Grassland Improvement and Fodder Production in Farming Systems of
North West Himalayan Region
B.R.Sood and R.C.Thakur
Department of Agronomy
Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya
Palampur-176062 INDIA
Introduction
The northwestern Himalaya generally represent the Himalayan tract from Kumaon in
Uttar Pradesh to Chitral in Gilgit. The Himalayan ranges situated in this region exhibit a diverse
climate, topography, vegetation, ecology and land use pattern. The annual average rainfall varies
from 80mm in Ladakh to over 200 cm in some parts of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
The vegetation may vary from the scrub in the lower hills to arctic in the Greater Himalaya.
In this region the cultivation of fodders is restricted to the lower hills. Beyond this zone,
the cultivation of fodder is not practical because of adverse climatic and the land constraints.
Almost all the available cultivable land, which is around 10% of the total geographical area, is
used for the cultivation of cereals, pulses and oil seeds. Rangelands and forests, comprising 50 to
70 per cent of the total geographical area are the major sources of forage for sheep, goats, rabbits,
cattle and other animals.
Nomadic graziers (Khadwals, Gaddis, Gujjars, khas) use sub-alpine and alpine pastures
for rearing their livestock. Due to ever-increasing demand of animal products, the livestock
population has increased manyfold, thereby increasing the grazing pressure on these pastures.
This has resulted in the deterioration of the grass cover as well as valuable forest species. As a
result of this a significant area of this natural resource has been covered by noxious plant species
like Aconitum, Anemone, Adonis, Aquilegia, Cincifuga, Clematis, Lepidium, Artimisia,
Ranunclus, Stipa Sorbinia and Sambucus (Misri, 1988). All these factors have led to the
decrease in carrying capacity of these pastures.
In the lower Himalyan region also the natural grasslands are under heavy grazing pressure
and have been badly degraded. Insignificant land area is under fodder cultivation and there is
least scope of increasing this. However, integration of forage crops in the existing crop
sequences, growing food cum fodder crops, intensive forage cultivation, raising improved grasses
on terrace-risers, developing suitable cropping systems for rainfed and irrigated areas, improving
silvi and horti pastoral systems in addition to natural pasture and wasteland improvement are
some of the approaches to solve the forage problem.
The present paper attempts to highlight some of the advanced technologies whose
adoption could lead to a substantial increase in availability of fodder in the region.
93
Improvement of Natural grasslands
Effect of fertilization
None of the natural grasslands in sub -temperate, temperate and sub-alpine regions are
fertilized in any form except dung and urine addition by the grazing animals. This leads to
continuous depletion of plant nutrients resulting in the poor growth of plant-species. Experiments
have revealed that there is a significant impact on the herbage productivity and quality of natural
grasslands following proper fertilization (Table 1 and 2).
Table 1. Effect of N and P application on the productivity of a natural grassland.
Treatments
0
N-levels
0
30
60
90
Mean
6.1
9.9
12.8
13.2
10.5
CD 5%
Forage yield (t/ha)
P2O5 (kg/ha)
30
60
7.9
18.6
20.7
21.1
16.9
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
NxP
Mean
9.5
19.1
20.6
21.3
17.6
7.8
15.9
18.0
18.5
1.1
1.3
0.7
Source: Sood and Sharma, 1996
Table 2. Effect of dose and time of nitrogen application on the productivity of a grassland
Treatments
N-dose
0
40
80
C.D. 5%
Time of N-application
Basal
Two splits
C.D. 5%
Source : Singh, 1995
Fresh Forage yield (t/ha)
10.4
15.2
19.6
0.3
14.7
20.2
0.5
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Herbage yield increased significantly with the application of nitrogen and phosphorus, 60
kg N and 30 kg P2O5/ha was found the best dose of fertilizer (Table-1).
Nitrogen @ 40 and 80 kg ha-1 was applied as basal and two splits (onset of monsoon and
45 days after first dose) in the natural grassland. Forage yield increased significantly with the
increase in nitrogen to the level of 80 kg. Two splits were significantly superior to single
application (Table 2).
For getting higher forage yield and better quality of sown pastures, the improved grass
species need to be fertilized with adequate amount of nitrogen and phosphorus. The experiment
conducted on N x P requirement reveal that application of 80 kg/ha each of nitrogen and
phosphorus was found to be the best dose of fertilizer. The increase in fresh forage yield over
control was 152.4 and 42.9 per cent, respectively. Crude protein content also showed significant
increase with the application of fertilizer (Table 3).
Table 3. Effect of N and P levels on herbage yield and C.P. content of Setaria CV. Narok.
Treatment
N kg/ha
0
40
80
120
P2O5 kg/ha
0
40
80
Forage yield (t/ha)
Fresh
Dry
C.P. (%)
12.2
22.4
30.8
31.0
3.6
6.1
8.8
8.9
8.7
9.8
10.2
10.9
19.1
25.9
27.3
5.4
7.3
7.9
9.6
9.9
10.2
Source: Sood and Bhandari, 1992.
Effect of grass/legume introduction
Introduction of improved grass/legume species in the native vegetation not only helps in
increasing total biomass production but also improve the quantity of the produce. However, the
introduction of improved species in the existing vegetation particularly with seed is not an easy
task, unless initial competition from the native vegetation is checked by some means. In view of
sloppy terrain in hill soil work may lead to soil and nutrients losses. However, the sod killing
herbicides like paraquat has shown good results. (Table 4)
95
Table 4. Impact of Siratro introduction on the productivity of a natural grassland.
Treatment
Method of introduction
M1
After paraquat spray
(whole plot)
M2
After burning
M3
Without removal of
existing vegetation
M4
After paraquat spray
in 15 cm bands
M5
No introduction
Source: Sood and Singh, 1986
Forage yield (t/ha)
Fresh
Dry
16.4
7.2
15.3
14.1
6.6
6.0
17.7
7.8
12.4
5.4
Introduction of Siratro after paraquat spray in 15-cm bands @ 0.6 L/ha was found to be the best
method of introduction of Siratro in the existing vegetation. It increased fresh forage yield by
26.8% over no introduction (Table 4).
Table 5. Effect of introduction techniques on the forage yield of Guinea and Setaria grass
under natural grassland.
Treatment
Grass species
1.
Guinea (PGG-19)
2.
Guinea (PGG-9)
3.
Setaria (PSS-1)
4.
Local spp.
Introduction techniques
1.
After scraping existing vegetation 15
cm band
2.
After paraquat spray in 15 cm band
3.
In pits (15 cm dia)
Source : Sood and Kumar, 1996
Forage yield (t/ha)
Fresh
Dry
21.1
25.5
38.7
12.9
4.9
5.8
8.5
3.5
25.4
5.8
29.7
32.1
6.7
6.8
Introduction of Setaria (PSS-1) resulted in 51.8 and 216.8 per cent higher fresh forage
yield over Guinea (PGG-9) and control (no introduction), respectively. Introduction in pits 15cm dia at a distance of 40-x 40-cm was found the best technique closely followed by paraquat
killing in 15 cm bands (Table 5).
The suitable grass and legume species identified for the introduction in natural grasslands
in different agroclimatic zones of Himachal Pradesh is given in (Table 6).
96
Table 6. Grass and legume species for different Agroclimatic zones
Zone
Sub-tropical 300-1800 m
Species
Grass
Temperate 1800-3200 m
Legume
a. Humid
Grass
Legume
b. Dry
Alpine zone (above 3200
m)
Source: Katoch ET al., 1992
Setaria anceps, Panicum maximum, Napier
bajra hybrids, Pennisetum orientale
Siratro, Desmodium
Dactylis glomerata, Bromus spp., Phleum
pratense
Trifolium repens, Trifolium pratense
Agropyron spp. Medicago spp.
Poa bulbosum, Agrostis stolonifera and
Onobrychis vicifolia
Cutting and grazing
Generally, uncontrolled and continuous grazing is prevalent in most of the grasslands
throughout the northwestern Himalayas. Though rotational system of grazing gives better results
but it is not so easy to adopt it on large scale in hilly situations. The most desirable system of
grazing would be that of periodic or deferred grazing by limiting the number of livestock on the
basis of carrying capacity of grasslands. This system would give a better chance for self-seeding
and stand recovery. However, it has been found that cut and carry system provides higher
production of biomass (Table 7.)
Table 7. Effect of cutting and grazing management on composition and forage yield of
grasslands.
Management System
Continuous grazing
Harvested at 4-week interval
Harvested two time July 30 and
Oct. 30
C.D. 5%
Source: Singh, 1995
Composition
Imperata sp. Digitaria, Cynodon,
Echinochloa, carex
Hetropogon, Cynodon, Imperata,
Carex, Chrysopogon
Hetropogon, Chrysopogon, Themeda,
Arundinella, Atylosia, Trifolium
Yield (t/ha)
5.3
9.18
12.2
3.4
Hortipastoral System
There is considerable area under orchards in temperate regions. Inter spaces between
fruit trees could be utilized for the production of fodder by growing perennial grasses and
97
legumes depending upon the topography, age of the trees and spacing etc. The cultivation of
legumes would be more desirable because of their nitrogen fixing ability.
Table 8 Fodder production under hortipasture system
Species
Seed rate kg/ha
Dactylis +
Red clover
Ryegrass +
Red clover
Brome grass+
Red clover
Timothy +
Sub-clover
Source: Misri, 1998
5
4
5
4
15
4
4
50
Fertilizer (kg/ha)
90 N
60 P2O5
120 N
90 P2O5
90 N
60 P2O5
90 N
60 P2O5
Green forage yield
(t/ha)
42.0
48.0
39.0
35.0
Various combinations of grasses and legumes were tried in an apple orchard. The seeds
of grasses and legumes were sown in alternate rows, 30 cm apart. All the species excepting subclover were perennial and with minimum inputs providing fodder for a longer period (Table 8).
In Shimla district of Himachal Pradesh, plantation of Fescue grass in apple orchard gave
6.7-t green fodder yield compared to 1.1 t/ha from local grasses. Similarly in U.P. hills, Singh,
(1995) reported that rye and orchard grass were found to be the best grass species and red and
white clovers and Lucerne the best perennial legume for introduction in apple orchards. Soil N
build up was maximum with white clover introduction.
Fodder tree plantation
The integrated approach of growing grasses and fodder crops under silvipasture and agroforestry
systems is one of the major alternatives to augment fodder and fuel wood production. The
experiments conducted at VPKAS Almora revealed that Digitaria decumbans; Pennisetum
clandestinum and Chloris gayana were the promising grass species, which can be grown
successfully under pine and deodar plantations. The performance of local grass species was the
poorest (Table 9).
In another experiment under improved silvipastoral system in sub-temperate region of
H.P., it was found that introduction of Setaria + Siratro in-between the two double hedge rows
(50 x 50 cm) of Robinia, spaced 10 m apart recorded 2.74 times higher carrying capacity over
control (Table 10).
98
Table 9. Yield performance of improved and local grass species under Pine and Deodar
trees
Grass species
Pangola
Rhodes
Para
Guinea
Kikyu
Local
Source: Koranne and Singh, 1989
Forage yield (t/ha)
Pine trees
Deodar trees
14.01
13.66
4.78
3.06
0.48
2.06
0.41
2.04
6.42
0.25
0.22
Table 10. Dry matter production and carrying capacity of improved grassland and a silvipastoral system.
Treatment
Dry matter (t/ha)
Control
Control+Setaria
Control+Setaria+Siratro
Control+Setaria+Siratro +Leucaena
Control+Setaria+Siratro +Robinia
Source: Anonymous, 1995.
6.9
15.1(2.2+12.9)
15.5(2.1+12.9+0.5)
17.1(2.3+14.2+0.4+0.2)
18.4(2.4+14.5+0.6+0.9)
Carrying capacity
Au/ha/annum
2.7
6.6
6.1
7.2
7.4
Fodder Production in Farming Systems
Every household in the hills rear different kinds of animals for various purposes but for
maintaining the milch animals it is essential to put some part of the cultivable land under forage
crops. Following approaches are being proposed in view of their wider acceptability by the
farming communities.
Forage Production on Terrace Riser/Bunds
A non-competitive land use system for the forage production in the hills is to grow
improved grasses on terrace bunds and risers. There is added advantage to produce forge without
any fertilizer or manure since it is available from the cropped terrace. The field experiments
conducted in U.P. hills reveal that growing grasses on terrace riser was found significantly
beneficial for increasing the grain yield of rice and wheat over control. The performance of
different improved grass species was statistically similar but superior to local species (Table 11).
99
Table 11. Performance of some grasses on terrace risers and their effect on main crops.
Terrace grasses
Nandi grass
Guinea grass
Hybrid Napier
Rhode grass
Indian couch grass
Control
C.D. 5%
Source: Singh, 1995.
Grain yield (t/ha)
Rice
Wheat
1.04
1.14
1.01
1.16
1.08
1.21
0.98
1.04
0.91
1.02
0.97
0.98
NS
NS
Forage yield of grasses
(t/ha)
10.8
10.4
15.0
9.9
8.6
1.2
0.6
Raising forage crops in food crop sequences
The performance of oat + shaftal mixture was assessed in rice based cropping system in
mid Himalyan region at two farming situations. At both the farming situations Rice-oat+shaftal
performed second best after Rice-Radish-Onion sequence. Its performance over the traditional
Rice-Wheat system was far better (Table 12).
Table 12. Performance of Oat+Shaftal mixture in rice based cropping system
Crop sequence
Farming situation- Gross
Farming situation-II
I (6-Trials)
return
(6-Trials)
(Rs/ha)
Yield q/ha
Yield q/ha
Kharif
Rabi
Kharif
Rabi
Rice-Wheat
43.8
58.1
56769
45.2
47.8
Rice-Radish-Onion 44.3-172.5 227.2 116176
44.5-105.9
209.8
Rice-Lentil
43.9
17.64 46621
45.0
13.8
Rice-Oat+Shaftal
44.8
782.6 84993
44.7
728.5
Farming Situation-I (Bajaura) Kullu - Tharash, Kalibehar, Jia
Farming Situation-II (Mandi)
- Chail Chowk, Pangna, Karsog
Source: Anonymous, 1996-97
Gross
return
(Rs/ha)
51288
101074
419098
80648
Fodder Cropping Systems for rainfed area
Oat and barley alongwith pea and mustard have been identified, as the best winter forage
while maize is the best summer crop under rainfed farming. However, farmers are generally
reluctant to raise maize as a fodder crop for the reason that this being the staple food crop of
hills. Therefore, an attempt was made to serve both the purposes of food and fodder
simultaneously from this crop. Oat and barley alongwith pea and mustard have been identified as
100
the best winter forages (Table 13) while maize is the best forage crop during summer under
rainfed conditions. Maize could be cultivated for both grain and forage (Table 14)
Table 13. Winter forage cropping system for rainfed areas.
Treatment
Forage yield (t/ha)
Fresh
Dry
Fodder crops
Oat
Barley
Oat+Barley
Cropping Systems
Fodder crops pure
Fodder crops+pea
Fodder crops+sarson
Source: Kumar and Sood, 1993.
C.P. Yield (t/ha)
34.7
28.9
29.1
8.0
6.6
5.9
1.01
0.83
0.74
30.8
32.6
31.2
7.2
7.5
7.0
0.69
1.10
0.77
Table 14. Grain fresh fodder and stover yield of maize (Rainfed).
Treatment
Grain
Nitrogen (kg/ha)
90
112.5
135.0
Harvesting stages
60 DAS
75 DAS
Standard practices
C.D. 5%
Source: Anon., 1991
Yield (t/ha)
Fresh fodder
Stover
3.4
3.9
4.2
18.9
21.2
22.6
8.8
9.5
9.9
3.8
3.2
4.6
0.6
18.9
22.9
1.6
9.4
9.0
9.8
1.5
Intensive Forage Production systems
The year round fodder supply is very important in order to stabilize animal production
especially in the milk-shed areas and also for small farmers who maintain dairy animals as a
regular source of income. Some of the best forage crop rotations standardized for the northwestern Himalayan region are given in Table 16.
101
Table 15. Forage yield and economics of different intensive forage crop rotations (Average
over 5 years).
Sr.
No.
1.
Crop rotations
Maize+CowpeaBerseem+Oat
Green forage
yield t/ha
94.2
Dry forage yield
t/ha
20.1
Net Returns
Rs/ha
18252
2.
Teosinte+VelvetbeanOat+pea
79.2
15.3
14754
3.
Napier Bajra hybrid+
velvetbeanBerseem+Sarson
129.9
25.3
26995
4.
Napier Bajra HybridTurnip-Oat+Vetch
86.1
17.4
15212
5.
Setaria intercropped with
soybean (kharif) followed
by berseem (winter)
83.6
17.8
17778
6.
Maize+Velvet beanLucerne+berseem
85.4
15.8
16537
Sorghum+CowpeaBerseem+Sarson
Source: Sood and Bhandari, 1987
86.3
17.8
17124
7.
Inter Cropped/mixed Cropping Systems
Intercropping /mixed cropping systems of forge production has proved advantageous
from biomass production and quality point of view. The system also helps in economising the
fertilizer use. The studies conducted at Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur
indicated that inter cropping of sorghum with legumes produced 26.5 per cent higher green
forage yield over sorghum alone. This system also resulted in higher crude protein content and
in-vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) (Table 16).
102
Table 16. Forage yield, crude protein content and in vitro dry matter digestibility.
Treatment
Forage yield (t/ha)
Green
Dry
Intercropping System
Sorghum + Velvetbean
26.8
Sorghum+cowpea
24.5
Sorghum+soybean
25.2
Sorghum alone
20.2
Source: Sood and Sharma, 1992
9.1
8.1
8.4
7.2
C.P. content
(%)
IVDMD
(%)
11.9
12.1
12.3
7.1
55.4
56.5
57.6
49.6
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