Chapter 1
Themes in the study of life
AP BIOLOGY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Describe the ten levels to the hierarchy of biological organization.
Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Name examples of each.
Contrast emergent properties with reductionism.
Contrast negative feedback with positive feedback.
Describe/contrast the three domains of life. Name example organisms in each.
Explain Darwin’s views on (a) “descent with modification” and (b) natural selection.
Give examples of each.
7. Why is a hypothesis often framed in the form of “If . . . then”? What is the difference
between a theory and a hypothesis?
8. What is meant by a “controlled experiment?”
9. Explain the eleven themes that pervade all of biology.
Chapter 2
Chemical Context of Life
1. Describe the structure of an atom using the terms: proton, neutron, electron, atomic
number, atomic mass, isotopes, and energy levels.
Be able to:
 Calculate atomic mass, atomic number, and atomic charge when given the number of
protons, neutrons, and electrons.
 Relate the chemical behavior of an atom to its number of valence electrons.
 Explain the uses of radioactive tracers.
2. Explain the different types of bonds between atoms. Give an example of each. Then
rank them from strongest to weakest.
a. covalent (polar versus nonpolar)
b. ionic
c. hydrogen
d. Van der Waals interactions
Chapter 3
Water and the Fitness of the Environment
1. Water has exceptional properties that explain its unique role both inside and
outside of living organisms. Describe the structure and behavior of water molecules
which allow it to support life.
Define and explain:
 Its polar structure
 Ability to form H-bonds
 Cohesive properties
 Adhesive properties
 Its high specific heat and high heat of vaporization which allow it to moderate
temperatures.
 Evaporative cooling
 The ability of ice to float
2. Water is a versatile solvent.
Explain why ionic and polar compounds are water-soluble.
a. Define and give examples of hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances.
b. Be very specific in defining what the pH scale is in terms of hydrogen and
hydroxide ions.
c. How do buffers minimize changes in pH? Give an example.
3. Describe the causes and effects of acid precipitation.
Chapter 4
Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life
1. Explain the role of carbon in the molecular diversity of life. Include its structure,
bonding patterns, and role in a variety of hydrocarbon structures.
2. All of the following functional groups increase the solubility of organic compounds
in water. First, give its molecular structure. Then, name a sample compound of
which it forms a portion.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
hydroxyl
carbonyl (in aldehydes vs. ketones)
carboxyl
amino
sulfhydryl
phosphate
Chapter 5
The Structure and Function of Macromolecules
1. Contrast condensation (dehydration) with hydrolysis reactions. Give an example of
each.
2. Name the monomers that compose each of the following: carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids.
3. Distinguish between and give examples of:
a. monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
b. glucose and sucrose
c. starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin
d. fatty acid and glycerol
e. saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
f. fat and phospholipid
g. polysaccharide and polypeptide
h. DNA and RNA
i. purine and pyrimidine
j. nucleoside, nucleotide, and nucleic acid
4. Describe the structure, characteristics, and functions of carbohydrates.
5. Describe the structure, characteristics, and functions of lipids.
6. a. Describe the structure of a basic amino acid. In a diagram, circle the carboxyl
and the amino groups. Then, show a condensation reaction between two amino
acids and circle the peptide bond that forms between them.
b. Describe the four structural levels in the conformation of a protein.
c. What does denaturation mean? What causes it? What is the result of it?
d. Describe at least four different types of proteins, explain their functions, and name
examples.
7. Describe the structure, characteristics, and functions of nucleic acids.
Chapter 6 Metabolism
1. Distinguish between catabolic and anabolic pathways. Explain the role of energy in
each of these pathways.
2. Explain the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
3. What is free energy? Explain how ∆G derived. Explain the relationship between ∆G
and whether a reaction is exergonic or endergonic.
4. a. Describe the structure of ATP.
b. Is a reaction that forms ATP exergonic or endergonic?
c. How does ATP perform work?
5. a. Distinguish between a catalyst and an enzyme.
b. Explain how enzymes speed up chemical reactions.
c. Define: substrate, active site, induced fit, cofactors, and coenzymes.
d. How does the specificity of an enzyme depend on its structure?
e. How is the activity of an enzyme affected by:
 Substrate concentration?
 Competitive versus noncompetitive inhibitors?
 Temperature?
 pH?
f. Name the bonds that are disrupted when a protein is denatured. Refer to the four
structural levels in the conformation of a protein.
Chapter 7
A Tour of the Cell
1. The cell is the unit of structure and function of all organisms. Name the four
structures found in all cells.
2. a. Describe the differences that separate prokaryotic from eukaryotic cells.
b. Give examples of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
3. Explain the importance of cells being microscopic in size.
4. Distinguish between the following pairs of structures in BOTH their structure
AND function:
a. cell membrane and cell wall
b. nucleus and nucleolus
c. rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
d. lysosomes and peroxisomes
e. food vacuole, contractile vacuole, and central vacuole
f. chloroplasts and mitochondria
g. mitochontrial matrix and cristae
h. chloroplast thylakoids (grana) and stroma
i. cilia and flagella
j. basal body and centriole
5. Explain the functions of each of the following: ribosomes, endoplasmic reticula, and
Golgi complexes. How do they interact in the synthesis and delivery of new
membrane material and in the export of proteins from the cell?
6. What are the functions of the cytoskeleton? Describe the similarities and differences
in structure AND function between microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate
filaments.
7. Contrast the structures found in animal cells with those found in plant cells.
8. Neighboring cells are often in direct physical contact with each other. Thus, they can
adhere, interact, and communicate with each other. These places of contact are called
intercellular junctions. Explain and contrast these junctions between plant and animal
cells.
Chapter 8
Membrane Structure and Function
1. Describe the basic structure of cell membranes. Distinguish between the functions
performed by the lipid, protein, and carbohydrate components of membranes. Explain
the fluid nature of membranes.
2. Explain what causes cell membranes to be selectively permeable.
3. a. Explain the similarities and differences between diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion. Give examples of each.
b. How is active transport different from passive transport? Give an example of active
transport.
4. Contrast what happens to cells placed in isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions.
5. a. Contrast exocytosis with endocytosis. Give an example of each.
b. Contrast phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis. Give
examples of each.
6. (Also, refer to p. 738 – 742.)
a. Explain and give examples of proton pumps in plant cell membranes.
b. Relate water movement across plant cell membranes to water potential, solute (or
osmotic) potential, and pressure potential.
b. Under what environmental conditions would a plant cell become
 Turgid?
 Flaccid?
 Plasmolyzed?
c. Explain the role of aquaporins in water transport.
Chapter 9
Cellular Respiration
1. Explain what is meant by oxidation and reduction. How are the two reactions coupled
together? When a substance is reduced, is energy stored or released from it? What
about when a substance is oxidized?
2. Write the equation for cellular respiration. Name those substances that are oxidized
and those that are reduced. Where does the energy come from to synthesize ATP?
Name the final electron acceptor.
3. Describe the basic chemical processes of glycolysis. What molecules are required and
and what molecules are produced by the end of the chemical pathway? How many
molecules of NADH and of ATP are produced per molecule of glucose? Where in
the cell does glycolysis occur?
4. Summarize the citric acid (Krebs) cycle. What molecules enter the cycle and what
molecules are produced by the end of the cycle? How many molecules of ATP,
FADH2, NADH, and CO2 are produced per molecule of glucose? Where in the cell
does the citric acid cycle occur?
5. Describe the critical role of NAD+ and FAD in the glycolytic and citric acid pathways.
6. Explain the importance of chemiosmosis. What is the maximum number of ATP
generated per NADH and per FADH2 during chemiosmosis? Where does
chemiosmosis occur within a mitochondrion? Relate chemiosmosis to the electron
transport chain. Where is the electron transport chain within a mitochondrion?
7. Contrast the number of ATP generated per glucose during oxidative phosphorylation
with the number generated during substrate-level phosphorylation.
8. How do cells generate ATP in the absence of oxygen? Describe two different
fermentation pathways.
9. Compare the number of ATP produced from the metabolism of one glucose molecule
under aerobic conditions with the number produced under anaerobic conditions.
Which is more energy efficient?
10. Explain how each of the organic molecules of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates enter
the reactions of cellular respiration.
Chapter 10
Photosynthesis
1. Distinguish between grana, thylakoids, and stroma in their structure and function.
2. Write the equation for photosynthesis. Name those molecules that are oxidized and
those that are reduced. What molecules are split to release oxygen gas? What is
photophosphorylation? What is carbon fixation?
3. Contrast the major events that occur during the light reactions with those that occur
during the Calvin cycle.
4. Explain the difference between absorption and action spectra. What conclusions can
be drawn from each?
5. The light-dependent reactions:
a. What forms the reaction center in a photosystem?
b. Contrast photosystem I with photosystem II.
c. Contrast cyclic and noncyclic electron flow.
6. Contrast the chemiosmotic mechanism for ATP formation in the mitochondrion to that
in a chloroplast.
7. How is the Calvin cycle dependent on the light reactions? Name the enzyme that
“fixes” CO2? What substances are supplied to the light reactions from the Calvin
cycle?
8. What is photorespiration? When does it occur? How is it a disadvantage to plants?
9. Contrast C3 and C4 plants. Name examples of each and describe the environments in
which they normally live. Contrast the internal anatomy of their leaves. Explain the
role of PEP carboxylase in C4 plants.
10. How are CAM plants adapted for surviving in hot, dry environments? Name some
CAM plants. Contrast C4 with CAM photosynthesis.
11. Compare aerobic respiration and photosynthesis in eukaryotic cells. Specify
reactants and products, electron-carrier molecules, substances that are oxidized
or reduced, organelles involved, etc.
Chapters 12 and 13
Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles
1. Define: chromatin, chromatid, cytokinesis, centriole, centrosome, centromere,
kinetochore, aster.
2. Contrast interphase with mitosis. During which phase is DNA synthesized? During
which phase are chromosomes visible with a light microscope? Explain why.
3. Describe the principal events that occur during each stage of mitosis. Explain how you
would recognize a cell in each stage. Distinguish plant cell mitosis with animal cell
mitosis. How does mitosis accomplish the even distribution of genetic information to
each new daughter cell?
4. Contrast cytokinesis in plant and animal cells.
5. Describe binary fission. How is it different from mitosis that occurs in eukaryotic cells?
6. Explain how the cell cycle is regulated.
7. Explain the abnormalities that create cancer.
8. Contrast autosome with sex chromosome, diploid cell with haploid cell, somatic
cell with gamete.
9. What are tetrads? What is synapsis? What are chiasma? What is reduction division?
10. Describe the principal events that occur during each stage of meiosis.
Indicate the stage during which each of the following occurs:
a. Non-sister chromatids of a homologous pair of chromosomes cross over.
b. Homologous chromosomes are separated into different daughter cells
c. Haploid daughter cells are produced?
d. Sister chromatids are separated into different daughter cells
11. Describe events during meiosis and fertilization that create genetic variability.
Chapters 14 Mendel and the Gene Idea
1. Discuss Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment. Explain how the
events of Meiosis I account for the observations that led Mendel to formulate these
laws.
Explain how each of the following deviate from Mendel’s conclusions:
a. pleiotropy
b. epistasis
c. polygenic inheritance
d. autosomal linkage
e. sex-linked inheritance
2. Distinguish between the allele interactions of codominance and incomplete dominance
and give an example of each.
3. Discuss the inheritance of the ABO blood group in humans.
4. For each of the following, describe the genetic cause, symptoms, and possible
treatment:
a. cystic fibrosis
b. phenylketonuria (PKU)
c. sickle cell anemia
d. Tay-Sachs
e. hemophelia
f. Huntingon’s disease
5. What are linked genes? How can the linear order of genes on a chromosome (linkage
map) be determined? How can linked genes be separated during meiosis?
6. Describe four chromosomal mutations that influence gene sequence.
7. Discuss nondisjunction. When does it occur during meiosis? Describe examples of
human disorders due to nondisjunction.
Chapter 15 The Molecular Basis of Inheritance
1. Experiments by the following scientists provided critical information concerning DNA.
Describe each classical experiment and indicate how it provided evidence for the
chemical nature of the gene.
a. Griffith and Avery, Macleod, and McCarty – bacterial transformation
b. Hershey and Chase – bacteriophage replication
c. Chargaff – DNA bases
d. Watson, Crick, Wilkins, and Franklin – DNA structure
e. Meselson and Stahl – replication of DNA
2. Discuss DNA replication. Include the following terms: replication fork, RNA
primers, primase, helicase, DNA polymerases, leading versus lagging strands,
Okazaki fragments, ligase, antiparallel, 5’ and 3’ ends, complementary base pairs.
3. What are telomeres? Explain the importance of telomeres in preserving genes in
eukaryotic cells. Explain the role of telomerase in eukaryotic germ cells.
Chapter 16
From Gene to Protein
1. State three ways in which RNA is different from DNA. Discuss the structure and
function of messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA.
2. a. Describe the process of transcription (initiation, elongation, and termination) in
eukaryotic cells.
b. Discuss how messenger RNA is modified after transcription in eukaryotic cells.
Include RNA splicing.
3. Describe the process of translation (initiation, elongation, and termination).
4. How are polypeptides modified to become functional proteins?
5. A portion of a specific DNA molecule consists of the following sequence of
nucleotide triplets:
TAC GAA CTT GGG TCC
a. List the complementary RNA triplets that would be transcribed from this DNA.
b. List the anticodon triplets that would be used during translation.
c. List the amino acids that would be sequenced during translation.
d. What would be the effect of a deletion or an addition of one DNA nucleotide?
e. What would be the effect of a substitution of one DNA nucleotide?
f. Give examples of missense and nonsense mutations.
6. What is a gene?
Chapter 17
Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria
1. Describe the structure of a virus. Contrast the lytic and lysogenic cycles. Explain
how retroviruses reproduce.
2. Name three emergent viruses. Explain what caused their emergence and spread.
Contrast viroids and prions and how they cause disease.
3. a. Describe the structure and reproduction of bacterial cells.
b. Compared to eukaryotes, why are prokaryotes more genetically diverse?
c. Contrast the bacterial chromosome with plasmids and episomes.
4. Contrast and give examples of transformation, transduction, and conjugation.
5. What are transposons? What effect can they have on gene expression?
6. Discuss the working of the lac operon. Discuss how this operon regulates protein
synthesis in specific bacterial cells. Explain the role of the promoter, regulator, the
repressor protein, and the three structural genes.
Chapter 18
Eukaryotic Genomes
1. Describe the structure of chromosomes in eukaryotic cells. Use the terms: DNA,
histone proteins, nucleosomes, centromere, telomeres. Contrast chromatin, heterochromatin, and euchromatin.
2. Contrast the effect of histone acetylation and methylation on gene transcription.
3. Explain how control elements, activators, and repressors can cause transcription of
specific genes only in specific cells of a multicellular organism.
4. How can one gene produce different types of polypeptides?
5. Describe two mechanisms that prevent translation in eukaryotes.
6. Contrast proto-oncogenes and oncogenes. Describe three ways in which a protooncogene can be converted into an oncogene. Explain how tumor-suppressor genes
prevent tumors.
7. Describe mechanisms that lead to duplication, deletion, or rearrangement of
chromosome segments.
Chapter 19
DNA Technology
1. What is recombinant DNA? Describe how DNA can be cleaved and spliced. Use the
terms: restriction endonucleases, recognition site, sticky ends, DNA ligase, plasmids.
Identify the role that antibiotic resistance genes play in recombinant technology.
2. Describe the following technologies and give practical applications of each:
a. gene cloning
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
nucleic acid probes
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
gel electrophoresis
RFLP analysis (DNA fingerprinting)
DNA microarray assays
transgenic plants and animals
Chapter 20
Descent with Modification (Darwin’s View)
1. Define evolution and adaptation.
2. Explain Lamarck’s theory of evolution. What are its shortcomings?
3. Explain Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Give an example that illustrates how
a population adapts to changes in the environment. Include concepts of descent with
modification, survival of the fittest, and “fitness” (chapter 23).
4. Cite four sources of evidence that support evolution.
Chapter 21
Evolution of Populations
1. Define what is meant by a population. State the Hardy-Weinberg theorem. Describe
five conditions that would maintain Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium within a population.
2. Mutation and sexual recombination are the raw materials of evolution. Explain.
3. Explain the role of each of the following in small populations: genetic drift, bottleneck effect, and founder effect.
4. Contrast the three types of natural selection: directional, disruptive, and stabilizing.
5. Define and give an example of heterozygous advantage.
Chapter 22
Origin of Species
1. Define what is meant by species. What “test” is often used to determine if organisms
are members of the same species?
2. Describe and give examples of at least five reproductively isolating mechanisms.
3. Explain allopatric speciation. How can it occur? Explain the roles of isolation,
mutation, and selection.
4. Explain sympatric speciation. How can it occur?
5. Contrast and give examples of adaptive radiation (divergent evolution) and
convergent evolution.
6. Contrast gradualism with punctuated equilibrium in explaining the rate of
evolutionary change.
7. “Evolution is not goal oriented.” Explain this statement.
Chapter 23
Phylogeny and Systematics
1. Contrast analogous with homologous structures. Give examples.
2. Define: phylogeny, systematics, and taxonomy. Explain the importance of
biological classification systems and their goal.
3. a. List the taxonomic hierarchies. How does this hierarchy describe the relative
amount of similarity or dissimilarity among organisms?
b. What is binomial nomenclature? How does it recognize the similarity or
dissimilarity among organisms?
4. What are molecular clocks? How do they measure evolutionary time? What is a
shortcoming of these clocks?
5. Describe the universal tree of life.
Chapter 24
The Tree of Life
1. How old is the Earth? Describe the atmosphere of primitive Earth. Explain how
simple organic compounds, followed by the formation of polymers, and then,
protobionts may have formed.
2. Describe characteristics of the first organisms. Stromatolites contain evidence of the
earliest fossils. What are stromatolites? How old are the earliest fossils?
3. Describe how eukaryotes may have evolved from symbioses.
4. Which member of each pair probably evolved first and why?
a. RNA versus DNA
b. prokaryote versus eukaryote
c. aerobic versus anaerobic respiration
d. photosynthesis versus aerobic respiration
e. aquatic versus terrestrial organisms
Chapter 25
Prokaryotes
1. List the major characteristics of prokaryotes.
2. Contrast photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs, and chemoheterotrophs.
3. Contrast obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, and facultative anaerobes.
4. Explain the important roles performed by nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Why are plants
dependent on these bacteria?
5. Contrast the two domains of prokaryotes. Give examples of each.
6. Explain the importance of prokaryotes in our environment. Give specific examples.
Chapter 26
Protists
1. What characteristics do all protists have in common?
2. What characteristics separate the protists into different clades?
3. Explain the possible origin of protists.
Chapter 28
Fungi
1. Describe characteristics of fungi that distinguish them from other eukaryotic
kingdoms.
2. Describe the sexual and asexual reproductive cycles in fungi.
3. Define and explain the significance of each of the following regarding fungi:
a. chitin
b. hyphae
c. mycelia
d. mycorrhizae
e. haustoria
f. saprophytic vs. parasitic vs. mutualistic
g. lichens
4. Describe the economic and ecological importance of fungi.
5. Describe the major characteristics that distinguish the five phyla of fungi.
Chapters 27
Plants and the Colonization of Land
1. Describe the hypothesis on the origin of land plants. Give evidence that supports this
hypothesis.
2. List the characteristics of the members of the plant kingdom.
3. Describe the alternation of generations in plants. Which process (mitosis or meiosis)
produces gametes? Produces spores? Which portions of the lifecycle are haploid?
Diploid?
4. Specify the characteristics that distinguish Bryophytes (mosses) from Tracheophytes
(ferns, conifers, flowering plants).
5. Describe the adaptations that allow land plants to successfully live in terrestrial
environments.
6. Explain and contrast the alternation of generations (life cycle) in
a. mosses
b. ferns
c. pines
d. flowering plants
7. Outline the characteristics that separate monocots from dicot (eudicot) angiosperms.
Chapter 31
Plant Structure, Growth, and Development
1. Describe the functions of the various types of roots, stems, and leaves found in
angiosperms.
2. Contrast each of the following groups of plant cells in terms of their structure and
functions:
a. parenchyma, sclerenchyma, and collenchyma cells
b. xylem vs. phloem cells
c. tracheids vs. vessel elements of xylem cells
d. sieve tubes vs. companion cells of phloem
e. vascular cylinder vs. vascular bundles
3. Define meristem. Differentiate between primary and secondary growth. Describe
the results of each type of growth.
Chapter 32
Transport in Vascular Plants
1. Trace the pathway of water through the structures of a flowering plant from the
soil into the root and up into the stem and leaves into the atmosphere. Explain the
mechanisms involved in conducting water through these tissues. Include both
lateral and vertical movement.
2. a. Define transpiration.
b. List environmental factors that influence the rate of transpiration.
c. Describe adaptations that reduce the transpiration rate.
d. Relate the opening and closing of stomates to internal and external conditions of
the plant.
3. Discuss the manner in which organic compounds are translocated in flowering plants.
4. Discuss the role of each of the following in transport:
a. plasmodesmata
b. Casparian strip
c. guard cells
d. proton pumps and chemiosmosis
e. tonoplast
Chapter 33
Plant Nutrition
1. List the nine macronutrients required by higher plants and give their functions.
Design an experiment that would illustrate the function of each of these
macronutrients.
2. Explain why most of the mass of a plant’s body comes from air, not from the soil.
3. Describe the symbiotic relationships between plants and
a. bacteria.
b. fungi.
4. How are epiphytes, parasitic, and carnivorous plants adapted for obtaining nutrients?
Give examples.
Chapter 34
Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology
1. List and describe the functions of the female and the male reproductive structures of a
flower. Name the sterile parts of the flower and specify their functions.
2. Explain pollination. How are plants adapted for wind pollination versus insect
pollination?
3. Explain double fertilization. Describe the results of double fertilization.
4. Describe the major parts of a seed. Describe the process of germination and what
occurs inside the seed to cause growth of the embryo. Which part of the embryo is the
first to emerge? What is the advantage of seed dormancy?
5. From what flower structure does fruit develop? What is the major function of fruit
to a flowering plant?
6. Describe several types of vegetative propagation in flowering plants. What are the
advantages of vegetative (asexual) reproduction?
Chapter 35
Plant Responses to Internal and External Signals
1. a. Discuss the role of auxin in phototropism. Describe the effect of light on the
distribution of auxin.
b. Discuss the role of auxin in gravitropism (geotropism) in stems. Explain the
mechanism by which plants sense gravity and the effect of gravity on auxin
distribution. Explain the effect that gravity has on roots compared to stems.
2. Discuss the major effects that each of the following has on plant growth and
development: gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, and ethylene.
3. Describe the role of phytochromes on plant growth.
4. Define photoperiodism. How do plants detect night length? Is a plant hormone
involved? How is vernalization related to flowering?
Chapters 29
Animal Evolution and Invertebrates
1.
Discuss the major characteristics found in all members of the animal kingdom.
2.
In a chart, define and give examples of each of the following types of:
a. symmetry
b. germ layers
c. body cavities
3.
Compare protostomes and deuterostomes in
a. the type of cleavage that occurs.
b. how the coelom is formed.
c. the fate of the blastopore.
4.
Name the only two phyla that are deuterostomates.
5.
Prepare a chart in which you describe each phylum below in their number of tissue
layers (if present), type of symmetry, and type of coelom (if present). Also, list names
of example organisms in each phylum.
a. Porifora
b. Cnidaria
c. Platyhelminthes
d. Nematoda
e. Annelida
f. Arthropoda
g. Mollusca
h. Echinodermata
Chapter 30 Vertebrates
1.
Discuss the four anatomical characteristics of the chordate phylum.
2.
Discuss the characteristics that distinguish the vertebrate subphylum within the
chordate phylum.
3.
What is the characteristic that separates the classes of the reptiles, birds, and
mammals from the fish class? Explain the significance of this feature in the
evolution of terrestrial animals.
4.
Describe the adaptive characteristics that led to the evolutionary success of each of
the following classes of animals:
a. cartilaginous fishes
b. bony fishes
c. amphibians
d. reptiles
e. birds
f. mammals
Chapter 36
Animal Form and Function
1.
Surface area to volume ratio must be large to maximize exchange of chemicals with
the environment.
a. Describe three examples in the human body where surface area is maximized to
exchange chemicals with the environment.
b. Describe two body shapes that maximize surface area for contact with the
environment.
2.
Contrast the four general types of tissues. Correlate structure with function. Which
type of tissue exhibits the most diversity?
3.
Define metabolism. Describe how metabolic rate can be measured in animals.
Explain how environmental temperature and body size affect the metabolic rate of an
ectotherm compared to an endotherm.
4.
Define homeostasis. Explain and give examples of positive and negative feedback.
In particular, describe the feedback mechanisms involved in thermoregulation.
5.
Describe adaptations that permit thermoregulation. Give examples in both
ectotherms and endotherms. Contrast and give examples of acclimatization,
hibernation, and estivation.
Chapter 37
Animal Nutrition
1.
Describe the detailed structure of each of the following organs and explain how it
promotes functions of ingestion, digestion, absorption, and/or elimination in a
mammalian digestive system.
a. mouth
b. esophagus
c. stomach
d. small intestine
e. large intestine
2.
What classes of foods (carbohydrates, lipids, and/or proteins) are chemically digested
(by enzymes) in each of the following digestive organs? Name enzymes that function
in each of these three locations. Specify the substrates and products of each enzyme
reaction. Develop a table to illustrate this information.
a. mouth
3.
4.
5.
6.
b. stomach
c. small intestine
Explain the role of each of the following in the digestive process:
a. epiglottis
b. peristalsis
c. acid pH in the stomach
d. pyloric sphincter
e. pancreatic juice
f. bile and emulsification
g. liver
h. gall bladder
i. hepatic portal vein
j. large intestine
k. chylomicrons
Describe the structure of the small intestine that allows it to absorb nutrients. Be
specific.
Explain the role of hormones in regulating digestion. Give examples.
Explain adaptations found in herbivores, omnivores, and carnivores relative to their
diets.
Chapter 38
Circulation and Gas Exchange
1.
Contrast open and closed circulatory systems. Give examples of animals that exhibit each
type of circulatory system. Specify advantages of each type of system.
2.
Contrast the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
What are the advantages of a four-chambered heart?
3.
Describe the flow of a drop of deoxygenated blood as it enters and leaves the mammalian
heart and eventually carries oxygen to the body. Name all blood vessels into and out of
the heart as well as the heart valves and the heart chambers.
4.
Describe the cardiac cycle. Include the terms pulse, diastole, systole, and stroke volume.
What keeps the blood flowing in one direction through the heart? Name factors that affect
blood pressure.
5.
Describe the control mechanism of the heartbeat. Explain how hormones can influence
this mechanism.
6.
Relate structure to function of: arteries, veins, and capillaries.
7.
Describe the role of the lymphatic system.
8.
Contrast red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets in
structure and function. Describe the structure and functions of plasma.
9.
Define:
a. hemophelia
b. heart attack
c. stroke
d. atherosclerosis
e. arteriosclerosis
f. hypertension
10.
Describe how the structure of the skin, gills, and lungs in various species of animals
perform the function of gas exchange.
11.
Explain how countercurrent exchange is more efficient that concurrent flow.
12.
Relate structure to the function of the: larynx, trachea, and lungs in mammals.
13.
Describe the structures and how they function in inhalation (inspiration) and in
exhalation (expiration) in humans.
14.
Which has a stronger effect on breathing rate – oxygen or carbon dioxide level?
Describe the role of the nervous system in regulating the breathing rate.
15.
Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are each carried in human blood. Describe
how partial pressure of oxygen and pH can affect hemoglobin’s ability to carry oxygen.
Chapter 39
The Immune System
1.
Describe the rapid nonspecific defenses of the body. Give examples.
2.
Describe the slower, more specific, humoral and cell-mediated immune responses.
Differentiate between B and T lymphocytes.
3.
Distinguish between active and passive immunity. What is a drawback of passive
immunity? What is a vaccine?
4.
Differentiate between the primary and the secondary immune responses.
5.
How does the body recognize self from non-self?
6.
Explain problems that result due to abnormal immune function.
7.
Explain how an infection with HIV induces AIDS.
Chapter 40
Osmoregulation and Excretion
1.
Explain osmoregulation and give examples from various animal groups.
2.
Name the final waste products produced during the metabolism of:
a. carbohydrates and fats.
b. proteins and nucleic acids.
3.
Describe and contrast the nitrogenous waste products produced by:
a. most aquatic animals.
b. most terrestrial animals, including mammals, fish, and some amphibians.
c. insects, reptiles, and birds.
4.
Describe the structure of a nephron. Draw and label a diagram.
5.
Describe the events that occur during each of the following processes. Include where
each occurs in the nephron, what substances are involved, and how each process
occurs:
a. filtration
b. reabsorption
c. secretion
6.
Explain the role of hormones in controlling the osmolarity of urine. Focus on ADH
and aldosterone.
7.
Describe the types of excretory structures found in various animal phyla.
Chapter 41
Hormones and the Endocrine System
1.
Define and give examples of each of the following:
a. neurotransmitter
b. hormone
c. steroid hormone
d. peptide hormone
e. endocrine gland
f. pheromone
g. growth factor
h. prostaglandin
2.
Contrast the mechanism of steroid versus peptide hormone action.
3.
Describe the structural and functional relationship between the hypothalamus and the
pituitary gland.
4.
List the hormones of the anterior pituitary and describe their functions.
5.
List the hormones of the posterior pituitary and describe their functions.
6.
Describe the feedback mechanism between the hypothalamus, the pituitary, and the
thryroid. Explain the effects if there is a malfunction in the system.
7.
Describe the feedback mechanism between the parathyroid hormone and calcitonin in
regulating blood calcium levels.
8.
Describe the roles of insulin and glucagon in controlling glucose homeostasis.
9.
10.
Describe the causes and symptoms of diabetes mellitus.
Explain the fight-and-flight reaction.
List the gonadal hormones and describe their functions.
Chapter 42
Animal Reproduction
1.
Define and give examples of asexual reproduction. What are the evolutionary
advantages and disadvantages of this type of reproduction compared to sexual
reproduction?
2.
Explain:
a. parthenogenesis
b. hermaphroditism
3.
Specify the adaptations necessary for:
a. external fertilization and care of offspring
b. internal fertilization and care of offspring
4.
Describe the structure and function of the human female reproductive organs. In
which structure does fertilization normally occur?
5.
Describe the structure and function of the human male reproductive organs. Describe
the pathway of sperm from their location of formation to their exit from the body.
6.
a. Explain three ways spermatogenesis differs from oogenesis.
b. Describe the structure of the egg and of the sperm and how each is adapted for its
function.
7.
a. Relate GnRH to pituitary hormones.
b. Relate FSH and LH to the uterine cycle.
c. What hormone triggers ovulation?
d. What events trigger menstruation?
8.
List the three general types, along with examples, of birth control methods. Which
ones are most effective in preventing pregnancy? Least effective?
Chapter 43
Animal Development
1.
Describe the steps involved in fertilization. Differentiate between the fast and the
slow blocks to polyspermy. Include the ions involved in each.
2.
What happens during cleavage in embryonic development? Explain how the amount
of yolk in the egg affects the rate of cleavage.
3.
What occurs during blastulation? How does the amount of yolk affect blastulation?
What is produced by the end of blastulation?
4.
What occurs during gastulation? Explain how the process of gastrulation differs in
animal embryos depending upon the amount of yolk in the egg. What is produced by
the end of gastrulation?
5.
Discuss the process of neurulation. Name the structures that the neural tube gives rise
to. Differentiate between the notochord and the neural tube. There is only one animal
phylum in which neurulation occurs. Name it.
6.
Name the three primary cell layers and indicate what adult structures or tissues that
develop from each.
7.
a. Name three classes of animals that produce amniotic eggs.
b. Describe the importance of amniotic eggs in the evolution of land animals.
c. Describe the function of each of the four extraembryonic membranes found in
amniotic eggs.
8.
Explain what determines the fate of cells during development.
9.
Define induction and give examples.
Chapter 44
Nervous Systems
1.
Define neuron. Describe the basic structure of a neuron. Describe the direction of
electrical transmission down a neuron.
2.
What are glia cells? Specify the role of oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells.
3.
Define resting potential. Explain the role of sodium/potassium pumps in maintaining
the resting potential of a neuron. (Refer to chapter 7.)
4.
Describe the sequence of events during the conduction of an action potential. Include
depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization. What is the refractory period?
5.
Relate the speed of conduction to the diameter of the axon and myelination.
6.
Differentiate between electrical synapses and chemical synapses. Explain how
neurotransmitters are released and cross the synaptic cleft. Describe mechanisms that
remove neurotransmitters from the synapse.
7.
8.
Distinguish between:
a. the CNS and the PNS.
b. the somatic and the autonomic neurous systems of the PNS.
c. the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous
system.
Describe the functions of each of the following parts of the vertebrate brain:
a. cerebral cortex
b. thalamus
c. cerebellum
d. medulla oblongata
e. hypothalamus
Chapter 45
Sensory and Motor Mechanisms
1.
Trace the passage of sound waves from the external environment to the brain. Name
each structure involved in the transmittance of sound waves.
2.
Describe the organs of balance in the inner ear of humans.
3.
Explain the specific receptors involved and how they perceive taste and smell in
humans.
4.
Describe the path of a light stimulus from where it enters the human eye to its
transmission as an impulse through the optic nerve. Name only those structures
through which light passes.
5.
Contrast hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton, and endoskeleton. Cite examples of
organisms that exhibit each type of skeleton.
6.
Define joint. Describe the different types of joints in the human body. Cite their
locations in the human body.
7.
Give a detailed description of the structure of a skeletal muscle fiber. Draw a
diagram. In both your description and your diagram, include the terms:
sarcomere, myosin, actin, Z lines, H zone, I band, A band.
According to the sliding filament model of muscle contraction, sarcomeres shorten.
Which areas in your diagram will decrease in length?
8.
Beginning at the presynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction, describe the
physical and biochemical events involved in the contraction of a skeletal muscle fiber.
Include the roles of ATP, T-tubules, calcium ions, sarcoplasmic reticula,
troponin, synaptic vesicles, myosin, and acetylcholine.
9.
List the types of muscles found in mammals and their characteristics. Specify the
location(s) of where each muscle type is found in the human body.
Chapter 46
An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere
1.
Distinguish between biotic and abiotic factors and how they influence the distribution
of species (a) on land. (b) in water.
2.
Outline the major terrestrial biomes describing the distinguishing abiotic factors of
each as well as the predominant plants and animals and how they are adapted to each
biome.
3.
What characteristics are used to distinguish an oligotrophic lake from a eutrophic
lake? Explain how humans have contributed to the eutrophication of lakes.
(Also, refer to Chapter 55.)
4.
Distinguish between a wetland, estuary, ocean pelagic biome, coral reef, and the
marine benthic zone.
Chapter 47
Population Ecology
1.
Explain the differences between an exponential and a logistic population growth
curve. What is the carrying capacity of a habitat? What is the allee effect?
2.
List some density-dependent and density-independent factors and explain how they
affect population growth.
3.
How does the age distribution of a country’s population affect the growth rate of that
population?
Chapter 48
Community Ecology
1.
Define, discuss, and give an example of each of the following interspecific
interactions:
a. competition and the competitive exclusion principle
b. predator-prey relationship
c. symbiosis
i. parasitism
ii. mutualism
iii. commensalism
2.
Distinguish between and give examples of:
a. cryptic versus aposematic coloration
b. Batesian versus Mullerian mimicry
3.
Describe the five trophic levels in a typical ecosystem. Discuss the flow of energy
through the ecosystem and the relationship between the different trophic levels.
Explain the important role of decomposers (detritivores). (Also, refer to chapter 54.)
4.
Define ecological succession. How does primary succession differ from secondary
succession? Discuss factors that can cause one stage of succession to be replaced by
another stage and, eventually, become a climax community.
Chapter 49
Ecosystems
1.
Distinguish between primary and secondary productivity. What factors can limit
the productivity of a terrestrial ecosystem? Of an aquatic ecosystem?
2.
What factors limit the number of trophic levels? Contrast pyramids of production,
biomass, and numbers.
3.
Describe the biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. In what
ways are humans affecting each of these cycles? Include agriculture, acid
precipitation, and global warming.
4.
How are toxic substances passed through food chains? Which trophic level is most
affected by nonbiodegradable toxins and why? What is biological magnification?
Chapter 50
Behavioral Ecology
1.
Contrast and give examples of innate behavior (including fixed action patterns and
sign stimuli) and learned behavior (including habituation, imprinting, classical
conditioning, and operant conditioning).
2.
Define and explain the role of each of the following in social behavior:
a. dominance hierarchies
b. territoriality
c. courtship behavior
d. pheromones
3.
In what ways can animals communicate? Give examples of visual, auditory,
chemical, tactile, and electrical signals.
4.
Contrast kinesis with taxis. Give examples of each.