ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНТСТВО ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ
Государственное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
«ВОРОНЕЖСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»
Кафедра английского языка
УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЙ КОМПЛЕКС
по дисциплине «Лексикология»
Заочное отделение
для специальности – 050303 «иностранный язык»
Утвержден на заседании кафедры
английского языка
« 30 » августа 2006г.,
протоколом № 1.
Воронеж – 2006
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНЫЙ СТАНДАРТ
ВЫСШЕГО ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
Специальность
033200 \ 050303 Иностранный язык
Квалификация
учитель иностранного языка
«…ДПП.Ф.04 – Лексикология
Предмет лексикологии. Слово - основная структурно-семантическая
единица языка. Теория знака и слово. Функции слова. Лексическое и
грамматическое значения слова. Типы лексических значений.
Роль семантической эволюции слов в обогащении словарного состава.
Многозначность и однозначность слов. Значение и употребление слов. Роль
словообразования в пополнении словарного состава. Роль заимствования в
обогащении словарного состава. Источники заимствований. Устойчивые
словосочетания
фразеологического
и
нефразеологического
характера.
Классификация фразеологических единиц. Лексические пласты и группы в
словарном
составе
языка
и
их
роль
в
процессе
коммуникации.
Территориальная и социальная дифференциация лексики. Неологизмы,
архаизмы и историзмы. Классификация синонимов. Типология антонимов и
омонимов. Основные типы словарей…».
ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНТСТВО ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ
Государственное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
«ВОРОНЕЖСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»
Кафедра английского языка
Программа учебной дисциплины
«Лексикология»
для специальности – 050303 «иностранный язык»
Всего: 212
из них: аудиторных - 32
лекционных – 16
практических - 16
самостоятельной работы - 180
Форма отчетности: экзамен
Составитель:
Аникеева Т. Р.
Воронеж – 2006
Пояснительная записка
Курс лексикологии современного языка имеет цель дать студентам
знания, теоретически обобщающие и систематизирующие сведения о
словарном составе современного английского языка. Он изучается в ходе 6
семестра студентов дневного и заочного отделений.
В курсе лекций рассматриваются основные наиболее сложные
в
теоретическом плане вопросы. Описание словарного состава современного
английского
языка
основывается
на
единстве
диахронического
и
синхронического подходов к рассматриваемым явлениям.
На
семинарских
занятиях
обсуждаются
самостоятельно
изученные
студентами вопросы, достаточно полно освященные в учебной литературе.
Лекции читаются и семинары проводятся на английском языке.
Задачи обучения
К концу прохождения данного курса студенты должны:
1) уметь самостоятельно делать выводы и обобщения из наблюдений
над фактическим материалом. Реферировать научную литературу по
изучаемым темам;
2) уметь грамотно работать со словарями различного типа;
3) уметь выполнять практические упражнения по изучаемым темам.
Формы контроля
Качество знаний контролируется следующим образом:
А. Текущий контроль.
Текущий контроль заключается
в выполнении тестовых заданий и
упражнений, связанных с тематикой курса.
Б. Итоговый контроль.
В конце семестра студенты сдают экзамен, который проходит в виде
собеседования. Им предлагаются 3 вопроса (2 теоретических и 1
практический).
Примеры экзаменационных вопросов и заданий:
1. Расскажите об основных источниках пополнения словарного состава
английского языка.
2. Что такое морфема?
3. Определите способ образования данных слов: lady-killer, lab,
demonstration, Anglo-Saxon, a.m., bedroom, go-getter.
Тематический план
№№
п/п
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Наименование разделов и
тем
Всего часов
В том числе
в
аудиторных
трудоемкост всего практ. лек
и
ц.
2
3
4
5
6
Введение в лексикологию,
24
4
2
2
словообразование
Аффиксация,
29
4
2
2
словосложение
Конверсия, сокращение
29
4
2
2
Этимологические основы
24
4
2
2
английской лексики
Введение в семасиологию,
29
4
2
2
типы значений слов.
Полисемия, омонимия
Семантические
29
4
2
2
группировки слов.
Фразеологические
единицы
Национальные варианты
24
4
2
2
английского языка
Развитие и пополнение
24
4
2
2
английской лексики в 20
веке
ИТОГО:
212
32
16
16
СР
С
7
20
25
25
20
25
25
20
20
180
Содержание обучения
Тема 1. Введение в лексикологию.
В теме рассматриваются задачи лексикологии, ее теоретическое и
практическое значение, связь с другими разделами языкознания, место в
обучении иностранным языкам в вузе и школе, систематичность лексики,
синтагматические и парадигматические отношения, проблемы теории слова.
Тема 2. Структура английского слова и вопросы словообразования.
В теме рассматриваются морфологическая структура английского слова,
морфемы и алломорфы, корень и основа; простые, производные и сложные
слова,
принципы
морфемного
и
словообразовательного
анализа,
продуктивность словообразовательных средств.
Тема 3. Аффиксация.
В теме рассматриваются префиксы и суффиксы, принципы их
классификации, исконные и заимствованные аффиксы, продуктивные и
непродуктивные, семантические функции: многозначность, синонимия и
омонимия аффиксов; сопоставление английской и русской аффиксации.
Тема 4. Словосложение.
В теме рассматривается основные критерии выделения сложных слов,
сопоставление английских и русских сложных слов.
Тема 5. Конверсия.
В теме рассматривается сущность конверсии и различные точки зрения
на эту сущность, место конверсии как способа словообразования в различных
частях речи, семантические отношения слов в конверсионных парах, типы
конверсии, случаи окказиональной конверсии.
Тема 6. Сокращение слов и второстепенные способы словообразования.
В теме рассматриваются статус сокращенных слов, их соотношение с
синонимией
и
вариантностью,
типы
сокращений,
взаимодействие
сокращений с эллипсисом, сопоставление английских и русских сокращений;
а также второстепенные способы словообразования, включая обратное
словообразование, сопоставление с русским языком.
Тема 7. Этимологические основы английской лексики.
Генетическая разнородность английской лексики. Основные признаки
исконных слов. Национальные группы заимствований и их роль в
формировании и развитии английского словарного состава. Особенности
ассимиляции заимствованных слов. Сопоставление этимологических основ
английской и русской лексики.
Тема 8. Введение в семасиологию и типологию значений.
Природа и значение слова, лексическое и грамматическое значение,
семема и семы, значение, контекст и сочетаемость, семантическая структура
соотносительных
слов
в
разных
языках,
рефлексиональный
и
функциональный подходы к анализу значения.
Тема 9. Изменение значения, полисемия и омонимия.
Историческая
изменчивость
семантической
структуры
слова.
Лингвистический и экстралингвистический процессы, лежащие в основе
семантических процессов. Перенос значения по сходству и смежности;
расширение и сужение значения. Мелиорация и пейоризация значения.
Полисемия и омонимия; классификация омонимов.
Тема 10. Семантические группировки слов.
Моносемантические и полисемантические слова, синонимы, антонимы,
омонимы, типонимы. Семантические поля и тематические группы слов.
Тема 11. Проблемы словосочетаний и валентности.
Типы словосочетаний в английском языке. Свободные словосочетания и
устойчивые
обороты.
Лексическая
и
грамматическая
валентность.
Лексическая валентность и нормы сочетаемости в английском и русском
языках.
Тема 12. Фразеологические единицы.
Устойчивые словосочетание, нефразеологического характера и их
классификация. Предмет фразеологии и определение фразеологической
единицы,
устойчивость,
раздельнооформленность
и
переосмысления
значения как основного критерия фразеологической единицы; различные
классификации
фразеологических
единиц,
структурные
типы
ФЕ,
вариантность и синонимия; источники возникновения ФЕ.
Тема 13. Национальные варианты английского языка.
Соотношение понятий языка, варианта и диалекта, особенности
британского литературного стандарта и региональные и социальные
диалекты ВЕ; формирование и развитие американского варианта английского
языка, основные лексические и иные особенности АЕ; различия в значении
ряда английских слов в ВЕ и АЕ. Некоторые черты английского языка в
Канаде и Австралии.
Тема 14. Развитие и пополнение английской лексики в XX в.
В теме рассматриваются рост и развитие английской лексики, его
устойчивые элементы, устаревшие и новые (архаизмы и неологизмы);
источники
и
пути
словообразование
пополнения
(аффиксация,
английского
словаря
словосложение,
в
XX
в.
конверсия
–
и
фразообразование). Отмечено также место заимствований в пополнении
английской лексики в XX в.
РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ ПО ОРГАНИЗАЦИИ
САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНОЙ РАБОТЫ СТУДЕНТОВ
Содержание самостоятельной работы студентов по теоретическому
курсу «Лексикология» (который в настоящее время довольно необычно
входит в состав комплексного курса «Древние языки») включает:
1. Индивидуальное изучение рекомендованной литературы.
2. Подготовку к семинарам для обсуждения теоретических вопросов и
выполнения практических упражнений.
3. Учебно-исследовательскую
работу
студентов,
прежде
всего,
написание курсовых работ по лексикологии, а также работу наиболее
активных и любознательных студентов по написанию рефератов вне
курсовых работ и учебного плана.
Последняя категория студентов, к сожалению, весьма незначительна,
но все же имеется (например, в 1996-1997 учебном году можно отметить
студентов 3 курса О. Захарову и М. Извекову, которые в процессе слушания
курса лексикологии на 2 курсе и после него пожелали работать над
рефератами по лексикологии и стилистике).
В центре самостоятельной работы студентов по курсу «Лексикология»
находится индивидуальная работа студентов по подготовке к семинарам и
участие в них. На семинары выносятся узловые вопросы курса. Для
творческого проведения семинаров особое внимание уделяется следующим
вопросам:
1. Сопоставление различных точек зрения и подходов к тем или иным
явлениям лексикологии, например, к конверсии.
2. Сопоставление с аналогичными или близкими явлениями в русском
языке (например, со словосложением или сокращением, а так же с
ролью заимствования в обоих языках).
3. Формулировка
активизировать
«провокационных»
творческое
вопросов,
мышление
призванных
студентов
и
их
аргументированное опровержение некорректных утверждений.
Активизации самостоятельной работы студентов служит также
вдумчивый отбор тем студенческих курсовых работ и рефератов,
направленный на развитие простейших навыков исследовательской работы, а
не только на составление обзора литературы по какому-то вопросу.
Вопросы к семинарским заданиям
Seminar #1.
Major problems of lexicology. The origin of English words.
1. The object of lexicology. The relations of lexicology and other linguistic
sciences.
2. The notion of the lexical system.
3. Some problems of the theory of words. Types of motivation.
4. The etymological diversity of the English vocabulary.
5. Words of native origin.
6. General features of borrowings.
7. The assimilation of borrowings.
8. Interrelation between native words and borrowings.
9. International words.
Seminar #2.
The Structure and Formation of English Words. Affixation.
1.
Types of morphemes.
2.
Word-structure and its development. The root, the stem and patterns of
word-structure.
3.
Peculiarities and types of word-formation.
4.
General problems of affixation.
5.
Peculiarities of English prefixes.
6.
Classification of English suffixes.
7.
Polysemy, homonymy and synonymy of derivational affixes.
8.
Productivity and origin of derivational affixes.
Seminar #3.
Word-compounding. Conversion.
1.
General features of word-compounding.
2.
Structural and semantic peculiarities of English compounds.
3.
Classification of compounds.
4.
The meaning of compounds.
5.
Motivation of English compounds.
6.
Special groups of compounds.
7.
General problems of conversion in English.
8.
Treatment of conversion in linguistic literature.
9.
Semantic relations between conversion pairs.
10.
Sources and productivity of conversion.
Seminar #4.
Semantic Peculiarity of English Words.
1. General problems of semasiology.
2. Types of meanings.
3. Change of meaning.
4. Polysemy and homonymy.
5. Major lexical groups of words.
Литература к семинарам.
Семинар №1.
1)Антрушина Г.Б. Лексикология английского языка: Учеб. пособие для
студентов/Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В. Афанасьева, Н.Н. Морозова. – 3-е изд.,
стереотип. – М.: Дрофа, 2001. – С. 44 -77.
2)Аракин В.Д. Очерки по истории английского языка/В.Д. Аракин. – М.,
1955.
3)Харитончик З.А. Лексикология английского языка/З.А. Харитончик. –
Минск, 1992.
4)Ярцева В.Н. Развитие национального литературного английского
языка/В.Н. Ярцева. – М., 1969.
Семинар №2.
1)Антрушина Г.Б. Лексикология английского языка: Учеб. пособие для
студентов/Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В. Афанасьева, Н.Н. Морозова. – 3-е изд.,
стереотип. – М.: Дрофа, 2001. – С. 78 -86.
2)Арнольд И.В. Лексикология английского языка/И.В. Арнольд. – 3-е изд., на
англ. яз. – М., 1990. – С. 87-102
3)Распопов И.П. Лекции по филологии и лексикологии/И.П. Распопов. –
Воронеж: Изд-во ВГУ, 1986. – 148 с.
4)Смирницкий А.И. Лексикология английского языка/А.И. Смирницкий. –
М., 1956.
5)Харитончик З.А. Лексикология английского языка/З.А. Харитончик. –
Минск, 1992.
Семинар №3.
1)Антрушина Г.Б. Лексикология английского языка: Учеб. пособие для
студентов/Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В. Афанасьева, Н.Н. Морозова. – 3-е изд.,
стереотип. – М.: Дрофа, 2001. – С. 86 - 114.
2)Арнольд И.В. Лексикология английского языка/И.В. Арнольд. – 3-е изд., на
англ. яз. – М., 1990. – С. 60-81, 153-164.
3)Распопов И.П. Лекции по филологии и лексикологии/И.П. Распопов. –
Воронеж: Изд-во ВГУ, 1986. – 148 с.
4)Смирницкий А.И. Лексикология английского языка/А.И. Смирницкий. –
М., 1956. – С. 83-100.
5)Харитончик З.А. Лексикология английского языка/З.А. Харитончик. –
Минск, 1992.
Семинар №4.
1)Антрушина Г.Б. Лексикология английского языка: Учеб. пособие для
студентов/Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В. Афанасьева, Н.Н. Морозова. – 3-е изд.,
стереотип. – М.: Дрофа, 2001. – С. 129-224.
2)Арнольд И.В. Лексикология английского языка/И.В. Арнольд. – 3-е изд., на
англ. яз. – М., 1990.
3)Смирницкий А.И. Лексикология английского языка/А.И. Смирницкий. –
М., 1956.
Темы докладов
1. Borrowings from Romanic languages.
2. English derivation.
3. English non-pattern word-formation.
4. English Shortenings.
5. Semantic fields and thematic groups.
6. English euphemisms.
7. Polysemy in English.
8. Hyponyms and hyperonyms.
9. English and Russian phraseology.
10.Australian and Canadian English.
11.American English.
12.British English.
13.Semantic development of English words.
14.English Neologisms of the 20th century.
15.The etymology of English affixes.
16.Metaphor and metonymy in English.
17.The historical aspect of English borrowings.
18.Classifications of phraseological units.
19.Word theory in linguistics.
20.Stylistic synonymy.
21.Paradigmatic relations in the lexical system.
22.Folk etymology in Russian and English.
23.Non-productive ways of word-formation in English.
24.English proverbs and sayings.
25.English lexicography.
План лекций
Shortening
1. Two approaches the correlation of a shortened word with its prototype
2. Classification: apocope, aphaeresis, syncope,
3. Ellipsis
4. Blending (fusion)
5. Abbreviations. Acronyms
Semaseology
1. Seme. Sememe.
2. Referential and functional approaches.
3. Types of mg: lexical and grammatical; denotational and connotational.
4. Change of meaning: narrowing and widening of meaning.
5. Processes of generalization and specialization.
Polysemy
1. Diachronical and synchronical approaches
2. Role of a context in understanding a word: lexical, grammatical, extralinguistic.
3. Metaphor: anthropomorphic, dead /live, spread .
4. Metonymy, synecdoche.
Homonymy
1. Homonyms proper.
2. Homophones
3. Paronyms
4. Diachronical and synchronical approaches
5. Difference from polysemy
6. Homonymy in morphology and syntax
Relations of Similarity and Polarity
Synonyms
1. Difference between pairs of synonyms: spheres of application, origin (native
– borrowed), stylistic application. Relations of inclusion between pairs of
synonyms. Quasi-synonyms.
2. Basis for synonymy: denotational and connotational meaning.
3. Recognition of synonyms: criterion of referent, criterion of
interchangeability.
4. Synonymy in morphemes, phrases, sentences.
Antonyms
1. Basis for antonymy: degree of a quality, direction of action, polar sites in
space and time. Non-nominative types of mg.
Other types of words based on polarity of meaning. Two-member opposition:
complementary antonyms. Reverse relations: reversives (conversives).
Relations of inclusion
1. Hyponymy – Hyperonymy
Other groups of wds
1. Lexico-grammatical group
2. Semantic field
3. Terminology
Phraseology
1. Terminology: set expressions, phrases, phraseological units, idioms,
collocations.
2. Free word groups / phraseological units.
3. Classification: phraseological fusions, phraseological unities,
phraseological collocations
4. National peculiarities of phraseological units.
5. Translation
6. International phraseological units
7. Criterion to differentiate fixed and free word groups.
8.
Synonymic and antonymic pairs of phrases.
Variants and dialects of the English language.
1. Different variants and dialects of English.
2. Status of British and American English
3. History of American English
4. Influences from the different cultures and languages
American English
1. Peculiarities in phonetics.
2. Peculiarities in spelling.
3. Peculiarities in vocabulary. Reasons. Different groups of Americanisms.
4. Peculiarities in grammar.
КОНСПЕКТЫ ЛЕКЦИЙ
A Course in Modern English Lexicology. The English Word.
1. The object of lexicology.
2. The notion of the lexical system.
3. Some problems of the theory of words. Types of motivation.
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics which studies words and their usage.
Lexicology studies the meaning of a word, its structure, combinability, its
formation. It investigates different types of word groups. General lexicology
studies linguistic laws, rules, processes in general, characteristic of various
languages. Special lexicology either deals with a certain language. Or it studies the
language from other aspects (historical, applied, descriptive, etc.).
Lexicology is connected with Grammar, Phonetics, Stylistics, History of this or
that language and other linguistic disciplines.
Any language is also a system. For example, the significance of the word hand
depends on its relationship with the word arm. Secondly, it’s a lexical system
because it’s a system of words.
Within the system of the English language lexical units form some principal types
of relationships: syntagmatic and paradigmatic (e.g. within such groups as
synonyms, antonyms).
The basic unit of the lexicology is the word. To give definition to the word is a
very difficult task as the word has many different aspects: it has its own sound
form and some grammar forms. Also words are units of speech, they serve the
purposes of human communication.
The modern approach to word studies distinguishes the external and the internal
structures of the word. By the external structure of the word we mean its
morphological structure: prefixes, suffixes, roots, etc. The internal structure of the
word is its meaning or its semantic structure. The area of lexicology specializing in
the semantic studies of the word is called semantics.
Another structural aspect of the word is its unity (единство). There are about 500
thousand words in the English language.
The question of motivation is connected with the meaning of a word. The majority
of words do not show any motivation. However if it exists, it is of three types: 1)
phonetic; 2) morphological (structural); 3) semantic.
Very often we meet words with mixed motivation.
The Origin of English Words
1)The etymological diversity of the English vocabulary.
2)Words of native origin.
3)General features of borrowings.
4)The assimilation of borrowings.
5)Interrelation between native words and borrowings.
6)International words.
The English vocabulary contains a huge number of words of foreign origin.
Modern scholars suppose that borrowed words in the English language make about
65-70%. Mostly they come from Latin, French. About 650 words were borrowed
from Scandinavian languages.
The character of borrowings depends on the period of British history when they
were borrowed.
There can be an original (primary) language and a transmitting one.
E.g. table → Latin (original – tabula) → French (trans.) → English.
There can be two ways of borrowing words: 1)while talking/ communicating; 2)in
an indirect way (through literature).
Native words make the backbone of the English language, though they are few in
number. Sometimes native words are called Old-English or Anglo-Saxon. They
form 2 groups: of common Indo-European origin; of common Germanic origin.
Sometimes scientists distinguish words of the English proper element – words that
don’t have similar representatives in other Indo-European or Germanic languages
(their roots or other elements are different). Native words in general are the most
active part of the vocabulary. Among the 500 most frequently used English words
more than 80% are of native origin. They are often used in word-building (wordformation).
Borrowings can be identified by their structural, phonetical, grammatical features.
Foe example, you can recognize words of Latin and French origin by certain
suffixes, prefixes or endings.
Borrowings undergo a process of adaptation being adjusted to the rules of the
receiving language.
Grammatical adaptation consists in a complete change of the former paradigm (the
system of the grammatical forms) of the borrowed word.
Lexical (semantic) assimilation deals with changes in the semantic structure of a
word, in its meaning.
Phonetical assimilation is reflected in changes of the sound-form and stress.
Some words were adopted by the language through folk etymology (ironical
misunderstanding of the meaning of a word).
There can be distinguished: -completely-assimilated borrowings (denizens); -late
borrowings (aliens); -barbarisms (not quite assimilated, with a distinct stylistic
colour).
Borrowed words caused some important changes in the make-up of the English
vocabulary. Some borrowings became so popular that completely replaced native
words. Borrowed words also influenced specialization of synonyms. Borrowed
words are higher in style, they sound bookish. They are learned words or terms.
The difference can be seen if we compare French and Scandinavian loans
(borrowed words). Words of Scandinavian origin are democratic in character, that
is, homely expressions of everyday importance.
If we look at other relations between native and borrowed words, we will come
across etymological doublets. These are words originating from the same
etymological source, but differing in phonemic shape and in meaning.
There can be even etymological triplets (groups of three words of common root).
Very often a word is borrowed by several languages. Such words are called
international. Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin.
Among international words we should distinguish translator’s false friends and
translation-loans.
The Structure and Formation of English Words
1)Types of morphemes.
2)Word-structure and its development. The root, the stem and patterns of wordstructure.
3)Peculiarities and types of word-formation.
A lot of (English) words have a composite structure; they consist of elements
called morphemes.
Morphemes – the smallest meaningful units in a language (which consist of a word
or part of a word that cannot be divided without losing its meaning) (Longman);
e.g. gun + fight + er – 3 morphemes.
All morphemes are subdivided into 2 large classes: root morphemes and
affixational morphemes. Affixational morphemes include suffixes and prefixes.
Some words consist only of one root morpheme. They are called root words. There
are a lot of root words in the English language thanks to the type of word-building
called conversion.
Naturally root morphemes make words, but affixational morphemes can’t make
words as a rule. The root morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word. They
contain the main lexical meaning of the word.
Affixational morphemes include derivational affixes (such as –er, -or, -ness and so
on), inflexional affixes (which carry the grammatical meaning of the word –
looked, the girl’s smile).
Also morphemes can be free and bound. Free morphemes can function
independently, as independent words. Usually they are root morphemes, though
there can be exceptions.
There can be morphemes which have different phonemic shapes. Such elements
are called allomorphs.
Speaking about the structure of words, it depends on different morphemes which
they include. According to their structure (English) words are classified into:
1)root words (cat);
2)derived words (built with the help of some derivational affixes – beautiful);
3)compound words (consist of at least 2 root morphemes – football);
4)compound derivatives (include not only root morphemes, but also derivational
ones – pig-headed).
The largest class of the 4 above will be derived words.
Apart from some certain structure, each word has a paradigm – the system of all its
forms (mostly grammatical).
There are also variants of words. These variants form 2 groups:
1)lexico-semantic variants of polysemantic words;
2) phonetic and morphological variants.
The structure of a word undergoes changes, it can be developed. Some morphemes
can be fused (joined) or lost in the course of time.
As for the notion of the root of the word, it’s clear. We need another notion to
speak about patterns of word-structure. The stem is that part of the word that
remains unchanged throughout the paradigm. In the English language the root and
the stem of a word often coincide (can be the same).
The stem structure may be represented in several ways. It may be generalized with
the help of symbols: n – for nouns, v – for verbs, adj – for adjectives, adv – for
adverbs and so on.
All living languages are characterized by the creation of new words. This process
is called word-building or word-formation – the process of creating new words
from elements existing in the language with the help of some patterns. That is, if
the pattern V + able exists in English we can create words according to it.
New words can appear because of some semantic changes of the word (changes in
the lexical meaning).
Derivation, conversion, semantic development are quite productive. As for nonproductive ways of word-formation (not really spread), they are: soundinterchange (blood – to bleed); back-formation (baby-sitter – to baby-sit).
Affixation
1)Peculiarities of English prefixes.
2)Classification of English suffixes.
3)Polysemy, homonymy and synonymy of English affixes.
4)Productivity and origin of derivational affixes.
Affixation is a productive way of word-formation. It is creating new words by
adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme.
The analysis of such words can be done on two levels:
1)morphemic (we analyze morphemes which build words);
2)derivational (words are analyzed from the point of view of their structure –
complex or not).
Simple words contain only the primary stem (man, girl, take, go). Derived or
compound words also contain derivational affixes.
Prefixes mostly modify the lexical meaning of the word:
Suffixes do change the meaning of the word, but also they can change the lexicogrammatical class of the word (the part of speech).
It must be said that there are two types of prefixes:
1)
those that can be used as independent words (free morphemes) (like in the
words to undercook – to go under);
2)
those that can’t function independently (bound morphemes) (mis- - to
misunderstand).
As a rule prefixes do not change the part of speech, but there are several of them
which do so. That’s why they are called convertive (changing the form/ the part of
speech).
Prefixes can be classified according to their origin. Here they can be divided into
native and borrowed.
Prefixes can also be classified into productive (which take part in deriving new
words in this particular period of language development) and non-productive.
Prefixes can belong to different styles.
According to their meaning English prefixes are grouped the following way (the
major groups):
2)
those of negative meaning (dis- - disloyal);
3)
those denoting words with the opposite meaning or with the meaning of
repetition of some action (un- - undress);
4)
those denoting space, time and other relations (pre- - prewar).
The main classification of suffixes is based on the parts of speech. There can be:
1)
noun suffixes (-dom – freedom);
2)
adjectival (adjective forming) suffixes (-ful –wonderful);
3)
verb-forming suffixes (-en – to shorten);
4)
adverb suffixes (-ly).
From the point of view of meaning noun suffixes indicate a doer of an action; the
relation of possession, belonging to some group; collectivity and other similar
notions; diminutiveness;
feminine gender.
As for other peculiarities of English suffixes, there are those that change the part of
speech and those that don’t do it (grey - greyish).
The semantic type of the word can be changed with the help of some suffixes. For
example, some words denoting objects become abstract (leader – leadership).
As well as prefixes, English suffixes can be stylistically coloured or neutral.
Since any living language can develop, there are some changes in the meaning of
its affixes. That’s why we have such phenomena as polysemy, homonymy and
synonymy of affixes. It’s only natural that affixes have several meanings. Even the
most famous ones.
-er – 1) a doer of some action (a living being);
2) an object (boiler);
3) a person who is in some state (watcher);
4) distinguishes a feature of a man (chatter).
1) adverb-forming (quietly, readily);
By productive affixes we mean those that take part in deriving new words in this
particular period of language development. The best way to identify productive
affixes is to look for them among neologisms (new words and occasional words).
From the etymological point of view affixes are divided into the same two large
groups as words: native and borrowed. For the affix to be called borrowed the total
number of words with this affix must be considerable in the new language.
Word-compounding
1)General features of word-compounding.
2)Structural and semantic peculiarities of English compounds.
3)Classification of compounds.
4)The meaning of compounds.
5)Motivation of English compounds.
6)Special groups of compounds.
Word-compounding is a way of forming new words combining two or more stems.
It’s important to distinguish between compound words and word-combinations,
because sometimes they look or sound alike. It happens because compounds
originate directly from word-combinations.
The major feature of compounds is their inseparability of various kinds: graphic,
semantic, phonetic, morphological.
There is also a syntactic criterion which helps us to distinguish between words and
word combinations. For example, between the constituent parts of the word-group
other words can be inserted (a tall handsome boy).
In most cases the structural and semantic centre of the compound word lies on the
second component. It shows what part of speech the word is. The function of the
first element is to modify, to determine the second element. Such compounds (with
the structural and semantic centre “in” the word) are called endocentric.
There are also exocentric compounds where the centre lies outside (pickpocket).
Another type of compound words is called bahuvrihi
– compound nouns or
adjectives consisting of two parts: the first being an adjective, the second – a noun.
There are several ways to classify compounds. Firstly, they can be grouped
according to their part of speech. Secondly, compounds are grouped according to
the way the stems are linked together: morphological compounds (few in number);
syntactic compounds (from segments of speech, preserving articles, prepositions,
adverbs).
The third classification is according to the combinability of compounding with
other ways of word-formation: 1) compounds proper (formed by a mere
juxtaposition of two stems);
2) derived or derivational compounds (have affixes in their structure);
3) converted compounds;
4) contractive compounds (based on shortening);
5) compounds based on back formation;
Beside lexical meanings the components of a compound word have distributional
and differential meanings. By distributional meaning we understand the order, the
arrangement of the stems in the word. The differential meaning helps to distinguish
two compounds possessing the same element.
The structural meaning of a compound may be described through the interrelation
of its components. e.g. N + Adj (heart-sick – the relation of cpmparison).
In most cases compounds are motivated. They can be completely motivated,
partially motivated, unmotivated. In partially motivated compounds one of the
components (or both) has changed its original meaning. The meaning of
unmotivated compounds has nothing to do with the meanings of their individual
parts.
As for special groups of compounds, here we distinguish:
a) reduplicative compounds;
b) ablaut combinations;
c) rhyme combinations.
There’s a certain group of words that stand between compounds and derived.
These are words with so called semi-affixes: kiss proof (about lipstick), fireproof,
foolproof.
Conversion
1)General problems of conversion in English.
2)Semantic relations between conversion pairs.
3) Sources and productivity of conversion.
In linguistics conversion is a type of word-formation; it is a process of creating a
new word in a different part of speech without adding any derivational element.
The morphemic shape of the original word remains unchanged. There are changes
in the syntactical function of the original word, its part of speech and meaning.
The question of conversion has been a controversial one in several aspects. The
term conversion was first used by Henry Sweet at the end of the 19 th century. The
nature of conversion has been analyzed by several linguists. A number of terms
have been offered to describe the process in question.
The most objective treatment of conversion belongs to Victoria Nikolaevna
Yartseva. According to her, it is a combined morphological, syntactical and
semantic way of word-formation.
The process was called “non-affixal derivation” (Galperin) or “zero derivation”.
These terms have drawbacks, because there can be other examples of non-affixal
or zero derivation which are not connected with the process described at the
beginning of the lecture.
The term “functional change” (by Arthur Kennedy) also has short-comings. The
term implies that the first word merely changes its function and no new word
appears. It isn’t possible.
The word conversion we use talking about this way of word-formation is not
perfect as well. It means the transformation of something into another thing, the
disappearance of the first word. But the old and the new words exist together.
The largest group related through conversion consists of verbs converted from
nouns. The relations of the conversion pair in this case can be of the following
kind:
1) instrumental relations;
2) relations reflecting some characteristic of the object;
3) locative relations;
4) relations of the reverse process, the deprivation of the object.
The second major division of converted words is deverbial nouns (nouns converted
from verbs).
They denote:
1) an instance of some process;
2) the object or the result of some action;
3) the place where the action occurs;
4) the agent or the instrument of the action.
Conversion is not only a highly productive but also a particularly English way of
word-building. There are a lot of words in the English language that are short and
morphologically unmarked (don’t indicate any part of speech). By short words we
mean monosyllables, such words are naturally more mobile and flexible than
polysyllables.
In English verbs and nouns are specially affected by conversion. Conversion has
restrictions. It’s impossible to use conversion if verbs cannot represent some
process as a succession of isolated actions. Besides, the structure of the first word
shouldn’t be complicated.
Conversion is typical not only of nouns, verbs and adjectives, but other parts of
speech as well, even such minor elements as interjections and prepositions or
shortened words.
Shortening
1. General problems of shortening.
2. Peculiarities of shortenings.
Shortening stands apart from other ways of word-formation because it doesn’t
produce new words. It produces variants of the same word. The differences
between the new and the original word are in style, sometimes in their meaning.
There are two major groups of shortenings (colloquial and written abbreviations).
Among shortenings there can be polysemantic units as well.
Shortenings are classified a) according to the position of the shortened part of the
word (clipped words), b) into shortened word combinations, c) into abbreviations,
d) into blendings.
Among clipped words there are cases of apocope, aphaeresis, and syncope.
Abbreviations can be read as in the alphabet, as one word.
The Semantic Structure of English Words
1.General problems of semasiology. The referential and the functional approaches
to the meaning of English words.
2.Types of meaning.
3.Change of meaning.
4.Polysemy.
5.Homonymy.
6.Synonyms, antonyms and other semantic groupings.
The branch of linguistic which specializes in the study of meaning is called
semantics or semasiology. The modern approach to semantics is based on the fact
that any word has its inner form which is called the semantic structure.
There are two main approaches to the meaning of a word: referential and
functional.
The referential approach is based on the notion of the referent (the object the word
is devoted to). It also operates the notions of the concept and word. The word and
the referent are related only through the concept. The drawback of the approach is
in the fact that it deals with psychology mostly.
According to the functional approach the meaning of a word depends on the
function of the word in a sentence. The approach is not perfect because it can help
us only to compare the meanings of words. Speaking about the meaning of a word
both approaches should be combined.
The meaning of a word can be divided into grammatical and lexical. The latter is
divided into denotational and connotational meanings. The denotational meaning
gives the general idea which is characteristic of a certain word. The connotational
meaning combines the emotive colour and the stylistic value of a word.
The smallest elements of meaning are called semes.
There are words with either only the denotational or the connotational meaning.
Causes of semantic changes can be extra linguistic and linguistic. Extra linguistic
causes are historical in their nature. Among linguistic causes we distinguish
discrimination of synonyms, ellipsis, linguistic analogy.
As for the nature of semantic changes, it is connected with some sort of association
between the old and the new meanings. These associations can be of two types: of
similarity (linguistic metaphor), of contiguity (linguistic metonymy).
The result of semantic changes can be seen in denotational and connotational
meanings. The denotational meaning can be generalized or specialized. The
connotational meaning can be worsened or elevated.
Most words are polysemantic. Monosemantic words are usually found among
terms and scientific words. The ability of words to have more than one meaning is
called polysemy. Polysemy exists only in the language system.
The semantic structure of a polysemantic word may be described as a combination
of its semantic variants. Each variant can be described from the point of view of
their denotational and connotational meaning.
Polysemy is closely connected with the notion of the context (the minimum stretch
of speech which is sufficient to understand the meaning of a word). The main types
of context are lexical and grammatical.
Homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling or at least in one of these
aspects, but different in their meaning. According to Profesor Smirnitsky
homonyms can be divided into two groups: full homonyms (represent the same
part of speech and have the same paradigm), partial homonyms (don’t coincide
either in their spelling or paradigm).
Another classification of homonyms deals with homophones and homographs.
The sources of homonyms are phonetic changes, borrowing, word-building
(especially conversion), shortening.
There are several classifications of various word groups. The semantic similarity
and polarity are connected with synonyms and antonyms.
Synonyms are words different in sound-form but similar in meaning. According to
Vinogradov synonyms can be divided ideographic, stylistic and absolute. A
dominant synonym (in any row of synonyms) is more frequent in communication
and contains the major denotational component of the synonyms in question.
Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech with some opposite
meaning.
As for other groups of words, there are hyponyms, hyperonyms, semantic fields,
thematic groups.
The development of the English vocabulary
1.The development of the vocabulary. Structural and semantic peculiarities of new
vocabulary
units.
2.Ways of enriching the vocabulary.
If the language is not dead, it’s developing all the time. The items that disappear
are called archaisms. They can be found among numerous lexical units and
grammatical forms.
New words or expressions, new meanings of older words are called neologisms.
The introduction of new words reflects developments and innovations in the world
at large and in society.
Apart from political terms, neologisms come from the financial world, computing,
pop scene, drug dealing, crime life, youth culture, education.
Neologisms come into the language through
1)productive ways of word formation;
2)ways without any pattern;
3)semantic changes of old words;
4)borrowing from other languages.
There are numerous cases of blending, compounding, conversion. Borrowed words
mostly come from French, Japanese, the American variant of the English language.
Вопросы к экзамену
1. The subject of lexicology. Relations of lexicology with other linguistic
sciences.
2. Types of word motivation (phonetic, morphological, semantic).
3. The etymological diversity of the English vocabulary.
4. Typical features of native words.
5. General features of borrowings. International words.
6. The assimilation of borrowings. Interrelations of native words and
borrowings.
7. Types of morphemes.
8. Word structure and its development. The root, the stem and patterns of
word-structure.
9. Peculiarities of prefixes. General problems of affixation in English.
10.Classification of English suffixes.
11.Polysemy, homonymy and synonymy of derivational affixes.
12.General features of word-compounding. Structural and semantic secularities
of English compounds.
13. The classification of English compounds.
14.The meaning of English compounds . Their motivation.
15.Special groups of compounds.
16.General problems of conversion. Treatment of conversion in linguistic
literature.
17.Semantic relations between conversion pairs.
18.Sources of conversion . Its productivity.
19.General problems of shortening. Peculiarities of English shortenings .
Classification of shortenings.
20.General problems of semasiology. Referential and functional approaches to
the meaning of English words.
21.Types of meaning.
22.Change of meaning.
23.Polysemy. Metaphor and metonymy.
24.Homonymy and its relations to polysemy .
25.Synonyms, antonyms and other semantic groups of words.
26.Phraseology. Phraseological units , their features. Phraseological units and
fee word-combinations.
27.Classifications of phraseological units .
28.Variants and dialects of the English languages. The American variant of
English.
29.The development of the English vocabulary . Archaisms and neologisms.
ВАРИАНТЫ КОНТРОЛЬНЫХ РАБОТ, ТЕСТЫ ПО ОТДЕЛЬНЫМ
РАЗДЕЛАМ И ТЕМАМ
Origin of English Words
Ex. 1
Translate the following into Russian. State from what languages the following
expressions and shortenings are borrowed.
coup d’état, kindergarten, tête-à-tête, Blitzkrieg, enfant terrible, persona grata, beau
monde, leit-motiv, bon mot, prima donna, ottava rima, Hun, nazi, etc., e. g., a. m.,
p. m.
Ex. 2
Group the following words according to their origin.
caftan, operetta, machine, vanilla, waltz, skipper, algebra, telephone, dollar,
wigwam, mazurka, pagoda, kangaroo, taboo, gorilla, tobacco, chauffeur, beauty,
umbrella, squaw, nun, sputnik, cosmodrome.
Ex. 3
Compare the meaning of the following Russian and English words. Use them in
sentences of your own.
характер - character, реализовать - reralize, агитатор - agitator, кондуктор conductor, магазин - magazine, спекулировать - speculate, инцидент - incident,
объект - object, принципиальный – principal
Ex. 4
Explain the etymology of the following words. Write them out in three columns: a)
fully assimilated words; b) partially assimilated words; c) unassimilated words.
Explain the reasons for your choice in each case.
ballet, beet, butter, skin, take, cup, police, monk, garage, phenomenon, wine, large,
lesson, criterion, nice, coup d’état, river, loose, skirt.
Ex. 5
Give 5 own examples of words which could be translator’s false friends.
Affixation
Ex.1
Pick out words with noun-building suffixes. Explain the meaning of the words.
1. He did not know how the officialdom would end the scandal. 2. Gemma’s
friendship, her charm, her simple comradeship were the brightest things in his life.
3. Gabriel’s wife served out spoonfuls of the pudding and passed the plates down
the table. 4. It was a dull, respectable, uninspired townlet, but scarcely a hole. 5.
The grey changelessness of things got hold of me. 6. The cat is a splendid mouser.
7. When he returned to the palace the marketing began. 8. “Please,” auntie says,
“will you try a piece of our Mayday cake?” 9. The pavement of the road took two
months. 10. Shall I tell the receptionist that Mrs. Baird is a regular case and open
an account for her?
Ex. 2
Read the following sentences. Translate the words in bold type into Russian.
1.
In a thoughtless moment he put his hand in his pocket. 2. She seemed
resistless. 3. He continued in his honeyed voice. 4. The coffee was so sweetish, it
made her shudder. 5. He passed a curtained corridor. 6. The boy was still standing
there, peering trainward. 7. These professions are only in seasonal demand. 8.
Can’t you see she is edgy after being up all night? 9. “No sense in getting
panicky,” she assured herself. 10. She was more spiteful than all the rest put
together. 11. His words were playful but his look became grave.
Ex. 3
State the origin and explain the meaning of the suffixes in: childhood, hardship,
freedom, toward, brotherly, granny, hatred, hireling, village, drunkard, limitation.
Ex. 4
Explain the difference between the meanings of the following words produced
from the same root by means of different affixes. Translate them into Russian:
watery – waterish, embarrassed – embarrassing, colourful – coloured, respected –
respectful, respectable, manly – mannish.
Conversion
Ex.1
Read the following sentences, translate them. Define what part of speech the words
in bold type are and what part of speech they are derived from.
1. Her heart hungered for action. 2. The road was mined. 3. The cows are milking
well now. 4. His face chilled suddenly. 5. Cal voiced his dream. 6. The pages had
yellowed with age. 7. He slowly corked the bottle. 8. A butterfly winged its way
into the air. 9. He weekended with us. 10. She carefully bandaged the arm.
Ex. 2
Explain the meanings of the verbs in bold type. Translate the verbs into Russian.
to powder one’s nose, to elbow one’s way, to head a delegation, to parrot the
grown-ups, to nurse the wounded, to boss the job, to dock the ship, to garage the
car, to barrel beer, to torture the prisoner, to anger the mother, to inconvenience
the host
Ex. 3
Supply the verbs which the nouns in bold type are derived from. Translate the
original and the converted words into Russian. Comment on the semantic character
of the derived nouns.
1. She is an awful tease. 2. The boy happened to be a cheat. 3. She is the wellknow gossip of the town. 4. The night watch rushed to his help. 5. Then followed
an interminable wait. 6. His long hunt for the book resulted in a failure. 7. The
station is a half-an-hour walk from our house. 8. Christine had the run of Mrs.
Herbert’s kitchen. 9. With his heavy bag and torn shoes he looked like a tramp.
10. He was certainly on the move.
Ex. 4
Comment on relations within the conversion pairs. Use the verbs in your own
sentences: dog – to dog, finger – to finger, dress– to dress, pocket– to pocket,
back– to back, monkey – to monkey
Ex. 5
Translate and explain the following cases of conversion: to pirate, to worm, to up,
to engineer, to oh-oh, to thou.
Composition
Ex.1
Read the following sentences. Explain the meaning of the adjectives in bold type in
English.
1. He was wearing a brand-new overcoat and hat. 2. His hair was a bit reddish
before he went piebald. 3. It was a snowy pitch-black night. 4. The colour
deepened in her rain-wet cheeks. 5. She never said she was homesick. 6. He
ignored the red light as if he were colour-blind. 7. Don’t be so blood-thirsty,
father! 8. He acted with pride, which one could not expect from such a lackeyminded person. 9. She is a tall woman with black hair and eyes and an ivorywhite face. 10. The woman stared at her papers with sleep-filmed eyes. 11. He
held his hands for a moment against his deep-lined cheeks.
Ex. 2
Comment on the meanings of the following compound nouns. Translate them into
Russian.
thumb-nail, nerve-knot, danger-point, daylight, cream-puff, corner-room, breastpocket, side-door, egg-plant, jelly-fish, box-car, air-brake, inkstain, love-quarrel,
girl-page, restaurant-car, money-box, hand-shake, stop-light, sun-light
Ex. 3
Arrange the following compounds into three groups according to their motivation:
fully or partially-motivated and unmotivated: light-hearted, butterfly, cabman,
blackberry,
wolf-dog,
dragon-fly,
looking-glass,
bluestocking,
earthquake.
Ex. 4
Form as many compounds as possible with grass-, hand-, tree-, -looking.
Shortening
Ex. 1
Write out in full the following shortened words:
necklace,
A.T., UNO, ad, comfy, U-boat, cycle, para troops, prep, props, sub, B-girl,
B.M.O.C.
Ex. 2
Translate the following shortenings and comment on the type of them, give their
full form:
H-bomb, mike, tec, comfy, UNESCO, Bella, cause, para troops, props.
Word-building
Ex. 1
Read the following sentences. Define the means by which the words in bold type
are built. Translate the words into Russian.
1. She steeled herself to endure the bumping over the rough road. 2. She looked
after the nurse with a doglike expression and slowly began to put on her dressinggown. 3. Feelings continually voiced cease to be feelings and feelings never
voiced deepen with their dumbness. 4. Life had rooted these ideas firmly in their
minds. 5. He glanced at the clock and edged nearer to the door. 6. He was going to
have tea with his aunties. 6. She had no intention of being sidetracked from the
subject. 7. Then her mind pictured the layout. 8. “Frightfully bad roads! The bus
was ditched in that narrow turning.” 9. He took the hours-old dish away. 10. He
was heart-sore over the sudden collapse of a promising career. 11. I need not say
that such a breach of confidence is unthinkable. 12. Then she catfooted to the
opening, pausing for another second to listen. 13. It was a long hall papered and
carpeted in dark green. 14. I’m always called “Mother” at home, because I’ve
mothered him ever since my dear mother died.
Semaseology
Ex. 1
State the semes of the following words: baby, monkey.
Ex. 2
Give the denotational and connotational meaning of the following words:
granny, to pass away, to feather-bed, to soft-soap, to cosmeticize.
Phraseology
Ex. 1
Pick out all the phraseological units from the following sentences and classify
them. Translate all the passages into Russian.
1. … “I’d like to have a day or two in which to think it over… .” “Why, certainly,
certainly, Mr. Cowperwood,” replied Stener genially. “That’s all right. Take you
time.” 2. Jos, a clumsy and timid horseman, did not look to advantage in the
saddle. “Look at him, Amelia dear… . Such a bull in a china shop I never saw.” 3.
In the end he parted friends with both Tighe and Rivers. “That’s a smart young
fellow,” observed Tighe, ruefully. “He’ll make his mark,” rejoined Rivers. 4. There
was no reason why Anna should not make a splendid match. Joe and Ed might also
marry since they were not destined to set the world on fire in commerce. 5. And he
concluded … that no man could tell what he would do if he were in the shoes of
another man. 6. A simple cold, caught in the room with double windows … and
James was in deep waters. 7. “Jo,” he said. “I should like to hear what sort of water
you’re in. I suppose you’re in debt?” 8. He was not vastly interested in Clare. She
had always been to him one of those women who took the bit between their teeth
and were bound to fetch up now and again with broken knees. 9. … the sooner you
are gone bag and baggage, the better for all parties. 10. This lady knew all the
Forsytes, and having been at June’s “at home,” was not at a loss to see with whom
she had to deal. 11. The sea run high and the boat may be dashed to pieces on the
rocks. 12. I guess I’ll pop outside and have a word with Miss Bunting. 13. The
matter with her is that I played the fool with her, that’s all. 14. If you cry I will
give Miss Wilson a piece of my mind for worrying you. 15. I know that we cut a
very poor figure beside you.
Ex. 2
Complete the following phrases so that they make English proverbs and
phraseological units. Explain the meaning of the given part.
1. A bird in the hand. 2. The last straw. 3. To eat one’s cake and have it. 4. Old
bird. 5. The early bird. 6. Half the battle. 7. A silver lining. 8. Fine feathers. 9. A
new broom. 10. A bee in one’s bonnet. 11. Spilt milk. 12. A mare’s nest.
Ex. 3
Give as many phraseological units as possible, using any of the following words:
to beat, to catch, to mind, bone, love, mouth, dead, ready
Transfer of meaning
Ex. 1
Explain the logic of the transfer of meaning.
1.The wings of a bird, of a plane, of a mill; on wings of joy.
2.The foot of a man, of a hill, of a bottle.
3.Tongues of flame; The child’s tongue is coated.
4.The neck of a girl, of a bottle.
5.Moscow is the heart of the country; My heart is beating with excitement.
6.The mouth of a pot, of a river, of a cave.
Ex. 2
Discuss the following cases of metonymy:
1. He is the hope of the family. 2. She was the pride of her school. 3. I have never
read Balzac in the original. 4. My sister is fond of old china. 5. The coffee-pot is
boiling. 6. The pit loudly applauded. 7. He succeeded to the crown.
Polysemy
Ex. 1
Give all the meanings you know of the following words, illustrating them with
examples:
to take, to feel, to let, power, drift, institute, to dress
Homonyms
Ex. 1
Spell the following homophones. Translate them into Russian and use them in
sentences of your own.
[´siəriəl], [´fa:ðə], [lein], [meiz], [diə], [pleit], [prei], [Θroun], [bi:t], [´beri], [seil],
[sent], [pi:s]
Ex. 2
Transcribe the following homographs. State their different meaning.
lead, compact, row, invalid, polish, desert, wind, bow, tear, close
Ex. 3
Choose the right word:
1)Our team will (loose, lose) unless it learns to pass the ball.
2)After dinner we all (set, sat) round the table.
3)Ann will clean all the carpets (accept, except) this one.
4)Liz (quite, quiet, quit) likes her job and spends a lot of time at work.
5)Nick is not sure (weather, whether) Jeff is going with us.
6)Kim (through, threw) the javelin a record distance.
Ex. 4
Speak about the type of homonyms and explain the difference:
1)
proceed – precede
2)
affect – effect
3)
access – excess
4)
principal – principle
5)
stationary – stationery
6)
dessert – desert n – desert v
7)
cite – site – sight
8)
persecute – procecute
9)
peace - piece
Ex. 5
Translate paying attention to homonyms:
1) After an incident in Croydon involving a prison van and a concrete
mixer, police are looking for eighteen hardened criminals.
2) Eth: A professional burglar! Mr. Glum, you told me Ron’s Uncle Charlie
was a biologist.
3) Mr. Glum: All I said was, he studies cell structures.
Ex. 6
Explain what stylistic device is used in these proverbs and sayings, what it is based
upon.
1) A clean fast is better than a dirty breakfast.
2) Who feasts till he is sick, must fast till he is well.
3) Feast today and fast tomorrow.
4) – Is life worth living? - It depends upon the liver.
5) – What do you do with the fruit? -We eat what we can, and what we can’t
eat we can.
6) Her nose was sharp, but not so sharp as her voice or the suspiciousness,
with which she faced me.
7) Nowadays all of us are so hard up, that only pleasant things to pay are
compliments, it’s the only thing we pay.
8) O’Henry about a café: It’s atmosphere was thick, it’s napery and soup were
thin.
Synonyms and Antonyms
Ex. 1
Translate the following words into English and give as many synonyms to them as
you can.
просить, возможно, глупый, веселый, несчастье, начинать, выбирать,
путешествие
Ex. 2
In what respects do the following synonyms differ?
1.policeman, bobby, cop
2.master, owner, head, proprietor, possessor
3.worker, labourer, toiler, hand
4.fabricate, construct, frame, invent, forge, manufacture, feign
5.mansion, house, habitation, residence, abode
Ex. 3
Change the following sentences so that they express the contrary meaning by using
antonyms. State whether they are absolute or derivational antonyms.
1. All the seats were occupied. 2. The room was lighted by the strong rays of the
sun. 3. He added three hundred to the sum. 4. I came in while you were asleep. 5.
A lamp is a necessary thing in this room. 6. The door was closed and locked. 7.
In the second year of their residence the company seemed especially to increase. 8.
The little boy was outside the car. 9. He drew two crooked lines. 10. Light
curtains hung in the dining-room windows; therefore it was light.
Ex. 4
Are the following words synonyms? Prove your point of view.
n. pillow, cushion
sink, basin
desktop, laptop
stove, vent,
linen, underwear
mustache, whiskers
reck, shelf
clock, watch
rocket, missile
mirror, looking glass
jetty, port
fireplace, mantelpiece
watch, clock
v. sail, float, swim
hurt, ache
cut, slice, chop
clean, peel
adj. eatable, edible
private, personal
Ex. 5
Do you think that Sonnet 66 by W.Shakespeare is based on polarity of words? Are
these words antonyms? Why?
W.Shakespeare Sonnet LXVI
Tired with all these, for restful death I cry,
As, to behold desert a beggar born,
And needy nothing trimme’d in jollity,
A purest faith unhappily forsworn,
And gilded honour shamefully misplaced,
And maiden virtue rudely sytrumpeted,
And right perfection wrongfully disgraced,
And strength by limping sway disabled,
And art made tongue-tired by authority,
And folly doctor-like controlling skill,
And simple truth miscall’d simplicity,
And captive good attending captain ill;
Tired with all these, from these would I be gone,
Save that, to die, I live my love alone.
Ex. 6
Is Sonnet 80 by W.Shakespeare based on similarity of meaning of words? Are
those words synonyms? Prove.
W.Shakespeare Sonnet CXXX
My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun;
Coral is far more red than her lips’ red;
If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun;
If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.
I’ve seen roses damaske’d, red and white,
But no such roses see I in her cheeks;
And in some perfumes is there more delight
That in the breath that from my mistress reeks.
I love to hear her speak, yet well I know
That music hath a far more pleasant sound;
I grant I never saw a goddess go;
My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground;
And yet by heaven, I think my love as rare
As any she belied with false compare.
Ex.6
Remember 5 titles of different types of pieces of fiction (stories, novels, plays),
based on antonymy.
American English
Ex. 1
Translate the following words into English, giving two variants – British and
American:
каникулы, бензин, вата, детская коляска, плащ, консервная банка, студент 2
курса, почтальон, шашки, очередь, бумажник, справочное бюро
Ex. 2
Point out words: 1) the meaning of which in American English is entirely different
from that in British English, 2) the general meaning of which is the same in both
American and British English, but which have acquired an additional specific
meaning in American English.
apartment, tardy, guess, homely, mad, sick, billion, corn, dessert, commute, lunch,
cane
Ex. 3
Translate the following, using the prepositions current in America and then in
England.
стоять на углу, ездить на поезде, сходить с поезда, жить на улице Н., без
четверти девять, четверть десятого, заполнить бланк
Ex. 4
Give the English spelling of the following words:
thru, humor, apologize, center, pretense, inflexion, jewelry, quarreled, woolen,
harbor, pijamas, gipsy, program
Tests
1.”To electrocute” is an example of…
a)abbreviation.
b)shortened word combination.
c)blending.
d)conversion.
2.a)Affixational morphemes are always free.
b) Affixational morphemes are always bound.
c) Affixational morphemes can be bound and free.
d) Affixational morphemes carry no meaning.
3.”Glance” is the … of “look”.
a)hyponym b)hyperonym c)antonym d)homonym
4.”To be over the moon” is…
a)an idiom.
b)a free phrase.
c)a sentence.
d)a compound word.
5.The word “dance” is pronounced like [dæns]
a)in the British variant.
b)in the American variant.
c)only by uneducated people.
d)only by educated people.
6.”Lounge music“ is…
a)an archaism. b)an antonym. c)a neologism. d)a synonym.
7.”Skin”, “sky”, “skate” are of … origin.
a)Latin b)Celtic c)Scandinavian d)native
8.Military terms were borrowed from …
a)Spanish
b)French c)Italian d)Latin
9.”Skin-deep” and “true-blue” are…
a)derived words. b)compound words. c)compound derivatives. d)root words.
10.Sound interchange is…
a)a highly productive type of word-formation.
b)widely-spread in English.
c)a non-productive type of word-formation.
d)never used in word-formation.
11.The interjections “Wow!”, “Gee!” have…
a)only a grammatical meaning.
b)only a denotational meaning.
c)no meaning at all.
d)only a connotational meaning.
12.The words “circle”, “to encircle”, “circular” represent …
a)synonyms b)hyponyms c)different parts of speech d)compounds
13.”Face to face” is…
a)a free phrase.
b)a set phrase.
c)similar to a noun.
d)similar to a verb.
14.”All that glitters is not gold” is…
a)an ordinary sentence.
b)a word combination.
c)a proverb.
d)a free phrase.
15.Odd one out.
a)a synonym b)a homonym c)an historism d)a hyponym
16.The pattern of the expression “by hook or by crook” is…
a)Adv +N +pr+ Adv +N b)pr + N + con + pr + N c)pr +N +pr + pr +N d)Adv
+con+ Adv
17.Australian English …
a)is a variant of the language.
b)is an independent language.
c)is a dialect.
d)doesn’t exist.
18.”Strong-willed” and “warm-hearted” are…
a)root words.
b)compound-derivatives.
c)derived words.
d)compound words.
19.”The FBI” is an example of …
a)a shortened word combination.
b)abbreviation.
c)blending.
d)conversion.
20.”Truth” and “lie” are…
a)derivational antonyms
b)absolute antonyms
c)relative antonyms
d)never used as antonyms
21.”Flower” is the … of “tulip”.
a)hyponym b)hyperonym c)antonym d)homonym
22.Odd one out:
a)to be on cloud nine
b)a bull in a china shop
c)to make both ends meet d)wonderful holidays
23.”To cook well” is…
a)an idiom b)a free phrase c)an infinitive d)a set expression
24.The American spelling of the word “цвет” is …
a)colour b)color c)coloure d)coulor
25.The British sound [a:] in the words “dance”, “chance” is changed into … in the
American variant.
a)[o:] b)[æ] c)[Λ] d)[əυ]
26.”Train-surfing” is…
a)an historism b)a barbarism c)an archaism d)a neologism
27.The combination of letters … is a sign of foreign origin.
a)ou b)ie c)eau d)or
28.Astalavista, Chao are…
a)barbarisms
b)native
words
c)partially
assimilated
words
assimilated words
29.The adjective suffixes –ous, -ful are…
a)homonyms b)synonyms c)antonyms d)free
30.”To burgle” is an example of…
a)conversion b)affixation c)shortening d)back-formation
31.”Just” and “unjust” are…
a)derivational antonyms
b)absolute antonyms
c)relative antonyms
d)never used as antonyms
32.The British variant of the word “конфета” is…
a)a candy b)a cake c)a sweet d)a chocolate
33.In the phrase “I see thee in my dreams” thee is …
a)a neologism b)a barbarism c)an archaism d)a verb
d)completely
Список рекомендуемой литературы
1. Антрушина Г.Б. Лексикология английского языка: Учеб. Пособие для
студентов. – 3-е изд., стереотип. /Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В. Афанасьева, Н.Н.
Морозова. – М.: Дрофа, 2001. – 288 с.
Харитончик З.А. Лексикология английского языка/ З.А. Харитончик. –
Минск: Высшая школа, 1992.
2. Амосова Н.Н. Основы английской фразеологии/ Н.Н. Амосова. – Л., 1968.
Кунин А.В. Английская фразеология/ А.В. Кунин. – М., 1970.
Кунин А.В. Фразеология современного английского языка/ А.В. Кунин. – М.,
1972.
3. Темия В.Н. Коннотативный аспект семантики номинативных единиц/ В.Н.
Темия. – М., 1981.
СЛОВАРЬ ТЕРМИНОВ
Subject of Lexicology
Lexicology (comes from Greek) is a branch of linguistics which studies words and
their usage. Lexicology studies the meaning of a word, its structure, combinability,
its formation. It investigates different types of word groups. It also studies the
vocabulary of this or that society.
Motivation
Morphemes – the smallest meaningful units in a language (which consist of a
word or part of a word that cannot be divided without losing its meaning)
(Longman)
All morphemes are subdivided into 2 large classes: root morphemes and
affixational morphemes. Affixational morphemes include suffixes and prefixes.
Allomorphs are morphemes which have different phonemic shapes. They are
pronounced in different ways.
e.g. to close [z], close (n, adj) [s]
to please [i:z], pleasant [ez], pleasure [ple3]
Etymological diversity of the English language
Native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock as known from
the earliest available manuscripts of the old English period.
Borrowed word is a word taken from another language and modified in phonemic
shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of English.
The English proper element – words that don’t have similar representatives in
other Indo-European or Germanic languages (their roots or other elements are
different). E.g. bird, boy, lord, lady, woman, daisy, always.
The assimilation of borrowings - a partial or complete adaptation to the
phonetic(al), grammatical, semantic, morphological and graphical systems of the
receiving language. The degree of assimilation depends on the importance,
frequency and length of use of borrowings.
Etymological doublets are words originating from the same etymological source,
but differing in phonemic shape and in meaning.
Translation-loans are a special group of borrowings that is not taken into the
vocabulary of another language more or less in the same phonemic shape. It
undergoes the process of translation.
Word building
Word building (word formation) is a process of building new words out of the
material available in the language according to the structural and semantic rules
and laws of this language.
Sound interchange is gradation of sounds occupying one and the same place in
the sound form and the same morpheme in various cases of its occurrence.
Stress interchange is one of the ways of word building, based on a shift of stress
(object, survey, perfect).
Derivation
Affixation is formation of new words with the help of affixes available in the
language; includes prefixation, suffixation, infixation.
Prefixation is formation of words with help of prefixes.
Suffixation is formation of words with the help of suffixes.
Infixation is formation of words with the help sound interchange; usually falls into
two groups – vowel and consonant interchange.
Productive affixes are those that take part in deriving new words in this particular
period of language development.
Conversion
Conversion is one of the principal ways of building words which implies
transition of a word from one part of speech to the other.
Word-compounding (composition) is a way of forming new words combining
two or more stems. Together with conversion and affixation it is very productive in
Modern English.
Reduplicative compounds are based on onomatopoeic repetition: hush-hush, blahblah.
The elements of ablaut compounds have changes in their phonetic shape: singsong, ping-pong, to shilly-shally.
Rhyme combinations are twin forms consisting of two elements based on
rhyming: helter-skelter, hoity-toity.
Shortening
Shortening (clipping) is a word-building process which involves qualitative
changes and quantitative changes in a word; a significant subtraction, in which
part of the original word is taken away.
Apocope (back-clipping) is final clipping: the beginning of a word is retained, the
end is clipped, i.e. preservation of the first part
Aphaeresis (fore-clipping) is initial clipping of a word: the end of the word is
retained, the beginning is clipped.
Syncope is final and initial clipping combined: the middle part is retained, the
beginning and the end are clipped.
Ellipsis is a special group of shortenings: the omission of a word or words, which
are important for grammatical completeness, but not for lexical meaning.
Blending (or fusion, or portmanteau) is a specific type of shortenings, which
implies “packing” of two meanings into one word. The process is also called
telescoping because the words slide into one another like sections of a telescope.
Semaseology
Semaseology - a branch of lexicology which studies meaning and the semantic
structure of a word.
Seme - an elementary semantic feature, a minimal unit of meaning.
Sememe - a set of semes recognizable in a given word.
Grammatical meaning is a meaning which comes to the fore in the words with
different lexical meaning, and brings them into one row: apples, tables, books,
birds - grammatical meaning of plurality; was, went, ate, did, slept, knew –
grammatical meaning of past tense .
Lexical meaning – is a meaning which combines different grammatical forms of a
word into one paradigm: to be, was, were, been, is, are; apple, apples, apple’s.
Denotational meaning - logic conceptual meaning which correlates with its
referent.
Connotational meaning - an additional meaning, subordinate meaning which
includes 1) emotive-evaluational meaning, expressive colouring, 2) stylistic status
of the word
Polysemy
Polysemy - a complex of all meanings which a word can have as a result of its
development.
Polysemantic word - a word which has several meanings.
Antroponymes - proper names of people: Ann, Mary, John Smith, the Browns.
Toponymes - proper names of places, e.g. countries, cities, towns, rivers, seas etc:
England, New York, Boston, the Volga, the Atlantic ocean, the Elbrus.
Metaphor - a transfer of meaning based on different types of similarity, it is a
hidden comparison, e.g. in the area of computers a lot of words acquired new
meanings: mouse, mat, windows, monitor, notebook, worm; in the sphere of
economics: market, bargain, deal, promotion.
Anthropomorphic metaphors - names of parts of a human body or some human
qualities transferred to some objects: the head of an army, school, organization,
arms and mouth of a river, foot of a mountain, heart sings.
Trite, or dead metaphors are metaphors and metonymies which are very old and
described by a dictionary, they belong to the language: head of cabbage, eye of a
needle, the bus runs.
Live metaphor - a metaphor created in speech as a result of speaker’s association
and comparison.
Metonymy - a transfer of meaning based on contiguity: The kettle is boiling I
recognize his hand. He married money.
Synecdoche - a name of a part used instead of the whole: The cock hat entered the
room.
Homonyms
Homonymy – coincidence of sound forms for different meanings of words.
Homonyms proper - words identical in pronunciation and spelling: case
(Situation, bag) and seal (print, animal)
Homophones - words of the same sound form, but with different spelling and
meaning: Night (opposite to day) – knight (medieval warrior); Hair (part of the
scull) – hare (animal with long ears)
Homographs - words different in sound forms and in meaning but identical in
spelling: bow [bou] лук – bow [bau] кланяться, кивать; wind [waind] – wind
[wind]; lead [li:d] – lead [led]
Homoforms coincide only in one form and do not in all others : Allowed (v) –
aloud (adj); Billed – build.
Paronyms - words very identical in sound form and spelling but having some
differences in them and different meaning: Loose – lose; decent (respectable,
suitable) – descent (downward motion); quite – quiet.
Relations among words based on meaning
Synonymy - one of paradigmatic relations among words which lies in the identity
of denotational meaning.
Synonyms are traditionally referred to as words different in sound-form, but
identical in meaning: carry, drag, pull; huge, tremendous.
Antonymy - one of paradigmatic relations among words which lies in the polarity
of meaning: kind – cruel.
Antonyms are words, characterized by semantic polarity or opposite meaning.
Complementary antonyms - words which present two-member semantic
opposition, members of which complement each other in meaning; if one quality is
negated, the other inevitably comes to the fore: live - dead, male – female.
Conversives are pairs of words which reveal reverse relations to each other: sell –
buy, lend – borrow.
Other groups of words
Lexico-grammatical group (LSG) – a group of words which have lexical and
grammatical meaning in common, a common paradigm. These groups are subsets
of parts of speech. E.g. English nouns are subdivided approximately to the
following LSG: personals, animals, groups of people, groups of animals, abstract
nouns, material nouns, objects, proper names of people and places.
Table, chair, wardrobe, cupboard, sofa, stool, armchair – pieces of furniture
Cat, dog, cow, sheep , pig, horse, donkey – domestic animals
Go, come, run, speed, rush, move, ride – verbs of motion
Ideographic groups – groups of words in which only lexical meaning is taken into
account, grammatical meaning is neglected. They are independent of classification
into parts of speech; are grouped according to their signification; belong to the
system of logical notions. Such groups may comprise different parts of speech:
light (n), brightness (n), bright (adj), shine (v), shining (part) and other words
connected with the notion of light.
Contextual associative group - words joined together by common contextual
associations within the framework of the sentence or text and having interlinks
within the text: A new director was introduced to us. Mr. Brown as tall and slim. A
new boss said about his plans. The speaker was short. There exist regular
contextual ties: dog – bark; see – eye; blind – see. As a result there may appear
different groups: Tree – leaves – green – fruit – shadow; voyage – ship – port sightseeing – sea – swimming – sunbathing – tan.
Semantic field - “Fields are linguistic realities existing between single words and
the total vocabulary. They are parts of the whole and resemble words in that they
combine into some higher unit; and the vocabulary in that they resolve themselves
into smaller units” [Ulman]. The meaning of time may be expressed by all
linguistic units: morphemes – pre-revolutionary, post-war, post-Soviet; words –
now, then, today, yesterday, soon, late; phraseological units – this year, this month,
up till now, after that; sentences (grammatically) – tense and aspect
Term – a word or a word group used to name a notion characteristic of some
special field of knowledge, industry or culture.
Phraseology
Phraseology – is a branch of lexicology which studies word combinations
terms for groups of words: set expressions, phrases, phraseological units,
idioms, collocations.
Phraseological units - word groups which are not motivated, comparatively stable
and semantically inseparable; in other languages other words are used for the same
phenomenon: Indian summer – бабье лето.
Phraseological fusions - word groups which are completely non-motivated, stab
le, inseparable: to kick the bucket, to rain cats and dogs, a fly in the ointment.
Phraseological unities - word groups which are partially motivated, often have
metaphorical mg: to wash the dirty linen in the public, to whip the dead horse.
Phraseological collocations - word groups which are motivated, partially
interchangeable; made of words with restricted lexical valency, which provides
some extent of lexical stability: To come to the conclusion (to reach but not to go,
to arrive) to produce the impression (to make, but not to produce the opinion, point
of view), to take a liking (fancy, but not hatred).
Lexicalization is the process when a word group transforms into a phraseological
unit or compound word: O.E. in stede > instead; mother-in-law, grown-up.
Americanism - a wd or a wd combination peculiar to the English language spoken
in the USA. E.g. cookie, elevator, truck, apartment etc.