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CHAPTER 10
Sample Answers for Chapter Discussion Questions
Question #1
Starting the learning process at a young age
Providing sufficient learning time
Being taught by qualified instructors
Following the right progression
Using quality equipment
Question #2
1. Cognitive or understanding stage: begins when the task is first introduced; goal for the learner
is to determine cognitively what the particular task involves; instructions are verbally
transmitted; involves lots of attention and rapid learning
2. Associative or practice stage: focus is on performing and refining the skill; concentration is
directed toward smaller movement details; movements are more fluid and consistent; confidence
climbs; performance still improves rapidly
3. Autonomous or application stage: movements are automatic and very proficient; attention
demands toward movement details are dramatically reduced; attention is directed toward other
aspects of behavior (e.g., creativity); performance improvements are relatively slow and less
obvious (e.g., reduction in anxiety levels)
Question #3
In blocked practice, a given task is practiced on many consecutive trials before moving on to the
next task. An example is a volleyball practice in which spiking drills are performed first,
followed by bumping drills and then volleying drills. Blocked practice is especially useful in the
early stages of skill development so that learners can correct specific problems and refine skills
one at a time.
In random practice, the order is randomized so that tasks from different classes are mixed
throughout the practice session. An example is a tennis player who combines serving with
various ground strokes. Random practice is most effective once skills have become more
developed.
Question #4
Intrinsic feedback refers to information that is provided as a natural consequence of performing
an action. For example, when you throw a dart, you can feel your arm extend in a correct or
incorrect manner. In contrast, extrinsic feedback refers to information that is provided to the
learner by somebody else or by some other means (e.g., a stopwatch) after the performance. For
example, after your basketball jump shot your coach may correct your form (e.g., “Use your legs
more!”) in order for you to refine your skill.
Question #5
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Faded feedback: using high frequency of feedback early in practice and then gradually reducing
feedback as the learner’s skill begins to develop
Bandwidth feedback: delivering feedback only when errors fall outside of some defined range of
correctness
Summary feedback: providing feedback in a summary several times during the practice after a
certain number of trials have been completed
Question #6
When the learning goal is a task that is relatively similar to the training task, near transfer occurs.
For example, practicing volleyball plays that are very similar to what occurs during an actual
match. In contrast, when the learning goal is a more general capability that is used in a wider
variety of skills, far transfer occurs. For example, learning how to execute an overhand throw
will transfer to a multitude of other activities (volleyball spike, tennis serve, football pass, and so
on).
An example of the use of transfer as an important practice goal is the incorporation of drills.
Practicing free throws or lay-ups will provide an effective transfer of the drill to the actual
basketball game.
Question #7
In order to design effective practice, you need to determine whether the activity can be practiced
as a whole (i.e., whole practice) or whether the activity must be broken down into parts, with
each part practiced in isolation (i.e., part practice).
Part practice is most effective for tasks that are serial in nature, are relatively long in duration,
and contain components that do not interact intensely. An example is practicing a gymnastics
routine.
Mental practice offers many benefits. It helps develop timing and rhythm, aids concentration and
preparation for competition, consolidates specific movement patterns, and gives athletes an
overall competitive edge. Mental practice also benefits athletes who are injured and unable to
practice physically.
Question #8
Simplification is a practice method in which difficulty of a target skill is significantly reduced
(e.g., slow-motion practice, the use of a tee in baseball practice).
Segmentation is a practice in which several tasks are linked together. The first part of a skill is
practiced first to some criterion level before introducing the second part and so on.
Question #9
Mental rehearsal of a skill in the absence of any overt physical movement, referred to as mental
practice, may generate positively transferable motor learning. Mental practice generally involves
constructing model situations and going through the motions of what will actually be done later.
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Rehearsing the steps mentally and going through the sequential actions can offer some genuine
benefits. This type of practice is a useful supplement in developing timing and rhythm, and
aiding in concentration and preparation for competition. As well, it consolidates specific
movement patterns and gives the athlete an overall competitive edge. Mental rehearsal may also
be an effective way to stay on top of skills between physical practice trials.
Question #10
Mental imagery is a special type of mental rehearsal. Internal mental imagery, for example,
involves seeing, feeling, or hearing through ones own senses an action to be learned or
performed. Mental imagery is particularly important in sports that offer athletes limited practice,
such as bobsledding and skiing. Injured athletes often use mental practice to keep “active” while
the body is not physically capable of performing.
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Question Bank for Written Student Assessment and
Evaluation
Quiz: How Much Do You Know About Motor Learning?
1. Which of the following is not a factor affecting the development of movement intelligence:
A) providing sufficient learning time
B) beginning at a young age
C) following the right progression
D) being taught by qualified instructors
E) none of the above
Answer: E
2. The first stage of learning a skill, the _________ or _________ stage, begins when the task is
first introduced to the learner. Because much of the early ideas and instructions are provided to
the learner in words, this stage is sometimes referred to as the _________ stage. Answer:
cognitive; understanding; verbal
3. The ability of learners to detect some of their own errors in performing various skills
represents an important development in the cognitive stage of learning. Answer: false (Correct:
associative or practice)
4. During the autonomous stage, less obvious performance improvements may be made, such as:
A) increased speed
B) reduced anxiety level
C) increased fluidity
D) decreased variability of performance
E) refinement of small details
Answer: B
5. Without _________, practice and learning become far less effective. Answer: feedback
6. Information about the exact height jumped is an example of extrinsic knowledge of
performance feedback. Answer: true; false (Correct: results)
7. An instructor’s information about the actual execution and performance of a movement the
learner has completed provides:
A) intrinsic knowledge of performance feedback
B) intrinsic knowledge of results feedback
C) extrinsic knowledge of performance feedback
D) extrinsic knowledge of results feedback
E) prescriptive feedback
Answer: C
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8. Providing feedback at very high frequencies early on in practice when it is most important is a
characteristic of _________ feedback. Answer: faded
9. An instructor who delivers feedback only when errors fall outside some defined range of
correctness is giving restricted feedback. Answer: false (Correct: bandwidth)
10. Throwing rocks into a lake helps a child develop the general overhand movement pattern
needed for many activities. This is an example of:
A) far transfer
B) near transfer
C) positive transfer
D) both A and C
E) both B and C
Answer: D
11. Recent advances in technology have generated numerous training machines and _________
that closely mimic certain or almost all the features of real-world tasks. Answer: simulators
12. Part practice tends to be more effective for serial skills and for tasks that are relatively long
in duration. Answer: true
13. Which of the following statements about mental practice is true:
A) Mental practice consolidates specific movement patterns and gives the athlete an overall
competitive edge.
B) Mental practice is particularly important in sports with a high number of repetitions during
practice sessions.
C) Mental practice can replace actual physical experience with a skill.
D) Mental practice is best done with small groups of learners.
E) Two of the above.
Answer: A
14. When a given task is practiced on many consecutive trials before setting about to the next
task, this is known as _________ practice. Answer: blocked
15. In distributive practice, the rest period may last as long as the trial itself. Answer: true
16. Explain the importance of motivation for learning. Answer: Unless a learner is motivated to
practice, effective learning is unlikely to occur. An instructor plays an important role in
motivating his or her students. Whether it is through motivational feedback, encouraging
learners to set goals, providing excellent demonstrations, or using visual aids, an instructor
needs to deliver effective instructions that keep learners involved. According to the law of effect,
success and failure can significantly influence learning. Praising learners serves to keep them
motivated and gives them a reason to work harder and to improve. Positive feedback will act as
a stimulant, and will go a long way toward avoiding monotony that leaves learners lacking
interest. An athlete who is motivated makes more of an effort during practice, can practice for
longer periods of time, and learns more in the end.
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Multiple Choice Questions
1. Performance improves rapidly in the _________ stage of learning.
A) cognitive
B) associative
C) application
D) all of the above
E) two of the above
Answer: E (A and B)
2. The associative stage of learning is also called the _________ stage.
A) cognitive
B) autonomous
C) practice
D) independent
E) application
Answer: C
3. A basketball player who sinks 10 out of 10 free-throw shots is likely in the _________ stage
of learning.
A) associative
B) practice
C) independent
D) autonomous
E) fourth
Answer: D
4. Watching a tennis ball land in the opponent’s court is an example of:
A) intrinsic knowledge of performance feedback
B) intrinsic knowledge of results feedback
C) extrinsic knowledge of performance feedback
D) extrinsic knowledge of results feedback
E) prescriptive feedback
Answer: B
5. When your coach tells you, “Snap your wrist more on the follow-through,” he or she is giving:
A) intrinsic knowledge of performance feedback
B) intrinsic knowledge of results feedback
C) extrinsic knowledge of performance feedback
D) extrinsic knowledge of results feedback
E) prescriptive feedback
Answer: E
6. Extrinsic feedback is also known as:
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A) descriptive feedback
B) kinesthetic feedback
C) instructive feedback
D) augmented feedback
E) summary feedback
Answer: D
7. Which of the following is not a strategy to minimize feedback dependency:
A) bandwidth feedback
B) faded feedback
C) autonomous feedback
D) summary feedback
E) none of the above
Answer: C
8. Which of the following statements about feedback is false:
A) Feedback is particularly vital early in the learning process.
B) To avoid information overload, it is best to provide feedback at the end of a lesson.
C) A teacher or coach should be selective in when to give feedback.
D) During the early stages of learning, it may be more appropriate to provide more general
(descriptive) information.
E) Two of the above.
Answer: B
9. Which of the following is not a factor affecting transfer:
A) cognitive demands
B) psychological demands
C) psychomotor demands
D) biomotor demands
E) none of the above
Answer: E
10. The effectiveness of a simulator depends on its ability to simulate:
A) the motor elements of the target activity
B) the perceptual elements of the target activity
C) the conceptual elements of the target activity
D) the biomotor elements of the target activity
E) all of the above
Answer: E
11. A child practicing three-ball juggling by first using scarves is learning through:
A) simulation
B) simplification
C) part practice
D) whole practice
E) segmentation
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Answer: B
12. Practicing the last part of a skill first is an example of:
A) segmentation
B) progressive part practice
C) backward chaining
D) all of the above
E) two of the above
Answer: D
13. _________ practice is an effective strategy for performing lay-up drills in basketball.
A) Part
B) Random
C) Massed
D) Distributed
E) Blocked
Answer: C
14. Which of the following statements about grouping for practice is false:
A) Grouping for practice is designed to make learning suitable for everyone involved.
B) Groups should be based on the learners’ underlying abilities, rather than a subjective
determination of their skill levels.
C) Some members of a group may feel isolated or resentful.
D) Instructors must consider factors such as maturity level and previous experience when
assigning learners to groups.
E) None of the above.
Answer: B
15. An athlete who is motivated:
A) makes more of an effort during practice
B) can practice for longer periods of time
C) is less likely to be bored
D) all of the above
E) two of the above
Answer: D
Fill in the Blank Questions
1. Sports equipment should be _________ to an appropriate size for children. Answer: scaled
down
2. The _________ or _________ stage of learning a skill is focused on performing and refining
the skill by organizing more appropriate movement patterns. Answer: associative; practice
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3. Throwing a dart, feeling your arm extend, seeing the dart fly through the air, and hearing it
make contact with the board as it hits the bull’s-eye is an example of _________ feedback.
Answer: intrinsic
4. An instructor or coach offering corrections, a judge’s score, and video replays are all examples
of _________ feedback. Answer: extrinsic
5. In conjunction especially with the sense of touch, muscle sense or muscle feeling is often
referred to as _________ sense. Answer: kinesthetic
6. A _________ feedback statement indicates something you did, right or wrong, whereas a
_________ feedback statement provides precise information about how to improve your
subsequent trials. Answer: descriptive; prescriptive
7. Positive _________ occurs, for example, when players are taught various fundamental
movement skills that are later applied to play various games. Answer: transfer
8. Performers practicing _________ mental imagery see, feel, hear, and taste through their own
senses. Answer: internal
9. Smells linked with a performance make up _________ mental imagery. Answer: olfactory
10. The law of _________ states that organisms tend to repeat responses that are rewarded and to
avoid responses that are not rewarded or are punished. Answer: effect
True or False Questions
1. Research and practice have identified four general stages in learning a skill. Answer: false
(Correct: three)
2. Instructions, demonstrations, films, videos, and vivid descriptions serve to convey the general
concept of the skill to the learner during the verbal stage. Answer: true
3. The autonomous stage of learning is also known as the independent stage. Answer: false
(Correct: application)
4. Information that is provided as a natural consequence of performing an action is considered
intrinsic feedback. Answer: true
5. Extrinsic feedback motivates the learner and supplies reinforcement for both correct and
incorrect movements. Answer: true
6. When performing a somersault in the air, a gymnast relies on information supplied by the
semicircular canal in the inner ear. Answer: true
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7. Beginners tend to use visual feedback more than their muscle feeling to guide their
performance. Answer: true
8. In the long run, general verbal encouragement is more effective than precise knowledge of
performance. Answer: false (Correct: less)
9. Negative transfer is very common. Answer: false (Correct: is not)
10. When the activity being practiced is different yet still very similar to the criterion task, near
transfer is desired. Answer: true
11. Early use of whole practice can be beneficial for identifying the major components of a
particular skill. Answer: false (Correct: part)
12. When you stand back mentally from yourself in performing a skill, you employ internal
mental imagery. Answer: false (Correct: external mental imagery)
13. Teachers and coaches agree that it is more effective to perform random practice before
blocked practice. Answer: false; false (Correct: blocked; random)
14. Overall, fatigue is not a significant variable in learning. Answer: true
15. Learning can be directly observed. Answer: false (Correct: cannot be directly)
Other Types of Questions
1. Explain the importance of starting the learning process at a young age.
Answer:
Education involving movement skills should begin at a young age, even as early as the preschool
years. Developing basic skills such as walking, throwing, catching, and climbing early on allows
a child to effectively incorporate these skills (which are the basis for numerous other activities)
into a repertoire of motor skills.
2. Match the following terms with their corresponding definition/characteristic. Terms can be
matched with more than one answer.
Term
1. Cognitive stage
2. Associative stage
3. Autonomous stage
Answer
B&D
A&F
C, E, & G
Definition/characteristic
A) Also known as the practice stage
B) Skill performance may be highly variable
C) Attention demands are dramatically reduced
D) Also known as the verbal stage
E) Also known as the application stage
F) Learners can detect some of their own errors
G) Performance improvements are relatively slow
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3. Discuss intrinsic feedback, extrinsic feedback, knowledge of results, and knowledge of
performance.
Answer:
Intrinsic feedback is information that is provided as a natural consequence of performing an
action. Extrinsic feedback is information that is provided to the learner by an external source at
the outcome of a performance.
Knowledge of results (KR) is information about the degree of success with respect to the
intended behavior or goal. It can be intrinsic (you can see that you’ve gotten a service ace) or
extrinsic (swimming lap times). Knowledge of performance (KP) provides information
concerning the correctness of a particular movement. It can be intrinsic (sensory information) or
extrinsic (supplied by a teacher or coach).
4. Distinguish between descriptive and prescriptive feedback. When is each type most effective?
Answer:
A descriptive feedback statement indicates something you did, right or wrong, whereas a
prescriptive feedback statement provides precise correction statements about how to improve
your movements on subsequent trials. During the early stages of learning, it may be more
appropriate to provide more general (descriptive) information about performance until skill
level or knowledge of the skill’s dynamics improves. More precise feedback should be withheld
until students have had enough practice on a task to benefit from detailed information.
5. When is transfer of learning most efficient?
Answer:
Transfer of learning is most efficient when both tasks share common elements. Those elements
that are similar or identical to other elements in a learning situation will positively aid the
learner, while dissimilar elements will hinder the transfer of learning.
6. Explain segmentation, or progressive part practice.
Answer:
Segmentation or progressive part practice involves either a forward or backward chaining. In
forward chaining the first part of a skill is practiced first to some criterion level before
introducing the second part and so on. This method is particularly popular among track and
field coaches and dance instructors. In backward chaining the last segment is learned first. For
example, an athlete practicing the discus throw by first working on just the toss, and then
combining the toss and one turn is using the progressive part method.
7. Identify six different types of practice (excluding mental practice).
Answer:
Part practice
Whole practice
Blocked practice
Random practice
Massed practice
Distributed practice
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8. What is the law of effect?
Answer:
The law of effect states that organisms tend to repeat responses that are rewarded and to avoid
responses that are not rewarded or are punished.