Dr Faustus
Revision
Guide
AQA Lit (B)
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Social Context (AO4)
Dr Faustus was written in approximately 1592. English society at this time was a
world apart from that of the modern (or post-modern) world. Despite undergoing
drastic changes since the earlier Medieval times, society remained highly regimented.
The power of the State was largely concentrated in the hands of the Crown, at this
time that power being exercised by Elizabeth I. Her policy was shaped, influenced
and implemented by an elite class of nobles and courtiers, generally drawn from the
landed classes.
The core economy was based on agriculture and weaving, both activities primarily
lining the pockets of the owners of large estates. However, there was a developing
merchant and artisan class – centred in the great urban centres such as London,
Bristol, Norwich and York – and Elizabeth’s reign saw the beginnings of a conflict
between this new ‘middling’ sort and the traditional holders of power. This conflict
would come to a head fifty years after Marlowe wrote Dr Faustus, when the tensions
fed much of the strife of the Civil Wars. An element of this conflict is apparent in
Faustus’ treatment of the horse trader, who he dupes by selling him a magical horse:
Faustus, the urban and learned man, tricks the agricultural rustic. It is interesting to
note, however, that the joke is ultimately on Faustus – firstly, the man returns and
pulls Faustus’ leg off in a rage, and secondly the audience is left pondering on how far
below Faustus’ original lofty ambitions his actual behaviour has fallen.
Further social tensions are explored in Dr Faustus through the inclusion of characters
of differing classes. Faustus and his academic peers are drawn from the upper end of
the gentry – not quite nobility, but far above the average man. The academic classes
were often the destination for second- or third-born sons of noble or wealthy families
(the first-born son inheriting estates and secular power). Academia was largely
controlled by the Church – Dr Faustus is a Doctor of Divinity. The academics were
involved in educating not just the next generation of clergy but also the children of the
upper (and some upper-middle) classes.
The late Sixteenth Century was a period of growth in literacy throughout society,
although looking at the population as a whole the literate element was still a minority.
Tensions between the literate and at least partly educated, and those who had received
only at best a rudimentary education, are also reflected in Dr Faustus, particularly in
the conflicts between Wagner and the other servants, and in the ‘comic’ antics of Rafe
and Robin. Faustus himself is not set outside the dynamics of his world’s social
hierarchy, however: as the play progresses we see him come into conflict with the
Knight at the Imperial court (the Knight representing the old, feudal, militaristic order
in contrast to Faustus’ academic and educated background) and also reduced to
performing conjuring tricks for his social betters. The possibility that he not only
symbolically cuckolds the Knight (by magically placing the cuckold’s horns on his
head) but also literally cuckolds the Duke (by sating the Duchess’ desires) emphasises
the degree of tension between Faustus’ world and the society around him.
Women in late Sixteenth Century England had few rights. They could not own
property, except in the case of widowhood, and were expected to be subject to their
husband. There was a law in London at this period that one could not beat one’s wife
with any stick with a diameter greater than a man’s thumb – hardly exactly protection.
The women in Dr Faustus are generally presented as passive: Marlowe appears to be
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engaging in social conservatism when female characters are given an active role. The
characterisation of Lechery, with her crude sexual references, is integral to ensuring
Faustus remains locked into his pact with the Devil; it is the manifestation of Helen of
Troy who finally seals Faustus’ fate when she steals his soul with her kiss. In both
instances, Marlow appears to be reinforcing the misogynistic idea of women being
responsible for man’s downfall, á la Eve. It is possible to argue that, given Marlowe’s
apparent homosexuality, he might be inclined to have a less romanticised view of
women than other young men. Such misogyny was not without its risks in a time
when the ultimate power in the land was a Queen: however, Elizabeth was far from
the stereotypical woman of the day. Determined to keep her own powers, she had
resisted calls for her marriage and had instead built up the cult of the Virgin Queen.
Married to her country, sacrificing her womanly duties and qualities for the good of
her people, highly aware of the importance of pomp and display, Elizabeth had
peaked in 1588 when she rallied the nation for defence against the Spanish Armada.
Elizabeth was perhaps the closest thing to a Protestant saint that one could get, almost
universally popular in society; Marlowe was hardly likely to make any explicit
criticism of this demi-goddess, whatever his opinion of women in general.
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Dramatic Heritage (AO4)
Marlowe was an exact contemporary of Shakespeare (they were both born in the same
year) and both were writing plays at around the same time. The Elizabethan age was
a time of growth and development in the theatre; the English Renaissance (rebirth)
was underway and plays were developing away from being moralistic or religious in
tone, and were gaining depth and dramatic impact.
Marlowe’s audience would have been a dynamic mix of the established wealthy
(frequently companies of actors were hired to perform for individual nobles and their
households) and also the urban-based gentry, the burgeoning ‘middling sort’
(merchants, craftsmen etc) and the lower, uneducated classes. The breadth of society
covered by these latter three classes is significant, and Marlowe’s text has to cater to
each individual class’s taste. This goes some way to explain the uneasy mix of high
theology and high farce within the tale: Marlowe must cater for those in the audience
able to read his text as a piece of dramatic literature, while also engaging those who
have come for the spectacle of theatre.
Marlowe builds directly on the foundations laid by the Medieval morality and mystery
plays, religious allegories sanctioned by the Church whose purpose was to spread the
Word, especially amongst those who could not read or did not receive religious
instruction. The use of the Good and Bad Angels, and the tensions between the two,
as well as the characterisations of the Seven Deadly Sins, draw directly from this
clerical heritage. The (wise and holy) Old Man, another stock character also makes
several appearances, suggesting that Faustus for all his knowledge and cleverness
isn’t actually wise at all.
Marlowe goes further than just rehashing old morality plays, however – or at least,
there is a strong argument to this end. His characters develop – even Mephistopheles,
the great tempter, has a depth to him. Faustus, for all his pig-headed pride and
pathetic failure to really use his powers, does by the end of the play come to a
realisation of his own fall, and the fate that awaits him.
Marlowe also develops the dramatic potential of the essentially simplistic plot. The
‘cheap seats’ audience will be in turns thrilled by the slicing of Faustus’ arm to sign
the deed, entertained by the slapstick of the mechanical classes (Rafe, Robin, the
horse-trader etc) and terrified (or tempted) by the visions of Hell displayed. The more
discerning audience, on the other hand, will be shocked by Marlowe’s inversion of the
moments when Faustus calls on Christ (the first time, Satan pops up; the second,
Faustus is dragged off to Hell) while they will be entertained like the good Protestant
mob they claim to be by the Papal-bashing.
Dr Faustus is based on the Germanic ‘Faust’ legend, with embellishments by
Marlowe. It is interesting to note that he appears to retain the Germanic setting –
Faustus is an academic at the University of Wittenburg. Marlowe also transfers the
action to earlier in the Sixteenth Century: the reference to the court of the Emperor
refers to Charles V, who ruled a vast empire covering Spain, modern-day Belgium
and Holland, much of Italy, much of modern-day Germany, and Austria. Charles V
had to deal with the initial flourishing of the heretical Protestant doctrines, which
emerged from 1517 onwards and culminated in Catholic states recognising the
theoretical right of Protestant states to exist.
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Aspects of the Gothic (AO2, AO3, AO4)
Knowledge
Gothic literature can be characterised as being fascinated by the meaning of life. This
can be litereal – Dracula has the secret to eternal life, Frankenstein creates life – or
metaphorical. Macbeth reveals the true qualities of human nature (lust for power,
treachery, madness). Wuthering Heights brings family secrets into a public (in the
form of Lockwood) domain. Dr Faustus explores the limits of human knowledge: for
all his experiences with Mephistopheles, Faustus fails to understand the human
condition (see the Old Man for a contrast) and is ultimately isolated from human and,
indeed, spiritual love.
Title
There is a tendency for Gothic texts to have an eponymous (anti-)hero – ie their name
is also the title. Frankenstein, Dracula, Dr Faustus, The Monk (OK, not a name, but
kind of), Christabel, Hamlet, Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde – all the way down to modern
Gothic texts such as Stephen King’s Carrie. Not really a good analytical point, but
quite a nice throwaway remark if the question’s right.
Night-time Action
Faustus summons Mephistopheles in the middle of the night; he gets taken to Hell at
midnight after 24 years; the comical run-ins he has invariably occur at night. Good
links across to Macbeth murdering Duncan and his subsequent fear that ‘Macbeth
shall sleep no more’, and of course the haunting in Wuthering Heights.
Horror and Terror
The great irony of the text is that Faustus just doesn’t ‘get’ what’s in store. He can’t
understand Mephistopheles’ line ‘Why, this is Hell nor am I out of: for Faustus, Hell
holds no fear until right at the end; he views Hell as a ‘fable’. Which is not how the
audience would have felt – for them, Hell was a very real place and one which they
might end up in at any point, given the plethora of causes of death in the Sixteenth
Century. There is plenty of horror in the text – Faustus signing in his own blood,
having his leg pulled off, being dragged off to Hell – but it’s probably less impactful
than the terror the audience feels on Faustus’ behalf, even though he can’t feel it
himself until it’s too late.
Supernatural
Necromancy, magic, demons and devils, Heaven and Hell, Good and Bad Angels...
Plenty to be going on there. Contrasts nicely with Shakespeare’s uses of the
supernatural in Macbeth: even the witches can be read as ultimately impotent (they
just plant the seed of ambition, after all; Lady Macbeth is the one who nurtures it).
Shakespeare’s most memorable supernatural elements – the dagger, and Banquo’s
ghost – can easily be read as hallucinations: indeed, both Macbeth (‘A dagger of the
mind... / Proceeding from the heat-oppresséd brain’) and Lady Macbeth (‘O proper
stuff! / This is the very painting of your fear’) attribute the supernatural to
psychological roots.
Transgressive Females
The sin of Lechery is personified as a woman, potty-mouthed. Helen of Troy is less
obviously transgressive. However, we must not forget that she has been summoned
from the dead and, even more transgressive, it was her ‘abduction’ (or willing
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escape?) by Paris that led to the Trojan War. And she is the epitome of female
attractiveness, which is never a good thing...
Narrative
Good for AO2 in terms of Form / Structure. The nature of this text being a play
means that we can’t have the multiplicity of narrators and narratives that we get in
Wuthering Heights but there are elements of duality here – Faustus’ struggles are
echoed in the experiences of Wagner, but in a comic realm.
Blood
Dracula, The Bloody Chamber, the blood that stains the Macbeths’ hands, the blood
which Faustus signs his contract in... Links to horror element quite well, but can be
used discretely on its own. Could make speculative AO3 / AO4 readings to do with
an inversion of Christian belief (“This is my blood which is shed for you; drink ye all
of this”) – Christ’s blood is our salvation, Faustus’ blood is his damnation.
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Religious Context (AO3, AO4)
By the time Dr Faustus was written, England was definitely a Protestant country. For
much of the mid-Sixteenth Century, there had been religious uncertainty as the
changes of King and Queen – and of advisors to the King and Queen – led to the
national religion oscillating between Catholicism without the Pope (Henry VIII),
extreme Protestantism (Edward VI and his advisors), extreme Catholicism (Mary
Tudor) and finally the ‘Anglican’ Protestantism of Elizabeth.
The key differences between Catholics and Elizabethan Protestants were:
Catholics
Elizabethan Protestants
Believed the Pope to be the head of the
Believed that control of the Church rested
Christian Church.
with Royal power: the Queen ruled by the
Grace of God (she still does – look at the
inscription on a £1 coin) and so was in
charge of God’s affairs in that country.
Believed the Pope was infallible (couldn’t Believed in Papal fallibility: there was no
be wrong).
way the Pope, or any other man, could
declare someone’s sins were forgiven, as
no man knows what’s going on in God’s
mind.
Believed in Transubstantiation – that the
Believed in Consubstantiation – the
bread and wine of the Mass literally
Communion was celebrated in memory of
turned into the body and blood of Christ
Christ, and the Spirit was nearby but the
in the mouth: you were literally eating
actual bread and wine remained just that.
Him.
Believed that your soul could be saved by Believed that your soul could only be
doing ‘good works’ – everything good
saved by faith (Sola Fide – by faith
was weighed up against everything bad
alone).
you did in life, and depending which way
the balance fell you either went to
Heaven, to Purgatory for a bit, or to Hell.
Believed in Free Will – ever since the
Believed in some degree of
moment in Eden when Adam and Eve
Predestination; at the extreme, people
chose to disobey God, humans have had
argued that God (knowing everything,
the chance to make choices about their
past present and future) already knew
destiny.
which souls would be saved, and people
who thought they were in this group
viewed themselves as the Elect, and that
they could do no wrong as they were
blessed by God.
Many elements of these conflicts between the religions are present in Dr Faustus. In
selling his soul to the Devil, Faustus is supposedly committing the worst possible sin
in the world, ever – yet he is frequently given the chance to repent (to save himself
through his faith, through believing in God). Faustus’ problem is not really the
Catholic one of committing bad deeds with his powers (he hardly has any impact on
other people’s lives – certainly not that which he fantasises about initially); rather, his
downfall lies in his denying of Christ’s ability to save him. By the time Faustus
realises he’s really in trouble, he’s spurned the advice of the Good Angel, the Old
Man and even his academic (and thus clerical) colleagues. He progresses from not
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believing anything will come of his pact with the Devil, to believing he cannot be
saved. Such is the strength of his conviction that he is doomed – that he is not in the
Elect, that he cannot summon enough belief in Christ – that his own self-doubt
eventually holds him back from reaching out to Christ’s offered hand.
The ending of Dr Faustus is unconventional, especially in a Protestant world-view.
Given that he’s been told repeatedly that salvation is an option, Faustus should reason
either that he is one of the Elect (and thus safe, whatever happens) or that he can turn
to Christ at any point. By denying Faustus salvation at the end of the play, Marlowe
firstly creates a moment of high drama (remember, his ultimate purpose is to stage a
dramatic play), but he also seems to be criticising both Protestant views of salvation.
A loving, omnipotent, forgiving Christ should be able to save Faustus, whatever his
flaws. This doesn’t happen: is Marlowe suggesting that Christ’s power is somehow
limited? Or that those who call on Christ won’t necessarily get support? Or even,
most dangerously (as heresy was still punishable by death) that there is no Christ in
which to find salvation?
It is interesting to note the similarities between Faustus and Martin Luther, the father
of Protestantism. Both worked at Wittenburg University (this was where Luther
developed and published his ‘heretical’ 95 Theses challenging the Catholic Church to
reform) and both have interaction with the Imperial court of Charles V – where
Faustus and Luther were both expected to justify themselves. It is likely that these
parallels were deliberately drawn by Marlowe: it is just possible that, behind the
apparently Protestant bias of the play, Marlowe is mocking the founder of
Protestantism himself.
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Marlowe (AO3, AO4)
The controversial nature of the conclusion of the play may reflect Marlowe’s own
beliefs. It is generally accepted today that Marlowe was either an atheist (he did not
believe in God at all) or an agnostic (he wasn’t sure and wanted proof either way).
For either option to have been uncovered during his lifetime would have meant
serious trouble and possibly death, so it is hardly surprising that Marlowe hides his
own opinions behind the smoke and mirrors spectacles of Faustus’ temptation, fall
and death.
Marlowe was a colourful character: possibly a Government spy (a job which he could
well have been blackmailed into by a Government which discovered any of his darker
secrets), certainly a controversial playwright, probably homosexual (a crime,
punishable by death): Marlowe had many reasons to obfuscate not only his religious
opinions.
Marlowe was a product of his generation. He was born four years into Elizabeth’s
reign and would have grown up in a stability unknown for at least a generation. The
state religion was finally established as the nascent Church of England – Protestant in
outlook but with some hangover of Catholic rituals and doctrines. England was
(generally) at peace with her traditional enemies of Scotland and France, and also
with the fading Continental superpower of Spain. Printing was widespread and the
Bible was now being published in English, allowing a real engagement with the
doctrinal discussions of the day to occur (only fifty years before his birth people were
hung for printing English Bibles, and church services were conducted exclusively in
Latin). This time of peace and prosperity allowed the young Marlowe to be well
educated – though not for service in the Church – and opened up opportunities for him
to move from his family’s home in Cambridgeshire to experience the dynamic and
exciting atmosphere of London.
There is a danger of reading too much into the character of Faustus (or indeed
Mephistopheles) when looking for clues about Marlowe. Perhaps he did feel that
Faustus caught some of his own frustration at being limited by the society around
him; perhaps he did feel that conventionality was dull (as was later written of Milton,
he does seem to give the devil all the best lines). One point to consider relies on the
conventions of staging plays at that time; women were banned from playing women,
and so Helen (whose face launched a thousand ships, etc etc etc) would have been
played by a man. Bearing in mind Marlowe’s probably homosexuality (it is claimed
he once declared that “all they that love not tobacco and boys are fools”), the fact that
it is Faustus’ kiss with Helen which seals his fate could be an oblique reference to the
dangers Marlowe felt himself in by sating his lusts – when the actor playing Faustus
kisses the actor playing Helen, Faustus’ soul is lost, just as surely as Marlowe’s own
would be were his proclivities discovered.
Useful Links
http://myweb.lsbu.ac.uk/~stafflag/marlowe.html
http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/doctorfaustus/
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Language, Form and Structure (AO2)
Useful Quotations
SCENE
Prologue
1
1
1
2
3
5
5
5
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12
13
QUOTATION
He surfeits upon cursed
necromancy: / Nothing so
sweet as magic is to him, /
Which he prefers before
his chiefest bliss
And necromantic books
are heavenly
DEVELOPMENT
‘Prefers’ is being used in the sense of ‘valuing more’ (as in
preferential treatment); he puts magic and necromancy
above what should be important (ie his salvation). Gothic
because of the importance he attaches to the supernatural.
Ironic phrasing – necromantic books are, of course, nothing
to do with Heaven. Well, apart from the raising of the dead
bit and the whole Christ thing, but I’d leave that if I were
you. Gothic because, again, of the supernatural.
A sound magician is a
An almost blasphemous phrasing – is he equating God to
mighty God
being just a trickster? And if so, perhaps this accounts for
his lack of faith later on? Gothic due to the supernatural.
’Tis magic, magic that has Poor old Faustus just can’t get it right. He feels ‘ravished’
ravished me
by magic – the closest he gets to any ravishing (his first
demand to Mephistopheles, for a wife, backfires and even
when Helen is summoned, he just gets a kiss). Gothic due
to supernatural, and the associated sexual failings.
I fear me nothing can
The scholar’s judgement is shared by Faustus: he does not
reclaim him
believe in his salvation, so it cannot occur. Gothic due to
supernatural and also idea of terror – Faustus is doomed to
Hell.
Why, this is Hell, nor am I Mephistopheles is open with Faustus, but Faustus refuses
out of it
to believe in Hell – later he cannot bring himself to believe
in salvation. Gothic for supernatural and terror.
Despair in God, and trust
One of the most blasphemous phrases in the text, inverting
in Belzebub
the ‘correct’ view. This is Faustus’ world-view now.
Gothic due to the inversion / duality, and supernatural.
Offer lukewarm blood of
Even Faustus’ plans to commit horrendous acts do not
new-born babes
come to fruition; this emphasises his ultimate failure even
to capitalise on the price he will pay. Gothic for horror.
with my proper blood /
See the inversion of the Christian tenet of faith identified
Assure my soul to be great above. Gothic for horror.
Lucifer’s
I do repent, and yet I do
Faustus’ failure to truly repent – for repentance to work,
despair
you have both to genuinely repent and believe in the
efficacy of repentance. Faustus probably doesn’t hit the
former, and certainly not the latter. Gothic for terror and
subverting social norms.
Sweet Helen, make me
Women: dangerous things. Lady Macbeth seals Macbeth’s
immortal with a kiss
fate; Cathy ruins Heathcliff; Helen seals Faustus’ fate. It
all began with Eve, don’t y’know. Gothic for (arguably)
transgressive female.
O, spare me, Lucifer
Even at the hour of his doom, Faustus turns to the wrong
supernatural being. D’oh.
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Specifics of Language
Faustus expresses ‘lust’ for knowledge, is ‘ravished’ by magic etc: he is somehow
almost not human in his desires.
He tends towards the hyperbolic, planning to plunder ‘India for gold’ and to enjoy
‘pleasant fruits and princely delicates’. His activity peaks at insulting the Pope and
making a literal cuckold out of an imperial knight. There is a gulf between his
language and his action, which emphasises the gap between academia and the real
world, perhaps.
The ‘Is this the face...’ speech / soliloquy (he may be speaking his thoughts, he may
be discussing with Mephistopheles) presents Helen very much to blame for the whole
Trojan War: her face ‘launched a thousand ships / And burnt the topless towers of
Ilium’. It was the woman’s fault, all along... She also ‘sucks forth his soul’ – rather a
vampyric image?
Structure
Throughout the text, Faustus’ hyperbolic language and terrible actions are undercut by
both the comic / clowning scenes, and his own descent from verse to prose (generally
where he is expressing baser desires or transgressive views – Marlowe is using the
established device of debasing his speech to match the subject matter).
The scene with the horse-courser is interesting as there is ambiguity about how far
Faustus dreams his leg being ripped off. This opens up the (Gothic?) element of the
importance of dreams, and interpretations – contrasts well with Macbeth’s second
visit to the Witches.
On the first occasion that Faustus calls on Christ, Lucifer appears. This is not, it is
fair to say, what the audience would expect.
Time is not fixed in the text – look particularly at the progress of time in Scene 13,
and of course the fact that 24 years elapse in very little stage-time at all. This
malleability of time is shared in Macbeth (no-one knows how long Macbeth’s reign
lasts). Contrasts nicely to Wuthering Heights where the timeline can be fixed –
although even there the actual structure of the text jumps around both from present to
past and from one time in the past to another. All these movements in time arguably
add to a (Gothic?) sense of disruption and disquiet for the audience.
Form
Marlowe is writing for a mixed audience (and, of course, there is a debate about how
much of the text, or indeed which version of the text, is his). The need to create a
successful play is balanced against the desire to create a worthy piece of literature.
There is of course an innate impact on the audience in seeing the devils and demons
on stage before them; similarly, the scenes of horror would have a visceral element
that is not necessarily achievable in other forms of literature.
The fact that much of the action takes place at night (Gothic) would require
suspension of disbelief on the part of the original audience – plays were performed in
the afternoon, since there was no lighting to allow performances after dusk.
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Exam / Revision Technique (AO1)
Faustus-specific Past / Specimen Questions
To what extent do you think that Faustus.s greatest sin is his misuse of the
supernatural powers given to him by Mephostophilis?
Mephostophilis says, ‘Why, this is hell, nor am I out of it.’ To what extent do you
think Marlowe presents life on earth as hellish in Doctor Faustus?
What have you found striking about Marlowe’s presentation of Mephistophilis and
Hell in Dr Faustus?
General Gothic Past / Specimen Questions
‘Gothic texts show the supernatural intertwined with the ordinary.’ Discuss this view
in relation to the texts you have been studying.
‘Gothic literature is concerned with the breaking of normal moral and social codes.’
Discuss.
‘If a text is to be labelled as Gothic, it must convey a sense of fear and terror.’
Discuss this view in relation to the texts you have been studying.
To what extent do you think gothic literature is characterised by a fascination with
death?
‘Gothic settings are desolate, alienating and full of menace.’
In the light of this comment, consider some of the ways in which writers use settings
in the gothic texts you have read.
Consider the view that gothic writing often explores the powerlessness of humanity
when faced with the power of the supernatural.
‘Religion is central to readings of gothic texts.’
How far do you agree with this statement?
Consider the view that gothic writing explores the ‘nightmarish terrors’ that lie
beneath the orderly surface of the ‘civilised mind.’
‘In gothic writing, women are presented as either innocent victims or sinister
predators or are significantly absent.’
Consider the place of women in gothic writing in the light of this comment.
General
With regard to answering the questions under exam conditions, it is vital that you
demonstrate to the examiner that you are familiar with the text, so a) ensure you are
familiar with the text through close reading beforehand and b) use plenty of
appropriate and well-criticised quotations. You must also ensure you address the
questions in terms of context, both dramatic (i.e. within the play) and in terms of the
Gothic. And remember to plan!!
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