chinese silk plant
was a special product of the province of
Echigo (越後), hence the Nagao (長尾) family
(who later became part of the Uesugi 上杉),
as they progressed from being shugodai to
Sengoku daimyō, established Aosoza within
their territories and used them as a source of
income. In the capital, the aristocratic Sanjō
Nishike (三条西家) family was the Honsho of
the Aosoza of Kyoto. However as a result of
the spread of purchasing by coin, the Echigo
Chinese silk plant merchants established a
monopoly over this trade in the capital. This
is one example of a Za under the
administration of a Sengoku daimyō.
Dosō (土倉)
Financiers who operated in the heart of
Kyoto during the Muromachi era. Their
origins lay in the storage of goods in
warehouses. Their name was also read as
Tokura and Tsuchikura. Their interest rate
might have risen five to six mon from a base
rate of 100 mon per month. The time limit
they imposed on lending goods was one year
for silk goods and two years for military
goods, thus showing that different time
limits were applied to different goods.
Sakaya (酒屋)
Persons engaged in the making and selling
of sake. As these merchants purchased rice
as a raw product and sold sake, they had a
large amount of capital in reserve, and thus
many of them doubled as moneylenders. As
such, they became one of the stereotypical
financiers active in the capital region along
with Dosō.
Sakaya Dosōyaku (酒屋土倉役)
A tax imposed on Dosō. Dosō were originally
under the rule of Honsho such as Enryakuji
and Gion shrine. However, in Meitoku 4
(1393), the Muromachi Bakufu ordered that
hereafter Dosō would pay a tax known as the
Sakaya Dosōyaku, which in time would
become another basis for the finances of the
Bakufu. The tax itself was used to pay for
the personal expenses of the shogun.
Nōsenkata (納銭方)
An organization established in order to
ensure that the Muromachi Bakufu received
payments of Sakaya Dosōyaku. Dosō and
Sakaya were a form of Za, hence the amount
of tax that they would pay would be based on
the amount of goods that a Dosō housed and
the number of pots owned by a Sakaya.
Kubō Mikura (公方御蔵)
A Dosō given the responsibility for
overseeing the administration and
distribution of the finances of the
Muromachi Bakufu. Dosō were not only used
for the storage of coinage, weapons, art
pieces, and literature, they also temporarily
issued loans for use in weddings, funerals
and so forth. Hence those Dosō designated as
Kubō Mikura by the Bakufu would often
have a large number of debts on their
records.
Mikura Shiki (御蔵職)
A financier (or financiers) given the
responsibility of administering the assets
and finances of the court. The rice and coin
accumulated from Ryōsho (料所) belonging to
the court would be stored in specially
designated Dosō, who would earn interest
when the goods were used. It was said to be
an imitation of the Kubō Mikura of the
Bakufu.
Saifu (割符)
A promissory note issued when money was
to be sent to a distant province. When a
person wished to send money during the
medieval period, he or she would go to a
Kaezeniya (替銭屋), and after handing over
money or rice, would be issued with a Saifu.
The Saifu could then be taken to a
designated office or store in the distant
province, whereupon it could be exchanged
for coin or rice. There were many examples
of these promissory notes being issued based
on units of 10 kan (貫). However, there were
many fake promissory notes (known as
Chigai Saifu 違割符), showing that the
exchange system itself had many
undeveloped aspects. In the Edo era, the
exchange system was `world standard` in its
reliability, however the Sengoku era was a
period when the monetary system was in
transition towards greater reliability.
Kaezeniya (替銭屋)
Financiers responsible for exchanging goods
for money and vice versa. Many Toiya (問屋)
and transport businesses also doubled as
Kaezeniya, and engaged in their trade at
many waystations, starting in Kyoto and
spreading to port towns and lodging areas.
Nayamono (納屋物)
This referred to extra agricultural products
and special goods sold at markets after
peasants had finished paying their tithes
(and other taxes) for the year.
Gōshichi (郷質)
This referred to a method of seizing debts.
When a creditor found out that a debtor had
been lax in his debt payments, he could seize
the assests of people living in the area, and
he could take hostages, and thus force the
debtor to pay up. When the debtor lived in a
village, this practice was known as Gōshichi,
however when the debtor was a city dweller,
it was known as Tokorojichi (所質). As blood
ties and regional ties were strong, there
would be a collective sense of responsibility
for the payment of debts. Sengoku daimyō,
using provincial laws (or Bunkoku hō 分国
法), banned the practice of Gōshichi and
Tokorojichi, yet it appears that it was one
regular aspect of the process of trade during
the Sengoku era.
Tanomoshi (頼母子)
A system created to ensure mutual financial
assistance. Also known as a Mujin (無尽) or
Gōsen (合銭). In the case of a Tanomoshi, a
group known as a Shūchū (衆中) would pool
together their money and rice, and then lend
it out to members within the Shūchū. The
actual amount lent would depend on the size
of project. The distribution of funds did
resemble a Tomikuji (富籤), in that it was a
bit of gamble on how much assistance a
person would receive.
Toimaru (問丸)
A merchant who also engaged in transport.
In the Sengoku era, a Toimaru would not
only deal with the transport of goods, they
also had a strong presence in the sale of
goods. In the Kyoto region, there were many
Toimaru who had a monopoly on the sale of
goods such as rice, salt, oil, and fish. There
was a strong tendency among Sengoku
daimyō to engage the services of merchant
businesses that also dealt in transporting
goods.
Tenshō Ōban (天正大判)
Money minted by the Toyotomi government.
They weighted 44 monme, 1 bun (165
grams). The amount of gold in the coins
varied from between 70 to 74%. They were
minted from the 16th year of Tenshō (1588)
for a period of 20 years. On the face of the
coin, the year the coin was minted, its value
(i.e., 10 ryō), and the surname Gotō (後藤)
were inscribed in flowing characters. The
surname Gotō referred to the Gotō family of
metalsmiths, who with their highly
developed smithing technology, supported
Hideyoshi`s minting policy. The Ōban was
used as payment by Hideyoshi to other
daimyō for the procurement of military
supplies. One of these coins was the
equivalent of 40 koku (石) of rice, which
meant it was worth (in modern prices) more
than 1 million yen. As such, it was not used
as currency in the marketplace
Senmai Fundō (千枚分銅)
Toyotomi Hideyoshi converted those gold
and silver stocks that he had into bronze
coins, which he then stored in Osaka castle
for use as military funds (which were known
as Senmai Fundō). Toyotomi Hideyori, when
he embarked on the re-building of temples
around the Kinai area, including Hōkōji,
used the funds stored in the castle.
Eiraku Tsuhō (永楽通宝)
Bronze coins minted after Eiraku 6 (1408) by
the Ming government. Also known as
Eirakusen (永楽銭). The Ming government
gave out bronze coins in exchange for tribute
in woven goods and so forth from the Chōsen
court. As such, a large amount of these coins
(known as Meisen 明銭) made their way to
Japan as a result of the Kangō trade. Among
the various types of coinage received from
the continent, including the Daichū Tsuhō
(大中通宝), the Kōbu Tsuhō (洪武通宝), and
the Sentoku Tsuhō (宣徳通宝), the mostly
commonly traded and thus the most valued
was the Eiraku Tsuhō. The Go Hōjō family
attempted to build a currency system based
on the Eiraku Tsuhō, and thus would
compare other forms of currency based on
how much it was worth against the Eiraku
Tsuhō.
Bitasen (鐚銭)
Currency that had been used for so long that
it had cracked or been worn away, or else
had been forged. Antonyms to this noun
were such coins as Seisen (精銭), Kisen (喜
銭), and, again, Seisen (清銭). Coinage that
was worth slightly more than Bitasen was
known as Akusen (悪銭). Some types of
Bitasen included Gankubisen (雁首銭),
which was made from the bowl of a pipe,
Kessen (欠銭), which was a damaged or
broken coin, and Warisen (割銭), which had a
crack or tear. Akusen and Bitasen were both
used in the marketplace where the exchange
rate was 1:4 for Seisen.
Erizeni (撰銭)
A method used to compare bronze coins to
see whether they were of good or bad quality.
In the Sengoku era, units of measurement
for coin stated that 1 coin equaled 1 mon,
and that 1,000 mon equaled 1 kan. However,
it was often the case that 1,000 of any bronze
coin would be accepted as 1 kan. The value
of each coin would vary depending on the
degree of wear and tear and its quality, and
Akusen were not valued very highly. Though
one might possess Meisen, the quality of the
coins would vary, and thus it became
necessary to engage in Erizeni. The only
problem with this was that the method
would not produce an even result. Akusen
and Bitasen would flow into the marketplace
while the buyer kept his Seisen. Sengoku
daimyō tried to halt the practice of Erizeni,
yet their efforts did not yield much by way of
results. As such, daimyō ordered that taxes
were to be paid in Seisen, which could be
regarded as the ultimate form of Erizeni.
Kanei Tsuhō (寛永通宝) issued by the
Tokugawa Bakufu were highly valued for
their quality, and from the latter part of the
17th Century these coins became widely used
throughout the country, thus bringing the
practice of Erizeni among merchants to a
close.
Kinsen (京銭)
A general name given to the worst quality of
coin. The name was derived from coins that
had been forged (i.e counterfeited) in the
Nanking area of China. Even though their
use was banned, they could still be
exchanged in the marketplace at a rate of
1:10.
Chōmoku (鳥目)
An alternative name for silver used as
currency. The hole in the middle of the grain
of silver on the coin was thought to resemble
the eye of a bird, hence the name of the coin.
Kōshūkin (甲州金)
Money that had been minted in the province
of Kai (甲斐). After the Battle of Sekigahara,
Ōkubo Nagayasu (大久保長安) was ordered
to take control of the gold mines of Kai, and
applied himself to increasing their output.
The actual shape of the coin did not
resemble the Kohan (小判, the more
traditional oval shaped coin) but was
manufactured to resemble the stones on an
Igo board or a bean.
The insignia of the Takeda household was
inscribed onto the coins, hence many have
thought that the coins were minted by the
Takeda. However it is fairly likely that
Nagayasu, who was a former vassal of the
Takeda, placed the insignia on the coins
(although the reason for doing so is not
known). During the Sengoku era, a lot of
excavations were held in Kai and Suruga in
search of gold, however the amount of gold
actually produced was limited.
Mezeni (目銭)
To hand over a large amount of coinage,
usually more than had been first agreed
upon, and which usually contained Akusen.
This was also known as Mesen and
Mokusen. To add to the amount was known
as Kamoku (加目), while to subtract from it
was known as Mebiki (目引).
Gechijō (下知状)
A missive or order issued to retainers or
persons in territory under the control of a
Sengoku daimyō, At the end of the
document, the words `下知件の如し` (Gechi
kudan no gotoshi) would be written, hence
the name of the document. The character
Chi (知) referred to the practice of Chiji (知
事) or Chigyō (知行), hence a Gechi was an
order. There were other forms of Gechijō
such as the Seirei (制礼) and the Kinsei (禁
制).
Mikyōsho (御教書)
A formal document issued by the Ashikaga
Bakufu. It was not a Hōsho (奉書) but a
Jikijō (直状) (a direct letter). When a Kao (花
押) (or signature) or Han (判) (stamp) was
applied to the document, it became known as
a Gohan Mikyōsho (御判御教書).
Gonaisho (御内書)
A public document released by the Ashikaga
shogun. It was originally meant for private
use as a form of correspondence with
temples in order to exchange pleasantries,
yet it came to be used as a formal document
issued by the shogun, which would on
occasion be accompanied by a Soejō (副状)
from the Kanrei (管領). The 12th shogun
Yoshiharu, when he was chased out of Kyoto
by the Kanrei Hosokawa Masamoto, sent a
number of Gonaisho to different daimyō
asking for their aid in returning him to
Kyoto. The 15th shogun Yoshiaki, when he
was involved in conflict against Oda
Nobunaga, sent Gonaisho to Takeda Shingen
and Uesugi Kenshin imploring them to
attack Nobunaga.
Soejō (副状)
A type of document issued by the retainers of
a lord, which would explain the course and
content of a letter sent from a lord, shogun,
or the emperor. When a shogun`s Gonaisho
or a Rinji (綸旨) from the emperor was
issued, a Soejō would confirm that the
shogun`s or emperor`s letter was not a fake,
and would serve to confirm the content of the
letter from the shogun or emperor.
Rinji (綸旨)
One type of document issued by the emperor.
A document directly issued from the emperor
would be known as a Chokusho (勅書) or a
Chokuji (勅旨). However, as the process of
preparing the issue of a document from the
emperor was quite complicated, the Rinji
was issued more often as it took
comparatively less time to arrange. A
document issued from a retired emperor was
known as an Inzen (院宣), while a document
issued by a prince or heir was known as a
Ryōji (令旨). Rinji were often issued in order
to bring two warring daimyō to declare a
cease-fire.
Hōsho (奉書)
A document issued to a third party after the
thoughts or orders of a lord had been written
down by one of his retainers and then issued
in the retainer`s name. For a lord to issue an
order in his own name was known as a Jikijō
(直状). In order to emphasise the difference
in status between the lord and his retainers
or commoners, it was common practice to
issue a Hōsho.
Nyobō Hōsho (女房奉書)
A document written and issued by one of the
female attendants to the emperor, indicating
the emperor`s will. This document made use
of a form of writing known as Chirashigaki
(散書) in which the position of the beginning
of sentences was not pre-determined. In the
Sengoku era, this document expressed the
emperor`s will in a simpler format than a
Rinji. One difference between it and a Rinji
was that unlike a Rinji, a Nyobō Hōsho could
be made invalid.
Mōshijō (申状)
A document issued by commoners or a
retainer to one`s lord. It was often used
during disputes over land. As the matter of
concern was usually placed after the
character Mōsu (申), this document became
known as a Mōshijō. When the expression
Kenjō (言上) was used instead of Mōsu, the
document was known as a Kenjōjō (言上状).
Kyojō (挙状)
A document issued by a commoner or a
retainer to one`s lord which was first sent to
an acquaintance of the sender before being
given to one`s lord. Also known as a Suikyojō
(吸挙状). When it was deemed impertinent
for a commoner to directly address a letter to
a lord, a Kyojō was used in its place.
Gunchūjō (軍忠状)
A document issued by a retainer to his lord
when he wished to give an account of his
conduct in battle. The document noted the
number of enemies the retainer had killed
and the names of enemy generals that he
had slain, as well as the number of
casualties that he had suffered. A Gunchūjō,
as well as a Gunmetsuke (軍目付), after
being checked for accuracy, would be signed
(in a process known as Ikken Owanu 一見
了) and then returned to the writer,
whereupon it the document would be known
as an Ikkenjō (一見状). As a Gunchūjō was an
official document issued to one`s lord, it was
carefully preserved in the same manner as
Andojō and Ategaijō.
Kanjō (感状)
An official document confirming the exploits
of a retainer. The content resembled a
Gunchūjō, however where as Gunchūjō was
issued by a retainer to his lord, a Kanjō was
issued by a lord to his retainer. As both
documents outline the events of various
battles, they are highly valued as historical
evidence, however there have been many
examples of these documents turning out to
be forgeries.
Bugenchō (分限帳)
A notebook that indicated the names of a
daimyō`s retainers, their position, land
holdings, and where their land was located.
Many Bugenchō was made by daimyō during
the Edo era. An example of a Bugenchō
dating from the Sengoku era includes the
Odawara Shūsho Ryōyakuchō (小田原衆所領
役帳).
Shosatsurei (書札礼)
A manual on how to write documents or
letters. A Shosatsurei paid particular
attention to the social level of the person
who was writing the document along with
the person to whom the document was
aimed. As such, it used such formal
expressions as 恐惶謹言 (Kyōkō Kingen)
and 状如件 (Jyō kudan no gotoshi). It also
detailed at length the basic format and items
to include within the document. Shosatsurei
were originally intended only for Kuge, yet
by the Muromachi period, they became the
exclusive domain of Buke. Tokugawa Ieyasu
ordered Hosokawa Yūsai, a scholar of official
positions and their function, and Soga
Naosuke, a former retainer of the Ashikaga
household, to create a Shosatsurei. The
result was the 和簡礼経 (Wakan Reikyō).
Shosatsurei have been particularly useful as
guides to deciphering the meaning behind
many Komonjo.
Ichiji Kakidashi (一字書出)
A document that bestowed upon the
recipient a written character for one`s name.
Uramonjo (裏文書)
A separate piece of writing, written on the
back of a document. As paper was a precious
commodity, the back of a letter would be
used for writing. Japanese paper was
divided into a `surface` area and a `back`
area. The `surface` of paper would be old,
while the `back` was new. Writing discovered
on both sides of a piece of paper has yielded
important information, however there are
many examples of explanations based purely
on writing made on the `surface` of a piece of
paper while ignoring the back.
Kakikudashi (書下)
A document written by a lord to be passed to
his retainer(s). This was not a Hōsho, but a
document written by the lord himself in the
style of a Jikisho (直書). It would be handed
down to a retainer, hence the name
Kakikudashi. In terms of content, many of
such document included items related to
territorial rule and military matters. In the
Sengoku era, there were many documents
that were similar to Kakikudashi in content,
yet as many of these bore a seal, these
separate documents were known as
Hanmotsu (判物).
Gatten (合点)
A slanting or sloping line written above a
character. When one wanted to verify a set of
figures, or show that one had understood the
content of a letter, they would apply a
Gatten. This is the origin of the phrase
`Gatten`, meaning that one understands and
approves of something.
Kotogaki (事書)
A document that lists items for discussion. It
usually begins with the word `一` (Hitotsu).
Otherwise it has a title that reads `In
regards to such-and-such…`.
Hashigaki (端書)
Text written on the right-hand edge of a
document. The right-hand edge was known
as the Sode (袖), hence this form of writing
was also called Sodegaki (袖書). Any addition
to a piece of writing by the author would be
known as 尚々書 (Naonaogaki). In
documents delivered to a lord by his
retainers, the lord would write his opinion
and acknowledgment of the content in the
margins. This differentiated the main text
(Honbun) from the Hashigaki.
Okugaki (奥書)
Text written on the far left edge of a
document (the end, or Matsuo 末尾
position). It had the same function as a
Hashigaki - to convey the thoughts of a lord
regarding the documents content. In tales,
diaries, and sermons, text written by
someone other than the original author in
the Matsuo position is known as Okugaki.
Many war tales written during the Sengoku
era were later modified by the descendants
of the main characters who added
amendments in the Okugaki.
Gedai (外題)
Words confirming or outlining the content of
a document, whether than be on the back of,
edge of, or left hand side of a piece of paper.
Depending on the position of the Gedai, it
could be called an Uragaki, Hashigaki, or
Okugaki. The title of a piece of writing on a
hanging scroll or record was also known as a
Gedai. In the case of a record, a Gedai
(known as a Daisen, 題纎) would be written
on a thin piece of paper and stuck on the
cover of the record. When the title was
written on the inside of a piece of writing, it
was known as a Naidai (内題).
Harigami (張紙)
A document stuck to the walls or gates of a
residence outlining rules and orders. The
Bunkoku Hō no Kabegami (分国法の壁紙)
was one type of Harigami. A small piece of
paper stuck to documents, picture scrolls, or
records (in the form of a `memo`) was also
known as a Harigami. In such cases,
Harigami would be spelt using the
characters 貼紙.
Mokuroku (目録)
A document that outlined the content of
tribute. In the Sengoku era, money would be
sent using substitute materials (or
Katashiro 形代) instead of the goods listed
within a mokuroku (especially in the case of
lands far from the capital). Records were
also known as Mokuroku, hence the
prevalence of Shōen Mokuroku and Ryōchi
Mokuroku.
Kyōmyō (交名)
A document listing peoples` names. Also
known as a Chirashibumi (散文). They were
created for a myriad of different reasons; to
record the names of persons to receive
punishment for transgressions, persons
involved in an incident, persons
participating in a religious discussion, for
formal ceremonies, and for entertainments.
Kaō (花押)
A signature added at the end of a document.
Also known as an Oshiji (押字), Han (判),
Hankei (判形), and Kakihan (書判). The
signature was said to resemble a flower,
hence the name. A document that bore a Kaō
was known as a Hanmotsu (判物). In the
Sengoku era, a Kaō based on a single
character was quite popular. Oda Nobunaga
used the character `Rin` (麟), while Toyotomi
Hideyoshi used the character `Shitsu` (悉).
Date Masamune made use of a signature
based on a design of the wagtail bird (or
Sekirei 鶺鴒), hence not all Kaō designs
were based on characters. There were a
variety of styles of Kaō – from those that
incorporated flowing writing, to a
combination of characters, to more
individual designs. In the Sengoku era, a
Kaō could be written after one`s name, and
would serve the same purpose as a stamp.
Inbanjō (印判状)
A document to which a stamp had been
added. Inban were more widely used than
Kaō, as they were harder to duplicate and
thus safer to use. The oldest form of Inbanjō
was that used by Imagawa Ujichika. Inbanjō
were particular popular among daimyō in
the eastern provinces, such as the `Tora no
Inbanjō` (虎の印判状) of the Hōjō, as well as
those of the Takeda and Uesugi. After Oda
Nobunaga began using the Inbanjō `Tenka
Fubu` (天下布武) the trend started to spread
to the western provinces. The Inbanjō itself
could be made into many different designs,
from those resembling a person`s name, to
designs resembling characters and animals.
Ōtomo Sōrin and Kuroda Nyōsui, after they
converted to Christianity, had their
Christian names made into Inban. When an
Inbanjō was sent in the form of a Hōsho, the
stamp used would not be that of the writer
but that of his lord. When classifying
Komonjo, there are many documents that
are a Hōsho in intent, but an Inbanjō in
form, with the content resembling a Gechijō.
Shuinjō (朱印状)
A document in which a stamp had been
added in red ink. Documents that had been
stamped with regular ink were known as
Kokuinjō (黒印状). Shuinjō were regarded as
more illustrious than Kokuinjō, and thus
were used more for formal documents. Oda
Nobunaga used red ink for his public
documents, and reserved black ink for his
private correspondence.
Renpanjō (連判状)
A document that bore the signatures of two
or more people. Also known as a Rensho (連
署). This form of document could be used on
many occasions, from a Gechijō handed
down by the senior retainers of a lord, to the
signatures added to a document during a
Kokujin Ikki (国人一揆). In order to
emphasize the `equality` of the participants,
a document that bore signatures written in a
circle was known as a Karakasa Hanjō (傘連
判状). The Mōri family, when it passed on its
laws to the Kokujin of Aki province, had all
of the Kokujin add their names to the
document in a Karakasa Hanjō.
Urahan (裏判)
A signature or seal added to the back of a
document. This was used in order to
emphasize that the text on the front of a
document was accurate and correct. A seal
added to a number of combined documents
was known as a Keimoku Urahan (継目裏
判).
Kahan (加判)
To add a signature to a document. In the
Sengoku era, minors were not allowed to add
their signature to a document, hence one of
their parents or a guardian would do this for
them. When Imagawa Ujiteru was still a
minor, his mother, Jūkani (寿佳尼) issued
documents on his behalf (in other words,
performed a Kahan) using a Shuinjō.
Tsumein (爪印)
To sign a document using the tip of one`s
finger (in other words, one`s fingerprint). A
great majority of these types of signatures
belong to commoners and women.
Keppan (血判)
A Tsumein created from one`s blood. In order
to raise the `efficacy` of a Kishomon, one
would add a blood Tsumein, in which case
the document became a Keppanjō (血判状).
In the early years of the Muromachi era
there were too many examples of this type of
document, however by the Sengoku era,
there are many types of Keppan, which
varying degrees of blood volume involved.
Gyoji (御璽)
The official seal of the Emperor. The four
characters of the Emperor`s seal were carved
using a more classical form of character.
While the seal of public officials of the court
were known as Gein (外印), those meant for
the court itself were known as Naiin (内印).
The seal itself was made of polished bronze,
which, when it became worn, would be
re-molded.
Oieryū (御家流)
A form of cursive script invented by Sonen
Hosshin Nō (尊円法親王) of Shōrenin no
Miya Monseki (青蓮院宮門跡) (1298-1356).
Also called the Shōrenin Ryū. As it was used
as a means of expressing respect towards
aristocratic houses, it became known as the
Oieryū. In the Sengoku era, this form of
writing became widespread, thus many
documents were written in the Oieryū style.
In the Edo era, all documents released by
the Bakufu were written in the Oieryū style,
even down to those issued to villages, hence
the Oieryū style came to dominate all forms
of correspondence. Although this form of
writing was generally called Oieryū, some
`quirks` in style appeared depending on the
region, daimyō, and individual preference,
which does lead to difficulties when trying to
decipher such documents. Other forms of
writing included the Jimyōin style (持明院
流) and the Sesonji (Yosonji) style (世尊寺流).
Teikaryū (定家流)
A form of writing style that mimicked that of
the great writer Fujiwara no Sadaie (藤原定
家, 1162-1241). This form of writing was
particularly loved by practitioners of the tea
ceremony.
Hōshogami (奉書紙)
A high quality form of Japanese paper. Used
to convey the orders of the shōgun and
daimyō. During the Sengoku period, the
estuary region of Suibara (杉原) became
noted for its production of this type of paper,
hence Hōshogami was also known as
Suibaragami. Knowing what forms of paper
existed at the time and how they were used
for documents enables one to spot forgeries.
Ganpishi (雁皮紙)
A form of Japanese paper that used the
leaves that had fallen from low lying trees
(such leaves were known as Ganpi). As these
leaves occurred in the wild, the amount
collected was quite small, however such
leaves were quite resistant to insects and
retained much of their gloss. Hence paper
made from such leaves was rare and highly
valued.
Torinokogami (鳥子紙)
A type of Ganpishi. The leaves were a light
brown color, a color which resembled the egg
shell of a bird, hence the name of the paper.
Echizen kami (越前紙)
A type of paper produced in the province of
Echizen, which was reknowed as being one
of the largest producers of paper in the
nation. During the Sengoku period,
Torinokogami was predominantly made in
Echizen, yet after the fall of the Asakura
family and the takeover of Echizen by the
Oda, Hōshogami became the main type of
paper produced in the province. In the Edo
period, Echizen kami became a prized
product of Echizen province, and was
carefully preserved.
Minogami (美濃紙)
A form of Japanese paper made in the
vicinity of Mino. Made exclusively from the
Kōzo plant (楮), unlike other forms of paper
that mixed the Kōzo with rice water. It was a
particularly popular form of paper from the
Nara period, and although it did decline in
subsequent centuries, the production of
Minogami was revived during the
Muromachi period.
Danshi (檀紙)
The origins of the name for this type of paper
come from the cocoon threads used as source
of material. However much of the paper
called Danshi was in fact made from Kōzo.
In the Heian period this paper was known by
the name Michinokugami, with Dewa and
Mutsu provinces being special areas of
production. In the Sengoku period, Sanuki
province became reknowned for its
production of Danshi, whilst in the Edo era,
Danshi produced in Bichū province was
provided to the court and Bakufu. This form
of paper was very highly valued, and was
used to verify the licenses (or Menkyōjō) of
many different forms of art.
Tategami (竪紙)
A form of paper that was undiluted. Also
known as a Tatejō (竪状).
Kirigami (切紙)
To tear off a piece of paper and use that for
writing. As these were quite small,
horizontal writing was the norm when using
Kirigami, although there are examples of
vertical writing as well. When sending secret
messages, this paper could be hidden in the
topknot on one`s head, hence it was also
known as Motodori no Fumi (髻の文).
Raishi (礼紙)
When one had finished writing on a single
piece of paper, another blank piece of paper
would be included with the written
document. If one had more to say, one could
write it on the blank piece of paper, which
became known as a Raishigaki (礼紙書).
Origami (折紙)
If one wanted to save on Raishi, one could
fold it in half. During the Sengoku period,
many public documents, such as Shuinjō and
Hanmotsu, made use of origami. In the Edo
period, a folded piece of paper was often
attached to swords in order to prove their
authenticity, which became the origins of the
expression `origami tsuki` (折紙付き).
Kakegami (懸紙)
A piece of paper that was used as an
envelope for messages and other documents.
Also known as an Omotegami (表紙),
Uwamaki (上巻), Makigami (巻紙), and a
Tsutsumigami (包紙). During the Sengoku
era, many documents were divided into
three parts which consisted of the main
message, a Raishi, and the Kakegami.
Hakkyū (発給)
To dispatch a message. This is a historical
term used throughout many periods in
history.
Shōen (荘園)
Private land owned by either aristocrats or a
temple/shrine. With the development of
warrior authority in the late Heian era,
many aristocrats and temples/shrines saw
the basis of their revenue, the shōen,
invaded by warriors. In the Kamakura
period, a system of distribution known as the
Gechi Chūbun (下地中分) divided the land in
half between the Honsho (本所), or owner,
and a local warrior house, yet this did not
stop incursions. Sengoku daimyō continued
to pay a stipend to the original owner from
revenue gathered from part of the shōen, yet
the entire shōen system disappeared after
the appearance of cadastral surveys
conducted by the Oda and Toyotomi
governments.
Sō (惣)
An independently run village organization
formed by villagers and which existed from
the Muromachi through to the Sengoku eras.
The sō was a combined political body with a
strong sense of unity, and its members
adhered to laws created by the sō known as a
sō okite (惣掟). The sō could resist incursions
into their territory, and they did arm
themselves in order to negotiate with local
lords. Although all members were supposed
to be equal, the rights of those peasants at
the bottom of fealty system were often
ignored.
Yoriai (寄合)
A meeting of the membership body of a sō.
They often made use of shrine grounds or
the main building in a temple. A yoriai that
was held outside was known as a no yoriai
(野寄合).
Miyaza (宮座)
An organization responsible for conducting
festivals dedicated to the defence of a village.
They not only arranged and conducted rites,
yet also formed the basis for the creation of a
sō organization. The most prominent
villagers, known as either otona (乙名) or
toshiyori (年寄), held power within the
Miyaza.
Mura okite (村掟)
A series of laws formed by villagers. Sō
villages had their own laws known as sō
okite. The laws codified many of the regular
activities of the village, such as joint work
(known as a yui, 結), the methods for
conducting ceremonies, payment of tribute,
and decided on what punishments would be
metered out to people who broke the law.
Satajin (沙汰人)
A person who carries out an order. Such
people transmitted the orders of a Sengoku
daimyō or acted upon such orders. The
representative of a sō village was often
known as a Satajin.
Katanagari (刀狩)
To take away swords, guns, and spears (i.e.,
weaponry) from villagers and
shrines/temples. In the 3rd year of Tenshō
(1575), Shibata Katsuie, a retainer of Oda
Nobunaga, killed many members of the
Echizen Ikkō Ikki, and also confiscated
many weapons, an act known as a `katana
zarae` (刀ざらえ). This name was
abbreviated to `katana gari`. In the 13th year
of Tenshō, as a condition for not burning
down Koyasan, Toyotomi Hideyoshi ordered
the first `katana gari` , whereby the temple
complex surrendered its weapons. As
Hideyoshi continued to conduct surveys and
expand his authority, he simultaneously
continued the practice of katana gari. In
Tenshō 16, Hideyoshi ordered a katana gari,
in which the weapons held by villagers were
confiscated, which were then used to rebuild
Hōkōji temple. In the Kantō and provinces
further north, provinces that were not under
Hideyoshi`s power, no katana gari were
conducted, and such a practice was not
widely followed in Mikawa and Suruga
(territory which belonged to Tokugawa
Ieyasu). As a result, a degree of `difference`
began to emerge between regions. Collected
weapons were not only used to build
Buddhist temples but were also used by
soldiers during the invasion of the Chōsen
peninsula.
Hitokaeshi (人返)
To return peasants who had run away. Also
known as a meshikaeshi (召返). As far as a
lord was concerned, peasants who ran away
caused a drop in revenue, and thus this
phenomenon was a serious problem. Within
the territory ruled over by a daimyō, if an
important peasant escaped from the
territory of one retainer to that of another,
both retainers might become involved in a
dispute over returning the peasant (which
could lead to violence). If the retainer who
lost the peasant requested that the peasant
be returned to his lands, this was known as
a hitokaeshi. To force peasants to return to
villages devastated by war was also known
as hitokaeshi.
Kendan (検断)
To arrest and try a criminal. In the shōen
and temples/shrine property system, when a
shugoshi funyū (守護使不入) was issued and
confirmed, warrior houses could not conduct
a kendan within the territory which
belonged to the shōen or temple/shrine. In
the Sengoku period, a kendan would be
carried out in name and practice as the
authority of a warrior house came to cover
the whole shōen. The system of shugoshi
funyū was thus rendered powerless, and
thus disappeared together with the shōen
system itself.
Jiriki Kyūsai (自力救済)
A Buddhist term whereby a person uses
their own power to save themselves. In the
Sengoku era, one could not rely on the
authority of a lord to return land taken by
someone else, one had to act using one`s own
power to recapture such territory and its
profits. As the practice of Jiriki Kyūsai
denied the legal authority of a Sengoku
daimyō, it was seen as a form of private
conflict or shitō (私闘) and harshly punished.
Ikki (一揆)
The word itself means for people to gather
together under one banner (or Ikki 一旗).
The Sengoku era was an age of ikki.
Although the most common image of ikki is
derived from the peasant ikki of the Edo
period, there were a number of different ikki
during the Sengoku era. In order to face off
against a shōen owner or the Bakufu (in
other words, established authorities), an ikki
was formed with an emphasis on horizontal
relations. Yet this did not mean that the ikki
saw all people as equals, for only the more
prominent peasants could band together to
form an ikki. At the end of the Sengoku era,
both the Oda and Toyotomi governments
loathed ikki and shifted emphasis from
horizontal relations to more of pyramid
shaped organization.
In the 15th year of Tenshō (1587), the kokujin
of Higo province, objecting to a Kenchi,
banded together in an ikki and revolted. In
the following year, Toyotomi Hideyoshi
ordered that all kokujin who had
participated in the revolt were to be
executed. In Tenshō 19 and the outbreak of
the Ōzaki and Kasai (葛西) ikki, Toyotomi
Hideyoshi ordered Date Masamune and
Gamo Ujisato (蒲生氏郷) to suppress the
uprising. When Sanuma castle (佐沼城) fell,
its occupants were put to the sword as an
example to others. Thereafter, while
religious and warrior inspired ikki withered
in influence, ikki became a method of protest
adopted by peasants towards their lord, and
lasted from the Edo through to the Meiji era.
Kokujin Ikki (国人一揆)
An organization formed by kokujin who
wanted to resist the pre-existing authority of
a shugo etc (also known as a Kuni Ikki, 国一
揆). In the 17th year of Bunmei (1485), the
kokujin of southern Yamashiro banded
together and forced out the forces of the
Hatakeyama family (who were also the
shugo of Yamashiro province). Through
consultation with one another, this ikki
continued to rule over southern Yamashiro
until the 2nd year of Meiō (1493).
Ichimi Shinsui (一味神水)
A ceremony conducted after an ikki had been
declared, whereby the participants would
pledge not to break an oath. The
participants names would be written down
on a Kishōmon (also known as a Keijō,
Renpanjō, or a Keppanjō). The Kishōmon
would be burnt, and the ashes dissolved in
water dedicated to a god. All the participants
would then drink the water. The practice of
Ichimi Dōshin (一味同心), whereby
participants would pledge their loyalty ( or
Dōshin, 同志) to one another, used the
methods incorporated into the Ichimi
Shinsui.
Tsuchi Ikki (土一揆)
A term used to refer to an uprising by
commoners (known as Domin, 土民) against
a lord. The ikki force would demand that any
debts held by moneylenders such as Sakaya
(酒屋, or sake merchants) and warehouses
(dokura, or 土倉). If their demands were not
met, the ikki participants would attack the
sake merchants and warehouses, and would
take off with debt evidence and goods. At the
outbreak of the Ōnin War, many tsuchi ikki
occurred in and around Kyoto, which the
Muromachi Bakufu were hard pressed to
suppress. After Miyoshi Nagayoshi (三好長
慶) took control of the Kyoto region, the
number of tsuchi ikki abated, however many
tsuchi ikki occurred in the aftermath of the
Honnōji incident which plunged Kyoto into
anarchy. Both Akechi Mitsuhide (明智光秀)
and Anayama Baisetsu (Nobukimi) (穴山梅
雪) later lost their lives when they were
attacked by a tsuchi ikki.
Tokusei (徳政)
The performance of `virtuous government`.
Essentially a tokusei was an order that
abolished all debts that one might have.
Yōsui Sōron (用水争論)
An argument or dispute related to water
rights (such as the usage of rivers or
streams). Also known as a Mizuarai (水争).
Arguments over water were a life and death
struggle amongst peasants. In the Sengoku
era, when most peasants were armed, any
dispute over water which went beyond words
was likely to end in bloodshed. A repetition
of arguments over water brought forth an
understanding regarding usage rights,
which then helped to avoid outbreaks of
armed violence.
Sakai Sōron (境争論)
A dispute over borders (or one`s territory).
Whenever peasants and a retainer became
involved in arguments over borders, a
Sengoku daimyō would dispatch a surveyor,
who would confirm where the border lay.
After consulting with his elder councilors, a
daimyō would then decide on the border, and
the content of the decision would then be
relayed to both parties.
Sanron (山論)
An argument over mountain field usage
rights and/or an argument over mountain
field borders. An argument over fields was
known as a Noron (野論). In the Sengoku
era, mountain fields were property of a
shōen owner or a Sengoku daimyō, and thus
ownership was transitional. As a result of
this situation, many arguments (and
subsequent legal manuvers) arose over
rights related to building materials,
firewood, and the raising of crops and
animals in such areas.
Myō (名)
An area of land within a shōen. The origins
of the term lie in the practice of associating
the name (or myō) of the owner or worker
with their land. While a village may have
worked this land together, the myō was in
reality a unit for providing revenue for a
shōen owner. A myōshu (名主) was a person
recognized as owning property and who was
given the responsibility of collecting tithes
for the shōen owner. An area of ploughable
land that had a name attached to it was
known as a myōden (名田). Older fields
would be called honmyō (本名) or kyūmyō (旧
名), whereas newly ploughed fields were
called shinmyō (新名) or wakimyō (脇名). The
myō disappeared together with the shōen
system in the wake of reforms implemented
by the Oda and Toyotomi governments.
Iriai (入会)
This referred to joint usage of mountains
and forests, fields, and water channels by
commoners. An iriaichi (入会地), formed
through an agreement among commoners,
was an area in which firewood and grass
could be harvested. Whilst an iriaichi played
an important role in strengthening the
degree of unity within a village, it was also
an effective system of land usage which
preserved much of the natural environment.
Although the system of iriai did not really
take off until the Edo period, a record of the
Date family, the Jinkaichū (塵芥集), shows
that a ban had been placed on opening up
land designated as an iriaichi, thus showing
that the term was in use during the Sengoku
period.
Hongan (本貫)
One`s original territory, or the territory from
which a family originated. In the Sengoku
era, many disputes erupted over lands that
one family had pledged to `defend with their
lives` (or isshokenmei, 一所懸命). Indeed,
there were many lands that bore the same
name as the family that protected them.
Nenkiuri (年季売)
A method for sale of land in which the period
for handing over the territory was fixed. A
complicated system of rights to land existed
within the shōen system, and a demand for
the return of land could be made via a
tokuseirei (徳政令), hence land could not be
completely sold off. As a result of this,
nenkiuri, in which lands would be returned
after a certain period of time, became the
basic method used for selling land. A method
of sale whereby the rights to land would be
exchanged was known as eidaiuri (永代売),
while land that was returned as a result of
payment of cash was known as issenkaeshi
(一銭返).
Goryōsho (御料所)
Territory directly administered by the court,
the shogun, or a Sengoku daimyō. Although
the term had originally meant territory
belonging to the court, the usage of the term
spread to include that of other institutions.
Kurairechi (蔵入地)
Territory administered by a daimyō. Also
known as a Goryōsho or a Daidorokoire (台所
入). The kureraichi of the Toyotomi
household consisted of 1.97 million koku,
from a national total of 18.5 million koku.
However, apart from those territories of the
Kinai that were directly under Toyotomi
rule, others were distributed to daimyō who
then raised revenue to be paid to the
Toyotomi. After the battle of Sekigahara,
most of the kurairechi of the Toyotomi were
seized by the Tokugawa.
Genju (還住)
The practice of negotiating for the return of
peasants who had fled one`s land. From the
outset of the era of the shōen, peasants
would jointly flee from a territory in order to
force a local lord (or shōen owner) to reduce
the yearly tithes. The usage of genju was a
consequence of these actions.
Ronsho (論所)
Land that was under dispute, whether this
related to borders or rights of ownership.
Kōya (荒野)
Land that had yet to be tilled, or land that
lay fallow. In the Sengoku era, land could be
abandoned as a result of fighting or the
weather. Sengoku daimyō would grant right
of ownership (as well as drop the amount of
taxes to be paid) to those persons who
started to till fallow land in order to reduce
the amount of arable land under their (the
daimyō`s) control.
Kunyū (口入)
An intermediary who would be brought in as
a third party during disputes over territory.
The appearance of a kunyū could complicate
a case or draw it out, and thus many
household laws and province laws banned
their use.
Kenchi (検地)
To calculate the yield and size of an area of
farming land. Also called an saoiri (竿入), a
saouchi (竿打), a nawairi (縄入) or a
nawauchi (縄打). The reason why the
characters for rope (nawa, 縄) and pole (sao,
竿) were used was because these were the
two instruments utilized in conducting
cadastral surveys. A survey primarily
adhered to a form of reporting known as a
sashidashi (指出), of which there were many
different kinds. In the aftermath of his
victory at the battle of Yamazaki in the 10th
year of Tenshō (1582), Toyotomi Hideyoshi
set about conducting kenchi within
Yamashiro province, and continued with the
practice as he expanded his authority.
Kenchi that were conducted under the
Toyotomi government did not rely on the old
`self-report` system, instead officials of the
Toyotomi government would be sent to an
area, taking their own measuring devices
and ropes with them. This type of kenchi
reorganized the land held by the Toyotomi.
The system was adopted by both Mōri
Terumoto (輝元) and Uesugi Kagekatsu (景
勝) in order to strengthen the degree to
which both houses wished to be see as allied
to the Toyotomi government. Those kenchi
conducted by the Toyotomi were (and are)
known as Taikō kenchi (太閤検地), in
deference to Hideyoshi`s title (although the
title itself is not an accurate reflection of
Hideyoshi`s status, as a Taikō was an office
one step down from the Kanpaku, and
Hideyoshi gave up the position of Kanpaku
in Tenshō 19. By this time, only half of
Japan had been surveyed by his
government. As a historical term, it may be
inaccurate, yet as the title of Taikō is still
associated with Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the
term continues to be used in reference to all
surveys conducted by the Toyotomi
government).
Sashidashi (指出)
A ledger associated with land that was
presented to a lord either by his retainers or
by peasants. It recorded the size of farming
land, the taxes imposed on that land, and
the rights held to the land. Sashidashi were
the precursors to `self-reports` (or
jikoshinkoku, 自己申告). Many lords
conducted such surveys in order to better
evaluate the yields of their lands and to
understand what lands lay under their
control.
Uchidashi (打出)
A term referring to an increase in koku as a
result of a cadastral survey. Also known as a
saoamari (竿余). Such a term was used to
refer to the opening up of new land, an
expansion in one`s territory, a change in the
method used for measuring land, or the
abolishment of a hidden field, or onden (隠
田). Most lords wanted a higher yield as a
result of a cadastral survey, yet as far as
peasants were concerned, all it meant was
that the lord had increased the amount of
produce that he could extract from them.
Ippitsu (一筆)
An area of land that included farming land
and residential areas. The origins of the
term lie in the fact that in ledgers related to
land such as Kenchichō (検地帳) and
Nayosechō (名寄帳), land was marked out by
a series of individual articles rather than
look at the area of land as a whole.
Nayosechō (名寄帳)
A ledger created in order to gather taxes
from a shōen. In effect, it stated that each
myō was to be calculated separately, and
thus each area of land and its yield were
recorded individually. While a Kenchichō
recorded the amount of yield from a field, a
Nayosechō concerned itself more with the
amount of taxes that a field produced.
Nochō (野帳)
A provisional ledger created when
conducting a survey. The origins of the name
lie in the fact that this ledger was created
outdoors. It recorded the name of the land,
who ploughed it, and its total area. A
kiyonochō (清野帳) would be created from an
ainochō (合野帳, which was often kept as a
copy), which would then be used to complete
a Kenchichō.
Sakushiki (作職)
The right to be able to plough land (or a
position that gave one such a right). This
position existed beneath the authority of a
myōshu, who functioned as the
administrator of land and territory, and the
honsho, or shōen owner. A sakushiki would
pay tithes to a shōen owner, and kajishi (加
地子, or added interest) to a myōshu.
Sanden (散田)
Land that reverted to direct ownership by a
lord when it had no previous owner. In the
event that a peasant ran off, or that the
previous owner was charged with a crime
and had his land revoked, such land would
then be ploughed by peasants as part of the
territory belonging to a lord.
Onnajōshu (女城主)
A woman who was appointed to administer a
castle in the absence of her husband. One
example of this is the wife of Tachibana
Muneshige (立花宗茂). When Muneshige was
away fighting in the campaign that led to
the battle of Sekigahara, an army of the
Nabeshima attacked Senryū (川柳) castle.
Muneshige`s wife issued orders to the troops
in the castle and successfully defended it.
Muneshige`s wife was the daughter of the
well-known general Tachibana Dōsetsu (道
雪), and thus her issuing orders to retainers
while her husband was absent was not at all
unusual.
Shō (妾)
Also read as `mekake`. It had the same
meaning as sokushitsu (側室), sobame (側女),
tekake (手懸), tsukaime (遣女), and
tsukaimono (遣者) – in other words, a
concubine. The system of `one husband, one
wife` that is enshrined in law was only
introduced during the Meiji period. In the
Ritsuryō legal system, both wife and
concubine were kept separate, but the
downfall of the Ritsuryō system saw a
gradual blurring of the difference between
the two. During the Kamakura period, a
man might have as many as three wives. In
the Sengoku era, one of the principal causes
of inter family strife was the lack of
distinction between a child born of the wife
of a daimyō and a child born to a concubine
of the same daimyō (known as a shoshi, 庶
子, or illegitimate child).
Shitsu (室)
The wife of an illustrious person. The origins
of the name lay in the fact that the wife
would be granted a room within the estate in
the same manner as a nyōbō (女房). In order
to emphasize the legitimacy of the wife`s
position, she was often known by title of
seishitsu (正室). In the Sengoku era, the
difference between the seishitsu and the
sokushitsu was not always clear, yet when a
daimyō received the daughter of an ally in
marriage or whenever an aristocratic family
sent one of its daughters to marry a daimyō,
she would be acknowledged by the title of
seishhitsu.
Bikuni (比丘尼)
A nun who carried out duties within a shrine
as a Miko (巫女). In order to carry on the
traditions of worship at Kumano shrine, a
Bikuni would travel throughout the
provinces, where she would receive a stipend
in return for offering prayers and divination
to the spirits of the dead. Such women were
skilled at both singing and dancing, and
some were known to engage in prostitution.
Yuna (湯女)
A woman associated with bath houses and
hot spring lodgings who looked after
customers. In the Edo period, Yuna were
publicly declared to be prostitutes and had
their social position confirmed, thus making
the confirmation of their existence easier. In
the 18th year of Tenshō (1590), Tokugawa
Ieyasu established himself in the Kantō
region. In the following year, bathhouses
started to operate, which then led to the
appearance of Yuna. Of course, Yuna were
not a phenomenon purely associated with
the Edo era, as many castle towns had
famous hot spring resorts in which Yuna
plied their trade. Those women who were
straight-out prostitutes were described by
the names of tsujigimi (辻君) and tachigimi
(立君).
Menoto (乳母)
A woman, who was not a blood relation of a
daimyō, who was given the responsibility of
suckling the daimyō`s children – in other
words, a wetnurse. Also known as an uba. In
highly placed aristocratic and military
families, whenever the wife of the lord gave
birth, the Menoto would be responsible for
the upbringing of the child. Wenurses were
often chosen from among the wives of a
daimyō`s retainers, particularly those who
had recently given birth and who had a
strong sense of loyalty towards the daimyō.
The wives of Sengoku daimyō would often
raise their second son themselves, hence
many second sons were loved more than first
sons. Any children of a wetnurse would be
known as menotoko (乳母子), and as they
were often raised together with a lord`s
children, they became like siblings to one
another.
Yomeiri (嫁入)
A marriage practice whereby a
newly-wedded couple would start their life
together in the residence of the groom. The
opposite of this was a Mukotorikon (婿取婚),
in which the married couple would begin to
live together in the bride`s residence. A shift
from Mukotorikon to Yomeiri took place
during the Kamakura era. The aristocrat
Kujō Kanezane (九条兼実), in his diary
`Gyokuyō` (玉葉), makes mention of a
dichotomy of having to choose between a
Yomeiri ceremony and a Mukotori ceremony.
Yomegyōretsu (嫁行列)
A procession held on the occasion of a
marriage. As Sengoku daimyō used marriage
as a means to cement alliances, a very long
procession would be organized in order to
make a show of solidarity between both
sides. Takeda Shingen, when he made an
alliance with Hōjō Ujiyasu of Sagami and
Imagawa Yoshimoto of Suruga (thereby
uniting the three provinces of Kai, Sagami,
and Suruga), sent his daughter as a bride to
Ujiyasu. The large retinue that departed Kai
then traveled throughout the three
provinces.
Koshiwatashi (輿渡)
The practice of transporting a bride from her
house to her new residence using a
palanquin on the occasion of her marriage.
When a marriage had been arranged
between two daimyō houses, the manner in
which the marriage ceremony would be
decided by the relationship shared between
both houses. A ceremony in which the bride
left her house to travel to her new
accommodation was known as a
Susumiageshiki (進上式), whilst a ceremony
in which the groom`s family would play a
significant part was known as a
Meshiageshiki (召上式). The term
`Koshiwatashi` also refers to the practice of
handing over the bride to the groom`s family
at a certain predestined spot, such as a
border post, whereby the groom`s family
would take responsibility for the safety of
the retinue.
Nakadachi (仲人)
A person responsible for arranging a
marriage. Also read as Nagoudo. A
Nakadachi was an indispensable part of a
marriage ceremony, with the role of the
intermediary dictated by the laws of the
province (or Bunkokuhō, 分国法).
Himanoshirushi (暇の印)
A letter of divorce issued by a husband to his
wife. The term `Himanoshirushi` was used
within the provincial laws of the Date family,
the Jinkaichū, whilst other provinces used
terms such as Sarijō (去状) and the like. In
the Sengoku era, a divorce would be
conveyed via a Himanoshirushi issued by
the husband. Although a wife could object to
the divorce, she could not issue a divorce
herself. However, if she did receive a
Himanoshirushi, she was free to re-marry
without any legal or moral repercussions.
One such example is that of O-ichi, who was
given to Shibata Katsuie as a bride upon the
death of her former husband, Asai
Nagamasa. Her daughters would marry and
re-marry many times, with one eventually
ending up as the wife of the shogun
Hidetada. Quite clearly, then, divorce and
re-marriage was not an unusual practice
during the Sengoku era.
Shinzō (新造)
A new residence built to accommodate a
bride. A bride who took up residence in such
a building was known by the respectful title
of `Goshinzō sama` (御新造様). Many such
buildings were located in the east wing of a
lord`s residence, near the residence of the
lord`s mother, hence the wife of a lord might
be known by the title of `Ohigashi sama` (御
東様). When a Mukoiri marriage took place,
a new residence would be known by the title
of `tsumaya` (妻屋). The term Shinzō
referred to a pre-married daughter, and was
used during the Edo period to refer to newly
established prostitutes.
Megataki (女敵)
A person who either rapes or abducts the
wife of another. In the Nippō Jisho, it states
that a Megataki was `a person who acts
violently towards another person`s wife, or
else abducts or rapes her`. This term was
often used during the Sengoku era. Having
sexual relations with someone other than
one`s husband was known as Kaihō (懐抱),
Mikai (密懐), or Mitsū (密通) and was
regarded as immoral. In the Kamakura era,
the husband of a woman who committed
adultery had the right to kill the man she
slept with (via a practice known as Megataki
Uchi 女敵討), as the man in question had
behaved immorally. Although this
punishment could end in death, often it was
commuted. In the Sengoku era, the practice
of Megataki Uchi was codified in provincial
laws, thereby encouraging a husband to kill
a Megataki.
Keshōryō (化粧領)
This term referred to lands donated to a lady
from which she could receive a stipend to
pay for everyday materials. It was also
known as Keshōden (化粧田) and
Sentakuryō (洗濯領). In the Kamakura era,
women often received an inheritance,
although this practice was, in theory, halted
from the Sengoku era onwards. In the case of
Inkyoryō (隠居領), when a retired lord (or
Inkyo) died, all of his sons from the
second-born onwards would receive an
inheritance. As for Keshōryō, once the
person for whom the land was donated died,
the land would revert to ownership by a local
ruler.
Shikisen (敷銭)
A dowry given to a bride by her family.
According to the Rokkaku Shikimoku (六角
式目), after one`s wife died, as long as there
was no contract between both parties, the
dowry would not return to the bride`s family.
In the event of divorce, if the wife judged at
fault, there was no need to return the money
given to the groom`s family. However if the
husband initiated proceedings, he was
obliged to return everything to the bride`s
family. Money that was given out as
collateral, and which would be returned at
the end of a loan period, was also known as
Shikisen.
Enjya (縁者)
Human relations formed through the bond of
marriage. Comparatively common within
families that had blood ties to one another.
Relatives often squabbled over rights to land
or the seat of authority in a family. An
Enjya, however, formed a bond through
marriage based on his (or her) own free will,
and was thus far more trustworthy than
bickering relatives.
Enpen (縁辺)
To make a promise of marriage. Also known
by the terms Iinazuke (許婚), Enjya no
Keiyaku (縁者之契約) and Enyaku (縁約). In
the Sengoku era, when a Nakadachi (仲人)
brought two houses together, if one house
was a retainer of a local lord, that house had
an obligation to ask for the lord`s consent. If
a bride was to be brought in from another
territory, a very thorough examination
would be carried out on her. Under the
Toyotomi government, marriages between
retainer families without consent were
banned.
Nyōbō (女房)
A woman who had been granted a room
within a residence. The term originally
referred to female attendants and warriors
in the Imperial court, yet it later came to
refer to one`s wife. In the Imperial court,
women were divided up into one of three
ranks – the Jōrō (上臈), Chūrō (中臈), and
Gerō (下臈). Both Sei Shonagon and
Murasaki Shikibu were designated as
Nyōbō, although their names have their
origin in the court titles held by their
fathers.
Tsuji ga Hanazome (辻が花染)
A popular method of dyeing cloth during the
Sengoku period. Mostly used for Kosode (小
袖, or `small sleve kimono`) worn by women.
In the Toyotomi period, this practice had
spread to dyeing of Jinbaori (陣羽織, a small
jacket worn over one`s armour). The term
`tsuji` referred to the patterns that emerged
from the dyeing process, whilst `hana` was
in reference to the many plant species used
in dyeing cloth.
Uchigi (桂)
This term originally referred to an
undergarment. One could control one`s
comfort by either piling on or taking off
layers of undergarments. Women often wore
many undergarments during the course of
everyday life. With the passage of time,
female attendants at the Imperial court
came to combine the wearing of Uchigi with
Hakama (袴, or pleated trousers).
Uchikake (打掛)
The top half of a formal garment worn by
women. It was originally combined with
Hakama as part of the everyday outfit worn
by women, yet its usage decreased from the
Muromachi era onwards. One of the
characteristics of Uchikake is that it did not
use either a Haori (羽織) or an Obi (帯) as a
bind. When sitting down during summer, the
Uchikake would be allowed to drop from
one`s shoulders and would then be wrapped
around one`s waist as a Koshimaki (腰巻, or
waist band). When walking along a corridor,
attendants would follow along behind a lady,
holding her garments by the hem to ensure
that they didn`t drag along the ground. This
practice was known as Kaitori (掻取, also
read as Kakitori).
Katsugi (被衣)
Clothes worn by a woman when going out.
The Nippō Jiten described it as `a mantle for
women`. It was originally worn over the top
of Uchigi, yet by the Sengoku era it was
being used as an overgarment decorated
with popular designs.
Ichimegasa (市女笠)
A bamboo hat worn by women when going
out. It was originally used by women
frequenting markets, but was eventually
adopted for use by aristocratic women and
by men. The top of the hat featured a
cylindrically shaped peak known as a Koji
(巾子), from which the brim of the hat spread
out. The face of the wearer would be hidden
by the brim, as it would by a thin cloth that
draped down from the brim known as a
Mushi no Tareginu (台木垂絹).
Kosode (小袖)
A garment with short sleeves. The opposite
of either Daisode (大袖) or Kōsode (広袖). The
Kosode was originally worn as an
undergarment, but because its size made it
ideal for working in, both common men and
women came to use it for their everyday
wear. In the Sengoku era, women`s and
aristocratic clothing was simplified, which
resulted in the Kosode being adopted as an
outer garment. By the Toyotomi era,
particularly gorgeous Kosode were produced,
which were the forerunners of today`s
Kimono.
Karaorimono (唐織物)
Silk and woven goods imported from China.
They were divided up into Kinran (金蘭),
Ginran (銀蘭), Kintan (金鍛), Donsu (鍛子),
and Rinzu (綸子). Such cloth was often used
in the making of women`s Kosode. In the
Sengoku era, there was a shortage in the
production of raw thread, hence while
Chinese produced goods were imported in
bulk, raw materials were also imported in
order to allow domestic weavers to produce
their own goods.
Kane (鉄漿)
The practice of dyeing one`s teeth black. Also
known as Ohaguro or Hagurome (御歯黒, 歯
黒目). A liquid known as Kanemizu (鉄漿水)
consisted of metal shavings to which sake or
vinegar had been added. According to
practice, after plaque and other detritus had
been removed from one`s teeth, sap rich in
tannic acid (known as Fushiko 五倍子粉)
would be mixed with Kanemizu and then
applied to the teeth, staining them black. In
the Heian period, the practice of dyeing
teeth black had been popular among the
men and women of the court. By the
Muromachi era, the practice had spread to
the women of warrior households and among
some men. Foreign priests writing in their
records remarked upon the practice, calling
it `unusual`.
Taregami (垂髪)
A form of hairstyle in which the hair was
laid straight out and was not bent or curled.
This simple hairstyle was particularly
popular among women in the Sengoku era,
yet with the passage of time, women started
to tie their hair up or tie it into knots. The
variety of female hairstyles eventually
resulted in the appearance of persons who
specialized in tying up hair.
Motoyui (元結)
A rope used to bind hair together. In the
Sengoku era this was likely to be made of
hemp, but the Edo era saw the increasing
use of paper ties.
Mayuzukuri (眉作り)
A fashionable practice whereby a woman
would shave her eyebrows off and then paint
a pair of eyebrows on her forehead. This was
originally an aristocratic custom, but it
spread amongst the women of warrior
families during the Sengoku era. Portraits,
such as that of Oda Nobunaga`s younger
sister O-ichi, demonstrate that the practice
of Mayuzukuri was indeed popular.
Inkan Sokutai (衣冠束帯)
The general name applied to clothing worn
at the Imperial court. Such clothing was
based upon that worn at the Tang court.
From the Heian era onwards, the emperor,
aristocrats, and those living in the Imperial
quarters would all wear a Sokutai form of
clothing. An Inkan was a form of dress
slightly smaller in size than a Sokutai.
While a Sokutai was known as `daytime
clothing` (or Hinoshōzoku 昼装束), an Inkan
was known as `clothing for lodging` (or
Tonoishōzoku 宿装束). While a Sokutai was
worn for official engagements during the
day, the Inkan was a form of `nightwear`.
However the Inkan form of clothing
gradually began to be worn during the
daytime as well.
Hitatare (直垂)
A type of clothing that covered one`s upper
body. One characteristic of this type of
clothing were large slits (or Wakiake 欠腋)
in the armpit area of a sleeve. This clothing
was often worn together with Hakama. It
was a form of clothing originally worn by
lower class samurai, but by the Sengoku era
it had spread to the upper classes and was
used as formal wear. A Hitatare than was
worn underneath one`s armour was known
as a Yoroi Hitatare (鎧直垂). There was no
real change in the basic look of Hitatare, but
many did come to be colorfully decorated.
Suō (素襖)
A type of Hitatare. An abbreviation of Suō no
Hitatare (素襖の直垂). Hakama were often
made of the same material and featured the
same design as a Hitatare, hence they were
known as Suō Hakama (素襖袴). The term
Kamishimo (上下, or 裃) referred to a
matching set of Suō and Hakama, and these
were often used as official wear.
Daimon (大紋)
A type of Hitatare which was covered in a
number of kamon (家紋, or family insignia).
It was worn at special festivities and events,
and featured many designs that represented
the main family branch (or Ichizoku, 一族).
Silk was often used to make this garment,
and colours such as purple and a deep red
were particularly popular choices.
Kariginu (狩衣)
This originally referred to clothing which
one wore when hunting, yet it became an
informal style of dress for aristocrats, and a
formal style of dress for warriors. The
aristocratic version was quite simple in
design, and was often worn for duties
outside of hunting. Even though it was
considered informal wear, there were
detailed proscriptions on the material,
colour, and allowable size of the clothing. As
said earlier, this form of wear came to be
used by warriors for important occasions,
such as when a retainer went to pay his
respects to his lord. Hōjō Ujinori (北条氏規)
of the main Hōjō family wore a Kariginu
when he went to have an audience with
Toyotomi Hideyoshi at Osaka castle. Upon
his arrival, he found that the other retainers
present were all wearing the more
aristocratic Inkan Sokutai, thus causing
Ujinori much embarrassment.
Nōshi (直衣)
Clothing worn by aristocrats when they were
in residence in their private quarters. It was,
in principle, an informal style of clothing, yet
it gradually came to be used when venturing
out of one`s quarters, thus increasing its
range of usage.
Dōfuku (胴腹)
A type of pleated jacket (or Haori) worn by
warriors. It was quite small and easy to
remove, hence it was often used to ward off
the cold when venturing outdoors. A Dōfuku
with no sleeves was used as a Jinbaori, and
was worn over the top of one`s armour. Such
clothing was co-ordinated with one`s armour,
and could feature many designs. A Dōfuku
would be awarded to retainers upon victory
in battle, and there are a number of Dōfuku
in existence which have been handed down
from famous warriors.
Eboshi (烏帽子)
A type of stiff paper hat worn by men. It was
made of black material said to resemble the
wings of a bird, hence the origins of the
name. To be seen without a hat, or to have
one`s head uncovered, was known as Rochō
(露頂), and was considered embarrassing. As
such, even commoners would wear an
Eboshi as the very minimum in etiquette. In
the Sengoku era, the practice of wearing an
Eboshi began to disappear among warrior
households (except for formal occasions) in
the wake of the spread of the Sakayaki (月代,
or `half moon`) shaved hairstyle. Among the
types of Eboshi lay the aristocratic
Tachieboshi (立烏帽子), and an Eboshi that
was half folded in the middle known as a
Kazaore Eboshi (風折烏帽子).
Kowameshi (強食)
Steamed rice cooked using a Koshiki (甑), a
wooden plate placed over the top of a heated
pot with small holes in the base to allow
steam through. Similar to modern Okowa
(おこわ, steamed rice). The original method
used in Japan for cooking rice, yet by the
Sengoku era this had been supplanted by
the Himeii (姫飯) method of boiling rice to
soften it. One particularly popular rice dish
was Tsujikake (rice topped with soup). At the
time, unpolished rice (Genmai, 玄米) and
immature rice (Hantsuki, 半搗) were the
most common forms of rice eaten. When rice
was scarce, it would be mixed with either
barley, soy beans, chestnuts, potatoes, or
eggplant. It was only in the Sengoku era,
with climatic improvements and the
formation of independently organized sō
groups, that peasants came to eat rice as
their main diet.
Bibutsu (美物)
Particularly expensive foodstuffs. This could
consist of fish, fowl, or meats. Both carp and
ayu (sweetfish), as they were shallow water
fish, were regarded as the pinnacle of
Bibutsu, followed by ocean fish. In Kyoto
and many other cities, ocean fish was
usually packed in salt to preserve it for
transportation, hence shallow water fish was
particularly liked because it was fresh. Next
in the order of foodstuffs came shellfish, then
fowl, and finally meats. In Buddhism, four
legged creatures such as cows, horses, and
pigs were regarded as unclean and therefore
to be avoided, yet this was, at best, only a
principle. Unlike Bibutsu, vegetables and
sea grasses etc were known as Sobutsu (粗
物, or general foodstuffs).
Chūjiki (中食)
A midday meal. Japanese diets originally
only consisted of two meals a day – once in
the morning and once in the evening.
However the Zen practice of taking a light
midday meal (known as a Tenshin, 点心)
soon spread throughout the various social
classes. Aristocrats had been taking midday
meals since the Kamakura period, yet by the
Sengoku era warrior houses were also
following this trend.
Toki (斎)
Meals taken in a temple. Monks were
banned from either eating meat or drinking
alcohol, and would go without a meal during
the morning, practices that were all dictated
by precepts. Toki had the same meaning as
shōjin ryōri (精進料理, temple food). On days
of Buddhist memorial services, the food
given to the family of the deceased was
called Toki. This term eventually came to
describe the memorial service itself.
Shikisankon (式三献)
A celebratory custom. To advocate that
someone drink three cups of sake was known
as an Ikkon (一献), hence to perform an
Ikkon three times was known as a
Shikisankon. Offering a person a cup of sake
was called an Ichido (一度), thus a
Shikisankon was also known by the name of
Sansan Kyūdo no Hai (三々九度の杯, three
– three – nine cups of sake). A Shikisankon
was usually performed at a coming-of-age
ceremony or at a wedding.
Honzen (本膳)
Presentation of the first meal at a
celebration, usually after a Shikisankon. In
the Muromachi era, there were many forms
and methods involved in holding ceremonies.
The Honzen would consist of seven `sai` (菜,
which referred to the number of dishes),
followed by the Ni no Zen (二の膳) with five
`sai`, and finally the San no Zen (三の膳)
with three `sai`. Cuisine centered around
presentation of the Honzen was known as
Honzen Ryōri (本膳料理).
Ōban (埦飯)
Fare served at a feast. It consisted of various
foods and drinks centered around a bowl
generously filled with boiled rice. It was
originally used at feasts given by aristocrats,
yet the practice spread to the warrior class.
In the Sengoku era, it was not widely
utilized practice, and was instead confined to
certain ceremonies.
Hoshii (糒)
A foodstuff made by first steaming rice,
boiling it, and then letting it dry out. Also
called Kareii (餉). Drying the rice preserved
it, whereupon one could eat it as is, or drop it
into water or hot water, wait until it had
absorbed some liquid, and then eat it. Troops
stationed in camp would often have a couple
days worth of Hoshii which they carried
around with them.
Hōchōshiki (包丁式)
A demonstration in cutting performed in
front of guests using a large knife. A cook,
known as a Hōchōjin (包丁人), would take a
large blade and proceed to expertly cut up
fish and meats. In the Sengoku period there
were a number of cutting styles, such as the
Ōgusa ryū (大草流), the Shinji ryū (進司流),
the Ikuma ryū (生間流), and the Chiei (or
Ikenaga) ryū (池永流).
Hishio (醤)
A form of food preparation in which soy
beans, as well as shellfish and other
seafoods, would be mixed with salt. The
Sengoku era saw a boom in the manufacture
of soy sauce, which is one form of Hishio.
Shoin (書院)
A room within a warrior household joining
the living quarters (居間) together with the
guest room (応接室). The name originally
referred to a small room in a temple in which
one would read books. It was also known by
the names Defuzukue (出文机) and Fushoin
(or Tsukekakiin, 付書院). The bookshelves
within a household would be gorgeously
decorated (thus becoming known as
Chigaidana, or 違い棚), whilst pictures and
scrolls would be displayed in the Tokonoma
(床の間). These artifacts would all be
gathered in the private space of the Shoin,
which would then be used to display the
treasures of the household to guests. The
Shoin would, on occasion, become the
centerpiece of the household, hence
buildings which were designed around a
Shoin were built in the Shoinzō (書院造)
style.
Tonomo (主殿)
The central building in a warrior`s
residence. Such residences usually had a
number of small rooms, such as the Nanto
(納戸, or closet room) and the Keshō no Ma
(化粧の間, literally `make-up` room), with a
guest room facing south. Those buildings
centered around a Tonomo were described as
having been built in the Tonomozō style,
which was meant to provide a warrior with
space in which to conduct everyday business.
This differed from the Shoinzō style, which
was based on the sleeping quarters (or
Nemozō, 寝殿造) style used in aristocratic
households.
Tōzamurai (遠侍)
A room used by warriors for security
purposes (in other words, a type of
guardhouse). The name derives from the fact
that this room was usually placed some
distance away from a lord`s quarters (or
Tonomo). It was only used sporadically, and
did not constitute a regular living space.
Shikidai (式台)
A room situated between the entrance (or
Genkan、玄関) and the Tōzamurai, facing
towards the Hiroma (広間, or `broad room`).
Used as a space in which to greet visitors.
Wooden floorboards placed in front of the
Genkan were also known as Shikidai.
Hiroma (広間)
The largest room in a warrior household.
Used when greeting guests or holding a
feast, and thus only used for a specific
purpose.
Senjōjiki (千畳敷)
A very large room, compared to having 1,000
tatami mats placed within a space.
Used in
warrior residences (Yakata, 館) such as
Tsukiyama Tomita castle (月山富田城) and
Takiyama castle (滝山城). There was also a
system of area distribution (or Kuruwa, 曲
輪) known as a Senjōjiki, supposedly derived
from the construction of Imperial residences.
Kyōma (京間)
A unit of measurement for the length of a
building. In a cadastral survey (or Kenchi,
検地), 1 ma was equal to 6 shaku, 3 sun (六尺
三寸, or 1.8 metres). A Kyōma, on the other
hand, measured 6 shaku, 5 sun (or 1.9
metres). 1 ma was the length of a pillar, so
this was used as the basic unit of
measurement in construction. While the
Kyōma was often used in the western
provinces, the eastern provinces made use of
Inakama (田舎間), which was 6 shaku, 3 sun.
Measurement systems in the Sengoku era
were uneven, however, with great disparity
in units of length between regions.
Sōshi (曹司)
A room within a residence. The habit of
calling the children of a high class family
`Onzōshi` (御曹司) stemmed from the fact
that such children would not possess their
own residence, but would live in their
parent`s household.
Katōmado (花灯窓)
A type of window, in which the upper part of
the window was arched. An architectural
style particularly favoured by Zen temples,
and which was being used in the Shoin of
warrior households by the Sengoku era.
Machiya (町屋)
The living quarters or else the residential
area frequented by townspeople. Details of
the buildings in such areas are unknown (as
excavations have revealed no clues as to
their overall shape), although they appear to
have been built on flat, level planes. The
oldest Machiya buildings within Kyoto date
from the Edo era, however the basic shape of
such buildings apparently emerged in the
reconstruction that occurred after the Ōnin
War. As there was no radical shift in design,
we can at least gain a glimpse of what a
Machiya might have looked like. The
entrance to a Machiya was usually narrow,
with the building then spreading out behind
it. The front of the Machiya would be used as
a store by merchants and as a workspace by
ordinary townspeople. Living spaces and
bedrooms were then located further inside
the building. At the rear of the building
stood ploughed fields, as well as communal
wells and toilets. The Machiya of Kyoto
became the model for all Jōkamachi during
the Sengoku era, mainly on account of their
refined shape.
Kinsō (金瘡)
Wounds caused by metal objects, such as
swords, spears, or musket balls. A medical
practitioner who specialized in external
injuries was known as a Kinsōi (金瘡医). The
Sengoku era saw the development of many
forms of treating wounds, a consequence of
the amount of wounded generated by
conflict.
Honsōgaku (本草学)
A form of study that took into consideration
the practical application and creation of
medicines. It did not only consider medicine,
but also studied natural phenomena such as
plants. Honsōgaku had originally been
transmitted in Japan via books brought from
China, yet the domestication of the medical
goods industry led to independent
contributions to the sum of medical
knowledge.
Nanban Geka (南蛮外科)
Surgical techniques from Europe and
transmitted to the Japanese by the
Portuguese. The arrival of St Francis Xavier
in Tenbun 19 (1549) brought both
Christianity and western learning to Japan.
Missionaries, whilst engaged in
proselytizing, also opened hospitals and
orphanages as part of their activities. Many
missionaries were skilled medical
practitioners, and their efforts produced
many a convert. Progress in internal
medicine in Europe had rapidly advanced as
a result of vivisection studies, however the
medical techniques that were transmitted to
Japan were part of the old system of medical
care. As such, Japanese tended to trust
Chinese medicines for internal complaints,
but turned to western medicine when
dealing with external injuries.
Rishuigaku (李朱医学)
A form of Chinese medicine practiced from
the Chin to the Yuan periods (1115-1367). It
not only concerned itself with medicine, but
also studied natural healing methods.
Goseiha (後世派)
A school of medical knowledge derived from
Rishuigaku. It was a combination of
divination and medicine, which meant that
some parts of its practices were divorced
from reality.
Tenyakuryō (典薬寮)
On office within the Imperial court
responsible for medical matters. Whilst this
office treated aristocrats, it also studied
medical techniques, administered medicine,
and schooled medical practitioners. The
official in charge of the Tenyakuryō was
known as the Tenyakugashira (典薬頭),
which was a hereditary post held by the
Wake (和気) and Tanba (丹波) families.
Bodaiji (菩提寺)
A temple frequented by generations of the
same family, used for burials and for
memorial ceremonies for one`s ancestors.
The name Bodai refers to rebirth in the Pure
Land, the wisdom of Buddha, and the
enjoyments of the afterlife. In the Edo era,
every Japanese person was, in principle,
required to be registered in the Danka (檀家)
system administered by Bodaiji. The
Sengoku era, however, was a transitory
period for this system. Temples in the
medieval period were large landholders and
virtually self-sufficient, yet by the Sengoku
era, much of their territory had been forcibly
taken from them, thus plunging them into
financial difficulties. To offset this problem,
many temples became the Bodaiji of
illustrious warrior families, thereby
ensuring their continuation and protection.
Honzan (本山)
The main temple of a Buddhist sect. Also
known as the Hondera (本寺). A temple that
administered all other temples in the same
sect was known as the Sō Honzan (総本山).
The Sō Honzan of the Tendai sect is
Enryakuji (延暦寺), the Sō Honzan of the
Shingon sect is Kongobuji (金剛峰寺), the Sō
Honzan of the Ji sect (時宗) is Shojōkōji (清浄
光寺), the Sō Honzan of the Nichiren sect (日
蓮) is Kuonji (久遠時), while the Sō Honzan
of the Jōdō sect (浄土) is Chionin (知恩院).
The system by which a Honzan controls its
branch temples is known as the Honmatsu
Seido (本末制度). In the Muromachi period, a
Honmatsu Seido was created for the Zen
sect, dividing it into the Kyoto Gozan (京五
山) and the Kamakura Gozan (鎌倉五山).
The `five temples` (Gozan) of Kyoto consisted
of Nanzenji (南禅寺), Tenryūji (天龍寺),
Sōkokuji (相国寺), Kenninji (建仁寺),
Tōfukuji (東福寺) and Manjuji (万寿寺), each
of which administered many branch
temples.
Nenbutsu Dōjō (念仏道場)
A venue at which followers of the Jōdō faith
gathered in order to recite the Nenbutsu
prayer. The arrival of monks at such places
often resulted in them becoming temples.
Muenjo (無縁所)
A term referring to a person detached from
the secular world, not subject to hierarchical
or familial relationships. A Muenjo was a
place of religious significance where persons
with no ties (muen, 無縁) would gather. It
was neutral territory, where the authority of
a daimyō did not extend. As such, criminals
and genin (下人, labourers similar to slaves),
if they fled into a muenjō, could not be
pursued. The Oda and Toyotomi
governments denied the efficacy of Muenjo,
which had completely disappeared by the
Edo period.
Kakekomidera (駆込寺)
A term referring to a temple that was a safe
haven for criminals and genin, should they
flee into its confines. It essentially served
the same purpose as a Muenjo, although a
Muenjo was not an officially recognized
temple, whereas a Kakekomidera might
possess the Bodaiji of a daimyō family. In the
medieval period, temples were regarded as
places to which the laws of the secular world
did not extend. However, Oda Nobunaga,
when he demanded that Kaisen Shūki (快川
紹喜) of Keirinji (恵林寺) hand over Rokkaku
Yoshiharu (六角義治) for attempting to
assassinate Nobunaga, he received a
rebuttal from Kaisen. Nobunaga then
attacked Keirinji, setting fire to it and
killing Kaisen. This was a blatant example
of the denial of the special priviledges
extended to Kakekomidera. In the Edo era,
despite the existence of temples such as
Tōkeiji (東慶寺), which was a refuge for
women, Kakekomidera for criminals and
escapees disappeared.
Monomōde (物詣)
To visit temples or shrines as a form of
recreation. A visit to Kumano (熊野) or Ise
(伊勢) shrine was a particularly popular
pasttime during the Sengoku era.
Jingūji (神宮寺)
A temple affiliated with a certain shrine.
Also known as a Betōji (別当寺), a Jingoji (神
護寺), a Miyadera (宮寺), a Jinganji (神願寺),
or a Jinkuji (神供寺).
The spread of the idea
of a symbiosis between Shinto gods and
Boddhisatvas meant that many Jingūji were
constructed in the grounds of shrines. Some
examples of this include Mirokuji (弥勒寺) of
Usa Hachimangū (宇佐八幡宮) and the
Jingūji of Iwashimizu Hachimangū (石清水
八幡宮).
Tacchū (塔頭)
A small temple associated with a much
larger temple complex. Also known as a
Shiin (子院) or a Jichū (寺中). The
gravestones of Zen priests were called Tain
(塔院), with the title of Tacchū bestowed on
the grave of the most illustrious monk. After
a Zen monk retired from active service, he
would be granted a small hut (or iori, 庵) in
the grounds of the temple, where he would
set about preparing for his own Tacchū (or
gravesite). For this reason, the hut he
inhabited was also known as a Tacchū.
Kishin (寄進)
A donation of money, goods, or land to a
temple. As many temples had lost revenue
from tithes as a result of land seizures, many
temples became the Danke (檀家) of daimyō
families, whose donations ensured the
financial survival of the temple.
Sanmon (山門)
The entrance to a temple. It also stood for
temples in general, and was used as an
alternative name for Hieizan Enryakuji.
Sangō (山号)
The affixation (or affiliation) of the character
for `mountain` to a temple. Enryakuji is
known as Hieizan (比叡山), while Kongobuji
is known as Kōyasan (高野山). These two
temples are actually situated on mountains,
however the affix was also applied to
temples on flat plains (as the idea of
mountains was associated with places of
spiritual retreat). Some examples of this
include Higashiyama Kenninji (東山建仁寺)
and Reigizan Tenryūji (霊龜山天龍寺).
Gorintō (五輪塔)
A type of tower, in which bones said to
belong to the Buddha are buried. Often
made of five stones piled up on top of one
another, with each stone representing (from
bottom to top) earth, water, fire, wind, and
air. The grave of Minamoto no Yoritomo was
the first to be built in the style of a Gorintō.
However, in the Kamakura era, the custom
of building a grave in memorial to a certain
person had not yet taken root. The Sengoku
era was a transitory stage in which the
practice of building a Bodaiji to the memory
of one`s ancestors emerged. Many of the
gravestones of this period, although they
might have been built in the Gorintō style,
do not have either the personal name or
posthumous name of the deceased carved
into them. This practice only took hold
during the Edo period, as did the usage of
wooden gravemarkers.
Rantō (卵塔)
The gravestone of a Buddhist priest. The
name derives from the fact that the
gravestone looks like an egg placed
vertically on its axis. Although a person
might have been born to a warrior family, if
he (or she) took the tonsure, he (or she)
would be remembered using a Rantō.
Injin (印信)
The practice among esoteric sects (such as
Tendai and Shingon) of handing down a
certificate outlining secret teachings from an
Ajyari (阿闍梨) to his acolytes. By the
Sengoku era, the format of Injin had been
greatly diversified.
Kangyōsho (諫曉書)
A document given by priests of the Nichiren
sect (日蓮宗) advocating that an aristocrat or
warrior convert to the Nichiren faith. The
name derives from the practice of first
admonishing a person then persuading them
to convert. The Nichiren sect was
particularly critical of other sects, and
actively pursued conversions, insisting on
the legitimacy of the ideas of Nichiren
outlined in a Kangyōsho and the doctrinal
heart of the Nichiren sect, the Risshō
Ankoku Ron (立正安国論). Nichiren believers
often clashed with those of other sects. In
the 5th year of Tenbun (1536), during the
Hokke uprising (or Tenbun Hokke no Ran 天
文法華の乱), warrior monks of Enryakuji
attacked and destroyed all Nichiren temples
within the vicinity of Kyoto.
Shūron (宗論)
An argument (or debate) conducted between
two different religious sects. Both the Tendai
and Shingon sects engaged in Shūron, as did
the Rinzai and Soto sects of Zen. Shūron
conducted between the Jōdō and Nichiren
sects could (and did) end in violence. In the
7th year of Tenshō (1579), a debate was held
at Jōgenin (浄厳院), a temple within the
confines of Azuchi castle, between members
of the Jōdō sect and the Nichiren sect. The
Jōdō sect members refused to continue the
debate after a fight was started by members
of the Nichiren sect. Oda Nobunaga then
released a truce to be signed by both parties.
However the Nichiren side refused to sign
and left the debate, thereby making the Jōdō
sect winners by default. Those monks of
various sects that had gathered to watch the
debate, bending to the will of Nobunaga
whilst also harbouring misgivings about the
Nichiren sect, saw the debate as a contest
between the Nichiren sect and all other
Buddhist faiths. They therefore issued a
declaration confirming that the Nichiren
sect had lost the debate. Shūron were a way
for different sects to win followers and were
actively pursued, however by the Edo era,
the rule of Bakufu over Buddhist sects
meant that violent Shūron became a thing of
the past.
Danna (檀那)
A member of a Buddhist temple. Also
written as 旦那, and known as a Danotsu, or
檀越. A synonym for Danka, or 檀家. The
name derived from the Sanskrit word for
offering (ordinarily known in Japanese as a
Fuse or 布施). During the Sengoku era, a
Danna could choose whichever sect he or she
wished to belong to, yet the coming of the
Edo era saw the implementation of temple
registry system, where generations of the
same family had to register as followers (or
Danka) of certain selected temples.
Ichizan Shūe (一山集会)
A meeting convened to decide on important
matters concerning a large temple complex.
Also known as a Manzan Shūe (満山集会) or
a Manji Shūe (満寺集会). Voting rights for
participants were equal, with matters
decided by a majority vote.
Yūgyō Nenbutsu (遊行念仏)
The basis of instruction in the teachings of
the Ji sect (時宗). The priest Ippen (一遍)
was also known by the name Isshō Fujū (一
生不住, literally `to wander throughout one`s
life`). He travelled around various provinces,
chanting the Nenbutsu prayer while
dancing. In the Sengoku era, priests of the Ji
sect were often hired by Sengoku daimyō to
gather information on rivals and other
territories. However, in time the ethic of the
Yūgyō Nenbutsu disappeared, and members
of the Ji sect built permanent temple
structures.
Senju Nenbutsu (専修念仏)
To solely chant the Nenbutsu prayer. This
was the basis of instruction in the Jōdō sect,
who believed that by intoning the Nenbutsu
prayer, one would be saved from torment,
and led to the paradise of the Pure Land.
Fuju Fuse (不受不施)
To refuse to accept the teachings of people
outside of the Nichiren faith. This was one of
the cornerstones of Nichiren belief, and used
while Nichiren sect members were engaged
in fierce argument with members of other
sects. In time, however, and in order to avoid
confrontations like that at Azuchi castle, the
main branch of the Nichiren sect agreed to
accept some of teachings of other faiths. It
was a practical decision, made in the wake of
legal reforms enacted by Toyotomi Hideyoshi
in Bunroku 4 (1595). However, followers of
the Nichiō (日奥) strand of Nichiren
continued to insist upon the practice of Fuju
Fuse. When Nichiō was sent away to Tajima,
his followers were suppressed by the
Tokugawa Bakufu. However many of these
followers went underground, and continued
to practice Fuju Fuse in secret.
Shikan Taza (只管打坐)
One of the basic tenents of the Zen faith. To
devote oneself fully to the practice of Zen,
and remove any superfluous thoughts or
doubts.
Kaji Kitō (加持祈祷)
A form of divination, meant to ward off
sickness and disasters. In the Sengoku era,
Uesugi Kenshin would perform a Kaji Kitō
to the god Bishamonten (毘沙門天), praying
for victory in a coming battle or campaign.
Shie (紫衣)
Purple coloured robes worn by priests.
Purple signified that one was at the peak of
the twelve levels of priesthood, and was a
colour venerated throughout East Asia. A
Shie could only be worn by those monks
judged most virtuous, although the usage of
this vestment spread during the Sengoku
era.
Kesa (袈裟)
A vestment worn by monks. The actual
garment itself varied from sect to sect, and
was regulated by various edicts in order to
differentiate between different ranks of
priests.
Sanzen (参禅)
To study the way of Zen. Also referred to the
practice of meditation, or Zazen (座禅).
Shishi Sōshō (師資相承)
The transmission of Buddhist teachings
from a teacher to his (or her) acolytes.
Kirishitan (吉利支丹)
Christianity, or a Christian believer. Also
written as 切支丹. When the Christian
message arrived with St Francis Xavier (of
the Society of Jesus, or Yasukai 耶蘇会) in
the 18th year of Tenbun (1549), most
Japanese who converted to Christianity
were members of Buddhist sects, hence
Christianity was seen as just another sect
and dubbed Nanbanshū (南蛮宗), Tenjikushū
(天竺宗), and Daiusushū (ダイウス宗).
Kirishitan Daimyō (キリシタン大名)
A daimyō, or highly placed warrior, who had
converted to the Christian faith. The term
`Christian daimyō` was not used in Japanese
documents at the time, however in records
left by Europeans, the terms Christian and
`Daimyō Christian` appear in regard to some
feudal lords. Some examples of daimyō
converts include Ōmura Sumitada (大村純忠)
of Hizen province, Ōtomo Sōrin (大友宗麟) of
Bungo Funai castle, and Arima Harunobu
(有馬晴信), again of Hizen province.Under
the Catholic faith, divorce was not
recognized, neither was polygamy. As such,
twenty seven years would pass from Ōtomo
Sōrin`s first encounter with St Francis
Xavier until the time he received baptism as
a Catholic.
Bateren (伴天連)
A priest of the Christian faith. The word
derives from the Portugese name for priest –
padre. Unfortunately, the Nippo Jiten does
not say whether the term `Kirishitan` was
derived from Portugese in the same way as
Bateren. Ōmura Sumitada was the first
daimyō to convert to Christianity, and the
most fervent in his belief. He destroyed all
Buddhist temples within his lands and had
his subjects convert to Christianity. He then
donated part of his domain to the Christian
priesthood.
Iruman (イルマン)
A member of the Society of Jesus, one rank
down from a priest (in other words, a
brother, or in Portuguese, irmao, from which
the word is derived). In Kanji this could be
rendered as 伊留満 and 入満. The term also
referred to a priest in training.
Junsatsushi (巡察師)
A priest of the Society of Jesus who observed
the practice of proselytization. As it was
necessary for such priests to spend many
years travelling from region to region, they
possessed quite extensive authoritative
power, and were one rank above the head of
missionary activities in Japan, which placed
them in charge of all missionary work.
Alessandro Valignano was one such priest.
Fukyōku (布教区)
An area in which Christian teachings were
conducted by the Society of Jesus. When St
Francis Xavier arrived in Japan in Tenbun
18 (1549), Portuguese territories, along with
missions in Japan and China, indeed the
whole of Asia, were administered from the
Indian city of Goa. As such, those priests
who journeyed to Japan were affiliated with
the Goa office of their order, and sent
documents back and forth to this office. The
person responsible for proselytizing in Japan
was known as the `Head of Proselytization`
or Nippon Fukyō Chō (日本布教長, of whom
St Francis Xavier was the first). Although
the Jesuit Order was initially responsible for
most proselytizing activities, a ban imposed
on them by Toyotomi Hideyoshi severely
limited their activities. The Franciscan
Order thus took this opportunity to expand
their activities from the Kantō region to the
central regions.
Nanbanji (南蛮寺)
A type of church founded through the
activities of Christian priests. Also known as
a Kirishitanji (切支丹寺) or a Baterenji (伴天
連寺). Priests would often use pre-existing
temples, or else when a new facility was
built, it was built in the style of a temple,
hence the name. Nanbanji in Kyoto is a
typical example of this. As a result of an
order from Oda Nobunaga it changed its
name to Shintōji (神道寺), which was later
changed to Eirokuji (永禄寺, in line with the
era at the time). In order to win over the
Japanese people, priests took to using the
appellation `temple` (or Ji) in mimicry of
Buddhist institutions.As a result of a
proscription ordered by Toyotomi Hideyoshi,
all Nanbanji were destroyed. However a
relaxation in this law saw the re-emergence
of Nanbanji in various areas, until all were
once again destroyed on the orders of
Tokugawa Ieyasu. Afterwards, many
temples were built on the ruins of Nanbanji.
Junkyō (殉教)
Martyrdom. To offer up one`s life for one`s
religion. In the 1st year of Keichō (1596), as a
result of the proscription placed on
Christianity by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 26
Christians, including priests and followers,
were martyred. Many executed Christians
were later recorded as martyrs by the
Roman Catholic Church, however victims of
the Shimabara Uprising (Shimabara no Ran,
島原の乱) have not been so acknowledged.
Senrei (洗礼)
Baptism. Those persons who underwent
Baptism received a Baptismal name. Some
examples of this include Ōtomo Sōrin =
Francisco, Ōmura Sumitada = Bartholomew,
Arima Harunobu = Protagio, Takayama
Ukin = Justo, Gamō Ujisato = Leon, Oda
Urakusai = Joanne, Kuroda Nyosui =
Simeon, Konishi Yukinaga = Augustino,
Hosokawa Tamako = Gracia. Oda Urakusai,
Kuroda Nyosui, and Gamō Ujisato were all
reknowned tea masters, hence the tea
ceremony itself is thought to have been
influenced by a number of Christian
ceremonies, including Baptism.
Collegio (コレジヨ)
A Christian institution of higher education.
In the 8th year of Tenshō (1580), Alessandro
Valignano, through assistance received from
Ōtomo Sōrin, built a Collegio at the base of
Bungo Funai castle. At first, 8 European
students were educated in divinity and
Japanese, along with philosophy, medicine,
and the natural sciences. Two years later,
Japanese students were admitted. The
Collegio was moved to Yamaguchi following
the invasion of Bungo by the Shimazu in
Tenshō 14, whereafter it was again moved to
Nagasaki, and finally Amakusa, where it
was disbanded following the proscription
launched against Christianity in Keichō 18
(1613).
Seminario (セミナリヨ)
An educational institution founded by the
Jesuit Order. While a Collegio was an
institute of higher learning, a Seminario was
a place for beginning and intermediate
learning. Four such Seminario were founded
on the orders of Alessandro Valignano –
these being the Seminario at Azuchi, Arima,
Ōmura, and Yamaguchi. These facilities
were built in order to educate Christian
believers, and utilized a comprehensive
system. The curriculum included divinity,
Latin, and Japanese studies, and also
encompassed lessons on the flute and organ.
Seminario constituted part of the Christian
school system (together with Noviciado, or
ノビシャド), with both institutions providing
students who would go on to study at a
Collegio. All Christian schools, including
Seminario, were abolished on the orders of
Tokugawa Ieyasu.
Ikkō Ikki (一向一揆)
A religious organization affiliated with the
Jōdō Shinshū Honganji sect. Or else, a
united organization that opposed and fought
against pre-existing power structures. The
eighth head of the Honganji sect, Rennyo (蓮
如), was very active in trying to incorporate
the village based Sō (惣) organization into
Shinshū faith in order to increase the
number of followers, or Monto (門徒). The
united organization that the Sō represented
was not fundamentally opposed to existing
social structures, yet just as the Sō would
react against attempts by Sengoku daimyō
to pressure them politically, those
organizations that melded together with the
Ikkō sect (or Ikkō Ikki) resisted outside
pressure far more ferociously than ordinary
Sō. Rennyo was not fond of conflict with
pre-existing power structures and opposed
attempts by the Monto of the Hokuriku
region to rise in armed revolt. However, in
Chōkyō 2 (1488), an Ikkō Ikki attacked and
killed the shugo daimyō Togashi Masachika
and laid the foundations for one hundred
years of Ikkō sect rule over Kaga prefecture.
Ofumi (御文)
Letters, or doctrinal messages, written by
Rennyo and addressed to the Monto. Higashi
Honganji refers to these letters as Ofumi,
while Nishi Honganji uses the term
Gobunshō (御文章). The eighth head, or
Hossu (法主) of the Honganji sect, Rennyo,
travelled from the Kinai region to the
Hokuriku, meeting many people along the
way. Conversely, he wrote down Shinshū
teachings and instructions in the form of
letters which he then sent to believers in
many different regions, thus spreading the
teachings of his sect. The letters themselves
were primarily written in kana, making
them easier to understand.
Monto (門徒)
A person (or persons) who belonged to the
same sect (or Shūmon, 宗門). The term
particularly applied to members of the Jōdō
Shinshū faith.
Ōhō Ihon (王法為本)
A school of thought that advocated
cooperation with secular authorities. Both
Rennyo, and many other heads of the
Honganji sect, gave strict instructions to the
Monto, ordering them to respect and abide
by secular laws and morals. However,
members of the Monto undercut Rennyo`s
will by raising Ikkō Ikki and opposing both
the central government and Sengoku
daimyō.
Ikkō Senjū (一向専修)
To solely intone the Nenbutsu prayer. A
fundamental teaching of the Jōdō Shinshū
faith. `Ikkō` itself means `of one mind`, `one
way`, and `pure`. In the Jōdō Shinshū faith,
Ikkō Senjū, and Ikkō Nenbutsu (一向念仏)
was interpreted to mean that one should
only intone the Nenbutsu, hence the faith
itself became known as the Ikkō shū (一向
宗), or Ikkō faith.
Jinaichō (寺内町)
A fortified city, centered around a temple.
Both the Jōdō Shinshū sect and the Nichiren
sect possessed cities in which believers lived
and worked around a temple. In order to
ensure their safety, earthen walls and empty
moats were built around the edges of the
city. In the Sengoku era, inter-faith rivalry
often resulted in armed struggle. Also, there
was a need to resist encroachments by
Sengoku daimyō into temple lands, hence
Jinaichō sprang up in many different places.
Yoshizaki Gobō (吉崎御坊) and Yamashina
Honganji (山科本願寺) are two examples of
early Honganji Jinaichō. Ishiyama Honganji
(石山本願寺) was the largest of all Jinaichō.
However, after the Battle of Ishiyama,
Ōsaka Castle was built over the remnants of
the temple, thus changing the Jinaichō into
a castle town, or Jōkamachi.
Gobō (御坊)
A temple. In the Jōdō Shinshū sect, in
addition to the Honkyo (本拠), the most
important temple was known as the Gobō.
Some examples of this included Yoshizaki (吉
崎), Yamashina (山科), Ishiyama (石山), and
Sagimori (鷺森).
Ryōbu Shūgō (両部習合)
A religious concept, calling for the
veneration of both gods and Buddhas. The
word Ryōbu refers to the esoteric Buddhist
concept of the dual worlds of Taizō (胎蔵界)
and Kongō (金剛界). According to this belief,
Dainichi Nyorai (大日如来) resides at the
center of the Mandala world, while the gods
of Japan reside in both Taizō and Kongō. The
concept of Ryōbu Shūgō was regarded as a
Shingon-inspired form of Shintō.
Honji Suijyaku (本地垂迹)
A belief in which the Buddha appears in this
world in order to save mankind. In China,
this belief was commonly associated with
Confucian scholars and Daoist hermits,
however in Japan the term came to refer to
the Buddha`s transformation into a god. The
`Honji` refers to one`s true form, which in
this case means the Buddha. `Suijyaku`, on
the other hand, refers to appearing in a
transformed state. The theory of `Honji
Suijyaku` also states that gods may appear
in the form of a Buddha, and thus lays the
foundation for the practice of Shinbutsu
Shūgō (神仏習合), a union between Shintō
and Buddhism. In both instances, the
Buddha is venerated higher than the gods,
which means that the Shintō world was
absorbed into Buddhist doctrine.
Gongen (権現)
A Boddhisatva appearing in the guise of a
god. The word `Gon` referred to something
`provisional` or `temporary`, hence the
meaning implied that a Boddhisatva would
appear temporarily as a god. Some examples
of this include Zaō Gongen (蔵王権現),
Kumano Gongen (熊野権現), Kasuga Gongen
(春日権現), Hakusan Gongen (白山権現), and
Jishu Gongen (地主権現).
Enryakuji on Mt
Hiei had a close relationship with the Hie
Gongen (日吉権現), however the destruction
of Enryakuji in Ganki 2 (1571) at the hands
of Oda Nobunaga proved catastrophic for
this belief. Afterwards, Tenkai (天海), while
endeavouring to rebuild Enryakuji, created
a new form of belief melding Shintō and
Buddhism together called `Sanō Ichijitsu
Shintō` (山王一実神道). This belief became
known as the Tendai sect form of Shintō.
Shinpon Butsujyaku (神本仏迹)
An idea whereby a Boddhisatva temporarily
takes on the guise of a god. It is the
antithesis to the idea present in Honji
Suijyaku. It can also be thought of as an
ideal meant to separate Buddhist doctrine
from the Shintō world.
Myōjin (明神)
Originally written as 名神. It refers to the
most excellent, mostly highly venerated of
all the gods. By the Sengoku era, the use of
名神 had been replaced by 明神. Toyotomi
Hideyoshi was venerated as `Toyokuni
Myōjin` (豊国明神) after his death.
Shinboku (神木)
A tree located within the grounds of a shrine.
Trees were thought to be the resting places
of gods, hence people feared cutting them
down without consent, lest they be subject to
divine punishment.
Goryō (御霊)
The spirit of a person thought to have died
while harbouring a grudge. Some examples
of this include the spirits of Sugawara no
Michizane (菅原道真), Sawara Shinō (早良親
王), Iyo Shinō (伊予親王), Tachibana
Hayanari (橘逸勢), and Fujiwara Yoshiko (藤
原吉子) . In order to placate these spirits,
shrines known as Goryōsha (御霊社) were
built, some famous examples of which
include Kami Goryō Jinja (上御霊神社),
Shimo Goryō Jinja (下御霊神社), and
Gionsha (祗園社). Those ceremonies held
within Goryōsha are the most Buddhist-like
of all Shintō practices.
Fujikō (富士講)
A popular folk belief in which the goal was to
climb Mt Fuji. In the Sengoku era, an
itinerant supplicant by the name of
Hasegawa Kakugyō (長谷川角行) drew the
attention of the populace with his wild
incantations. It was these sorts of practices
which lay the foundation for the practice of
Fujikō in the Edo period.
Cha no yu (茶湯)
To drink tea from vessels in accordance with
set rituals. The practice was founded by
Murata Jukō (村田珠光) and reached it apex
as an art form through Senrikyū (千利休). In
the Genroku era, the tea ceremony became
quite lavish, the very antithesis of the
principles of Wabi and Sabi. Hence the term
Chadō (茶道) came to refer to this more
austentatious ceremony.
Chakai (茶会)
A gathering to appreciate the ceremony of
Cha no yu. Relations improved as a result of
a number of Chakai held between Oda
Nobunaga, Tsuda Sōgyū (宗及), Imai
Munehisa, Senrikyū and the tea merchants
of Sakai. Initially the tea merchants had
resisted Nobunaga after he gained control of
the capital. However they were placated
through the medium of Cha no yu.
Daimyō Cha (大名茶)
A tea ceremony held by either a daimyō or by
warriors. The tea ceremony itself became an
artform through the work of wealthy
merchants such as Takeno Jōō (武野紹鴎)
and Murata Jukō. The death of Senrikyū in
Tenshō 19 (1591) served as a catalyst for the
emergence of tea masters among the daimyō
class. Under their influence, the tea
ceremony became quite lavish, in addition to
its more austere elements.
Suki (数寄)
To take particular interest in certain objects.
Those implements used in the tea ceremony
are known as Suki Dōgu (数寄道具). The tea
ceremony itself came to be called `Suki`
during the era of Toyotomi rule.
Daisu no Cha (台子の茶)
A form of tea ceremony in which all of the
tea implements are arranged on a shelf. The
term Daisu refers to the tea urn and tea
bowl, and means to decorate a shelf with tea
goods. It is the principle form of tea
ceremony carried out within Zen temples.
However, the development of the tea
ceremony led to the emergence of a number
of different styles, and thus the Daisu no
Cha went out of fashion.
Kōdō (香道)
Literally `the way of scents`. In the Heian
era, this term simply meant to enjoy a
fragrant aroma, however by the Nanbokuchō
era, it referred to a competition to see who
could combine the most aromatic aromas. By
the Sengoku era, scents were no longer being
used in competition, but were combined in
order to enjoy their refined aromas.
Meibutsu (名物)
A particularly famous tea utensil. Those
utensils judged to be superior among
Meibutsu were designated as Daimyō Butsu
(大名物). Above that, they were known as
either Tenka Ichi (天下一), Tenka Musō (天下
無双) and Nippon Daiichi (日本第一). Along
with the Higashiyama Meibutsu of the
Ashikaga shōgunate, other notable Meibutsu
include those vessels named after tea
masters, such as the Jukō Meibutsu (珠光名
物) and the Jōō Meibutsu (紹鴎名物). To
collect Meibutsu was known as
`Meibutsugari` (名物狩). Oda Nobunaga, a
particularly noteworthy follower of the
practice of Meibutsugari, received a number
of famous tea utensils to mark his entry into
the capital. These included the Tsukumo
Nasu (付藻茄子) from Matsunaga Hisahide
(松永久秀), and the Matsujima Hachatsubo
(松島の葉茶壺) and the Jōō Nasu (紹鴎茄子)
from Imai Munehisa.
Chaire (茶入)
A small urn which held powdered tea.
Amidst the many forms of urns, those that
resembled the round eggplant (and were
thus known as Nasu Chaire – 茄子茶入)
were particularly prized. The Tsukumo Nasu
Chaire was a favourite Meibutsu of the
eighth Ashikaga shōgun, Yoshimasa. It
would later be given by Matsunaga Hisahide
to Oda Nobunaga on his entry into the
capital, and was thus acknowledged as
having `returned home`.
Katatsuki (肩衝)
Another form of Chaire. The narrow area
around the top of the urn (on which the lid
sat) was known as the `kata` (or `shoulder`),
hence an urn with a `kata` attached to it
became known as a Katatsuki. The `Niita
Katatsuki` (新田肩衝) was handed down
from the Hosokawa family to Oda
Nobunaga, Ōtomo Sōrin, and then to
Toyotomi Hideyoshi. This Katatsuki,
together with the `Hatsubana Katatsuki` (初
花肩衝) and the `Narashiba Katatsuki` (楢芝
肩衝) were known as the `three Meibutsu of
the realm`.
Chagama (茶釜)
A pot in which water was boiled for use in
the Cha no yu. Two particularly notable
Chagama manufacturing bases included
Tenmei (天明) in the east and Ashiya (芦屋)
in the west. In the Oda/Toyotomi era, the
Kamanza (釜座) of Sanjō in Kyoto also
produced notable Chagama.
Chatsubo (茶壺)
A large urn used to store tea. Also known as
a Hachatsubo (葉茶壺). A particularly
famous Chatsubo went by the name of
`Shijikkoku no Chatsubo` (四十石の茶壺) as
it was said to have been exchanged for 40
koku of rice. This urn passed from the
Ashikaga shōgunate to both Oda Nobunaga
and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, before finally end
up in the hands of Tokugawa Ieyasu.
Chashaku (茶杓)
A type of ladel used to scoop up tea. The
Chashaku itself would be made by a tea
master who would first split a piece of
bamboo and then meld and decorate it
according to his own asthetics. Apparently
bamboo that had been smoked for many
years above a peasant`s hearth was
particularly prized. The Chashaku was long
regarded as a piece of art (as well as being a
consumer product), and those artifacts used
by tea masters such as Senrikyū can still be
viewed today.
Hanaire (花入)
An object (usually cylindrical) used to
display flowers. This stands in one corner of
a tearoom, or Chashitsu (茶室). As Kadō (花
道) and Chadō are inseperable, Hanaire and
Hanatsutsu (花筒) are regarded as tea
utensils. The `Kaburanashi no Hanaire` (蕪
無の花入) was an celadon porcelain `flower
pot` handed down from Oda Nobunaga to
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and was regarded as
the finest example of a Hanaire in the realm.
Unlike a regular Hanaire which had a
central section that expanded outwards
(much like a turnip or Kabura 蕪), the
Kaburanashi was straight. Popular types of
flower pots, in addition to celadon porcelain
from China, included those made from
copper and wood.
Koyō (古窯)
A region known for its production of
ceramics. Tokoname (常滑), Bizen (備前),
Seto (瀬戸), Iga (伊賀), Shigaraki (信楽), and
Tanba (丹波) were known as the six `Koyō` of
the medieval period. Though they began by
making different sorts of vessels, the
growing popularity of the tea ceremony
produced a windfall for the above regions via
the manufacture of tea utensils.
Shino (志野)
A highly valued form of ceramic that
emphasized the colour white. Supposedly
created under the direction of Furuta Oribe
(古田織部). It was mainly produced in Seto
and Mino (美濃). Such pieces that included
even the simplest of drawings were known
as Eshino (絵志野). Other forms of the art
included Muchi Shino (無地志野), Nezumi
Shino (鼠志野), Aka Shino (赤志野), and
Neriage Shino (練上志野).
Setomono (瀬戸物)
The generic name given to ceramics
produced in the Seto region. Even ceramics
produced outside the region were
occasionally known as Setomono. As there
was little trade in such goods within the
Kinai region and further west, the common
name given to ceramics was Karazu (唐津),
although often these goods did not originate
in Karazu.
Setoguro (瀬戸黒)
A form of ceramics that emphasized the
colour black. Although this art form bore the
name `Seto`, its main area of production lay
in Mino. Also known by the name
Tenshōguro (天正黒), so called because such
pieces were made during the Tenshō era.
Rikyūgonomi (利休好)
A garden, tea room, or tea utensil either
made according to the tea master Rikyū`s
aesthetics, or evaluated by him.
Nishikide (錦手)
Ceramics which had been decorated in a
number of colours, rather than merely left
white. Also known as Akae (赤絵) and Iroe
(色絵). The origin of the name lay in the fact
that the bright colours on the vessels
reminded one of the vibrancy of woven
materials.
Mizusashi (水指)
A utensil used for pouring water into a tea
pot. One famous example of this object was
the Jōō Imogashira no Mizusashi (紹鴎芋頭
の水指), which was regarded as being a
`Tenka ichi`, or `best in the realm`.
Chōsen Tōkō (朝鮮陶工)
Ceramic and other related artisans brought
back to Japan by a number of different
daimyō in the wake of Toyotomi Hideyoshi`s
invasion of the Chōsen peninsula (Korea).
The instructions given to local artisans by
these men lay the foundation for the
development of a number of different
ceramic production areas in Japan, notably
Satsumayaki (薩摩焼, under the Shimazu
family), Hagiyaki (萩焼, under the Mōri),
and Nabeshimayaki (鍋嶋焼, under the
Nabeshima, also known as Imariyaki or 伊
万里焼).
Tenmoku (天目)
A type of tea bowl imported from China. The
name derived from the fact that Zen monks,
after undergoing instruction at Tenmokuzan
(天目山) in Zhejiang province, would bring
these bowls back to Japan with them as
souvenirs.
Ido (井戸)
A type of tea bowl imported from the Chōsen
peninsula. One of the characteristics of this
artwork was its degree of `natural`
appearance, far more so than a Tenmoku.
Thought to have referred to the name of a
person or place, although there is no definite
explanation for this, since it might also have
been so named because it was deep like a
well (or Ido). There were various types of
Ido, including Koido (小井戸), Aoi Ido (青井
戸), and Kokannyū (小貫入), however the
most highly prized of all Ido was the Daiido
(大井戸), which was comparatively rare.