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INTERMEDIATE 2 Resources / RMPS booklets
By the end of the course you should have 4 important booklets about the
Morality in the Modern World unit. They are:
1. Secular Moral Theories Utilitarianism, Humanism
 This booklet contains information about secular (views independent of
religion) approaches to morality.
 It includes the philosophy of Utilitarianism and the idea promoted in
Humanism
2. Religious Approaches to Morality
 This booklet contains information about two religious approaches to
morality.
 It includes a summary of the moral ideas promoted in Christainity and
Buddhism
3. Medical Ethics: The use of Embryos
 What is an embryo?
 When does life begin?
 Different ways embryos are used in medical research (i.e. the use of stem
cells, theraputic cloning, genetic engineering)
 What does the law say about the use of embryos?
 Secular approaches to the use of embryos
 Religious approaches to the use of embryos
 Advantages and disadvantages of each approach
4. Medical Ethics: Euthanasia
 What is a good death?
 When is euthanasia?
 What does the law say about euthanasia?
 Secular approaches to euthanasia?
 Religious approaches to euthanasia?
 Advantages and disadvantages of each approach
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UTILITARIANISM
This moral theory is associated with the British philosophers Jeremy
Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). In modern years
the most famous Utilitarian is the Australian philosopher, Peter Singer
(1946-present).
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill said that there are three key
principles in Utilitarianism. They are …
1. CONSEQUENTIALISM
2. HEDONISM
Can you explain each
principle?
3. EQUITY
Add these three principles all together and you get one of the most famous phrases
in Philosophy.
“An action is right if it produces the greatest good for the greatest
number” THE GREATEST HAPPINESS PRINCIPLE.
So, Utilitarian philosophers are keen to MAXIMISE PLEASURE and MINIMISE
PAIN.
Will what I am about to do add to
or reduce the amount of good in the
world?
Utilitarians believe that it is right to act in a way that is best for a large number of
people rather than considering self-interest or satisfying the desires of a minority.
Different Utilitarian approaches
In the exam you will need to know about three different Utilitarian ideas.
Jeremy Bentham was the first famous Utilitarian philosopher. He
believed that all pain and pleasure could be predicted based on a
belief that all types of pain and pleasure should be considered
equally.
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John Stuart Mill disagreed. He felt that some pleasures were more
important than others. For example, he believed in something called
higher and lower pleasures.

Higher pleasures = e.g. art, reading, philosophy (things that
only humans can take part in)

Lower pleasures = e.g. eating, drinking (things that animals can also do)
___________________________________________________________________
Peter Singer presents a new approach called Preference
Utilitarianism. He was worried that the principle of hedonism may get
in the way of doing the right thing. He believed that there’s more to life
than pleasure. He was also keen to say that human pleasures are not
more important than an animals pleasures.
Singer’s approach says that …

The good is the satisfaction of people’s desires or preferences

The bad is the frustration of people’s desires or preferences

Desires or preferences are not just about pleasure. They may include things
like being healthy, achieving a goal or having friends.

Desires or preferences should not be restricted to only what is good for the
human animal.
___________________________________________________________________
Problems (disadvantages) with utilitarianism:
? There is a problem in deciding how to measure the results of an action.
? It is not easy to predict what the outcome of an action might be.
? What you think might produce the greatest happiness for the greatest
number might actually produce the opposite.
? Sometimes you can do really bad things to a small number of people for the
greater good
___________________________________________________________________
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HUMANISM
The British Humanist Association...1
...is the national charity supporting and representing people who seek to
live good lives without religious or superstitious beliefs. Our vision is of a
world without religious privilege or discrimination. We promote Humanism,
campaign for an open society and a secular state, and work with others of
different beliefs for the common good.
Humanists...
...are atheists and agnostics who make sense of the world using reason, experience
and shared human values. We take responsibility for our actions and base our ethics
on the goals of human welfare, happiness and fulfilment. We seek to make the best
of the one life we have by creating meaning and purpose for ourselves, individually
and together.
Humanism and Utilitarianism
Humanists like utilitarianism because:
 There is no reference to God or religion
 Promotes human reasons as the way to find out what is good
GOD? There is no God. Humans are the highest known beings.
MORAL AUTONOMY? Humans must take responsibility for their actions and
decide for themselves.
4 KEY VALUES of humanism are:
EQUALITY
FAIRNESS
JUSTICE
VALUE OF HUMAN LIFE
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British Humanist Association web-site
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Humanism is ethical …
 Promotes the value and
dignity of all humans
 the right of every human
being to the greatest
possible freedom (as long
as this doesn’t affect the
rights of others).
 Humanists have a duty of
care to all of humanity
including future
generations.
Humanism supports
democracy and human
rights …
 Humanism aims
at the fullest
possible
development of
every human
being.
 It holds that
democracy and
human
development are
matters of right.
Humanism is rational …
 It seeks to use science and free
enquiry as a foundation of any
beliefs.
 Humanists believe that the
solutions to the world's
problems lie in human thought
and action rather than divine
intervention (God’s actions).
The
Fundamentals
of
Modern
Humanism
Humanism is a
response to religion ...
 Humanism
recognises that
knowledge comes
from humans and
not God.
 Humans should
not rely on God
when they make
their moral
decisions.
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RELIGIOUS APPROACHES TO MORALITY
You only need to know about ONE religious response to morality. Learn either Christian
views (this might be the easiest one to remember) or Buddhist views.
Religious Approaches: Christianity
Christianity:
 Rejects egoism as a good guide to living
 Rejects negative values like selfishness, hatred, ignorance, pride and greed
 Promotes of positive values like selflessness, love, purity, peace, universal
love, compassion, generosity and kindness
 Encourages the following rules (precepts) as a guide to life
 Teaches that there is an ideal world that is worth searching for and helping to
create
 Teaches that there is a self but that humans have a distorted view of this that
can be damaging
Christians believe that humans have a problem …

We focus our attention too much on ourselves

We have an exaggertated opinion of our own
importance

We are too often only interested in our own
happiness (sometimes treating others badly as
we do this)

We need to realise that it is only God can make us
happy

We often ignore other people’s needs, wants,
desires, interests and problems because they seem
minutely unimportant next to our own.

We are blind to the needs of others
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Jesus taught that in order to become REAL human beings we must:
Understand that there is a self that is incredibly valuable
Understand that we must stop rebelling against
God
All humans are equally
Don’t overestimate your own importance
Don’t underestimate other people’s importance
Understand that in order to become real human
important … All
humans are made in
the image of God … Al
humans are children of
God
beings we need to be born again
Jesus taught his followers to sacrifice your own wants andesires for the good
of others …
“Love
God with all your heart, soul and mind”
“Love your neighbour as you love yourself” (especially if they are weak and
vunerable humans)
The Golden Rule
“Do to others as you would have
them do to you”
Try to be a GOOD SAMARITAN rather than just someone
who is good at avoiding doing the wrong things.
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Religious Approaches: Buddhism
The search for truth demands an inward journey of discovery.
The Buddha Siddhartha Gautama said there were 4 Noble Truths:
1. Life is full of suffering
2. Suffering is caused by desire
3. To stop suffering you have to stop desiring
4. There are steps that can take you out of suffering (the Eightfold Path)
The fourth Noble Truth simply says that there is a way to be free from suffering. To
be free we must get rid of the idea of the self and find what is real. To do this we
need to go on a journey along an INWARD PATHWAY. The path involves eight
steps. Each step along the eight-step path will help get rid of our mistaken
belief in the self and therefore bring us closer to REALITY.
The Eight-Step Path – achieving Nirvana
1. Right Understanding
2. Right Motive
3. Right Speech
4. Right action
5. Right livelihood
6. Right effort
7. Right mindfulness
8. Right meditation
NIRVANA
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Buddhist teachings: the Dhamma
Buddhists look to the teachings of their founder Siddhatta Gautama when
considering areas of ethical and moral dilemma. These teachings are called the
Dhamma.
The main purpose of Buddha’s teaching was to help people overcome suffering
and achieve happiness.
Buddhist ethics aims to towards ‘egolessness’.
The Dhamma promotes values such as compassion, respect, self-restraint,
honesty and wisdom.
KAMMA …
Good behaviour and actions encourage good kamma,
and vice versa.
Good or positive kamma is helpful for a future
rebecoming; the effects of kamma can take place in
this life or the next.
Actions which promote the self should be avoided as
they can make a negative contribution to kamma.
Buddhists are keen to do only that which will
encourage or create positive kamma. These are
called skilful actions.
Skilful actions and skilful means are developed by
following the Noble Eightfold Path.
According to Buddhists the environment that we live
in is a result of everyone’s kamma. If people have
acted selfishly then they will have created bad or
negative kamma for society.
SKILFUL AND
UNSKILFUL
ACTIONS …
Skilful (kusala)
actions come from
love, generosity and
wisdom, actions
which avoid the
likelihood of
causing suffering.
Unskilful (akusala)
actions spring from
negative qualities
such as greed,
hatred or ignorance
– the three mental
poisons.
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