INDEX
Abasement, 159-161
Absenteeism, 87, 88, 93, 94, 169, 178
Acceptance rules for decision making, 273
Accountability, 91
Achievement needs, 57, 58
Achievement-oriented behavior, 238, 240
Action Research Model, 381
Active listening, 289, 307
Adaptive-coping cycle, 375, 376, 377, 380
Adolescence, 44
Adult development sequence, 45-48. See also Development, adult.
Advancement. See Career.
Advice-giving, 306-307
Alarm Stage of stress, 106-107
Alderfer, C. P., 56-57, 89, 94
Alienation, subordinate, 87
Ambiguous stimulus, 35, 36
Ambiguous work assignments, 195, 196
Anticipation of change, 114, 115, 372, 373, 374
Anticipatory socialization, 156
Appraisal system, 311-316
Apprenticeship training, 158
Arousal, 37
Assembly line, 88
Atkinson, John, 5 7 - 58
Attention to stimuli, 36, 37
Attitude change, 297-299, 386
Authority, 91
formal, 354, 355, 359
Autonomy, 94, 95, 155, 156, 355
Aversive consequence (S'), 74
Avoidance behavior, 112-113, 197-198
Award presentation, 79
Awareness and organizational effectiveness, 386
Bandura, Albert, 76, 78, 423-424, 432
Barnard, Chester, 360, 424
Barriers to counseling, 306-307
BARS, 316, 317
Behavioral contingency, 76
Behavioral output, 42-43, 266, 267
Behavioral response to stress, 106, 113
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS), 316, 317
Behavior-to-performance link, 63, 239
Belongingness needs, 55
Benevolent Authoritative leadership, 254
Biofeedback, 336, 337
Blake, Robert, 230
Blanchard, Kenneth H., 232
Boomerang effect, 215
Born leaders, 4
Boundaries, organizational, 16, 350, 398, 399, 402,
405, 406
Boundary spanning, 198-199, 292, 398, 411
Brainwashing, 160
Briefback, 295
Buffering, 409, 410
Bureaucratic design of organizations, 358, 359, 360
Bureaucratic type of leadership, 6
Burnout, 337
Career advancement, 155
Career and life planning, 386-387
Career development, 155, 156, 307, 308, 3 10
Career maintenance, 155
Career satisfaction, 156
Career stages, 156
Carlyle, Thomas, 5, 225
Cartwright, D., 142
451
452
Cause-and-effect relationships, 269, 270, 272 Central tendency, 314, 316
Centralization in organizations, 355, 363
Certainty and the environment, 403, 408
Change, 330
external, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376 internal, 372, 374, 376
Charismatic leadership, 8, 228
Chinese Communists, 160
Client relationships, 95
Climate, organizational, 432, 433
Closed system, 16, 349, 350, 399, 406, 410
Coalition formation, 170, 174, 176, 201
Coding thoughts, 39
Coercive power, 214-215, 218
Cognition, 36, 39, 40
Cognitive approach to moral development, 421 Cognitive changes, 60
Cognitive consistency, 266, 298 Cognitive development, 39
Cognitive dissonance theory, 298 Cognitive process, 266
Cognitive structure, 39, 40
Cohesion, 142-143, 178, 195, 196, 230 Collaboration, 160
Collective problem solving, 178, 179, 180 Collective socialization, 156
Combat groups, 134
Combat stress, 119-124
Combining information, 38
Command, 8
Commitment, 150
Commonality, 286, 291
Commttnication
Index
cybernetic model of, 284-285, 291 definition of, 284 downward, 289, 291 of expectations, 432 of instructions, 289 lateral,
289, 292-294 message, 284 nonverbal, 285 receiver of, 284, 285 of reward contingencies, 79 source of, 284, 285 upward,
289, 291-292
Communication perspective of organizations, 349, 360 Comparison ratio, 59
Competence
administrative, 443, 448 grouped skill, 443, 448 individual skill, 443, 448
Competition, 194, 195, 211, 388
Complex organizations, reasons to study, 347
Compliance, 150, 444
Computational decision strategies, 270
Conflict, 191, 196
Conflict, potential, 192
Conflict matrix, 196, 197
Conflict resolution, 177
Conformity, 179
Confrontation, 201
Consensus building, 174
Consequences of behavior, 71, 73
Consistency and decision making, 266
Consultant's role, 202, 383, 384
Consultative leadership, 254
Contingency designs of organizations, 358, 361-365
Contingency management, 336
Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness, 240254
Contingency plan, 401, 402, 411
Continuing socialization, 155-157
Control, 172, 355, 377
Cooperation, 211
Coordination, 170
Copingbehavior, 106-107, 113
Core activity, 408, 409
Core job dimensions, 95
Corporateness, 405, 406
Counseling
career development, 309, 3 1 0
performance-centered, 311-319
problem-centered, 309-311
Counselor role, 305
"Country club" leadership, 231
Credibility, 424
Critical evaluator, 182
Criticism, 318
Cybernetic model of communication, 284-285, 291 Cybernetic process, 19
Cybernetic system, 16, 375
Data overload, 294
Decentralization in organizations, 363
Decision making in combat, 265 definition of, 263, 264 nature of, 263-264 process, 264, 375 quality of, 268 strategies, 270-2
73. See also Decision making strategies.
Decision making environment, 264--269
Index
Decision making perspective of organizations, 349 Decision making strategies autocratic, 273, 276 compromise, 270, 271
computational, 270, 271, 277 consultative, 273
Delphi technique, 272
elimination by aspect, 2 7 1 group, 271, 272, 273 inspirational, 270 judgmental, 270, 271 mathematical equations, 270,
271 maximizing, 271 muddling through, 272 Nominal Group Technique (NGT), 271-272 satisficing, 271
Decision process flow chart, 275 Decisions, types of
nonprogrammed, 263, 264, 269 programmed, 263, 269 routinized, 264
Defensiveness
and certainty, 295, 296-297 and control, 295, 296
and empathy, 295, 296
and equality, 295, 296
and evaluativeness, 295, 296
and spontaneity, 295, 296
Deficiency needs, 56
Delphi technique, 272
Demand reconciliation behavior, 230
Dependency, 175
Deprivation, 55
Development, adult, 43-48
cognitive, 43
moral, 43
psychosexual, 43
psychosocial, 43
Developmental process, 17
Deviant behavior, 140, 176, 180
Dilemma of leadership, I 1
Dill, William R., 399
Discriminative stimulus (S'), 73
Diseases of adaptation, 106-107
Division of labor, 357, 359, 385
Dogmatism, 41
Dominance, 235
Drucker, Peter, 285
Dyads, 235-236
Dysfunctional stress, 112
Early adulthood, 46
453
Ecological perspectives of organizations, 400
Effective leadership, 5, 6, 7, 8
Elimination by aspect decision strategy, 271
Emergent leadership, 173, 175
Employee-centered behavior, 254, 256
Encounter phase of socialization, 154
Energy expenditure, 173
Engels, Frederick, 6, 225
Engineering thejob, 252
Entropy in organizations, 350
Entry socialization, 153-155
Environment
cultural, 400, 401-408
external, 398, 401, 402
internal, 398
task, 401, 402, 406, 408, 411
Environmental perspective, 399, 400, 401, 408
Environmental stressors, 107
Environmental variables, 226
Equity resolution strategies, 60-61
Equity theory, 59-60, 61
ERG theory, 56
Erikson, Erik, 43
Esteem needs, 55, 56, 378
Ethical climate assessing, 432, 433, 434, 435
Ethical responsibility, 426
Ethics
of the military profession, 428
of the organization, 426
Evaluation, 182
criteria, 444
of performance, 311
Evans, Martin, 237, 238
Exhaustion, 123
Exhaustion Stage of stress, 107
Existence, Relatedness, and Growth theory (ERG), 56
Existence needs, 56
Expectancy relationships, 65
Expectancy theory of motivation, 61-66, 240
Expectations and communication, 432
Expert power, 215, 217, 274
Expertise, 405
Exploitation, 378
Exploitive Authoritative leadership, 254
External environment, 22, 25
and decision making,264-269
and leadership, 399, 407
relevant, 401
"Externals," 41
Extinction of behavior, 75
Extra-organizational groups, 19, 20, 25
Extrinsic reward outcomes, 63
454
Ind ex
Extroverts, 41
Eysenck, H. J., 41
Fairness, 82
Fear, 377, 378
Feedback, 41, 43, 71, 82, 95, 96, 182 channels, 93, 284-285 as a dynamic element, 291 incomplete, 295 loop, 16
negative, 292
organizational, 350
positive, 292
survey, 384, 385
Feelings, 308, 309
Fiedler, Fred E., 240, 244-251, 252 Fight or flight stress, 105
Fixed movement, 158, 159
Forced distribution, 314
Forcing, 197
Fraternization, 218
French, J. R. P., 214
Frequency of interaction, 192, 193
Freud, Sigmund, 41, 43, 109, 420, 421, 423, 433
Functional approach to leadership, 11,12
Functional description of leadership in organizations,
441,442,446
Functional groups, 17, 19, 20, 25, 132 Functional perspective of organizations, 349
Game theory, 211, 212
General Adaptation Syndrome (G.A. S.), 106-10 7 General Systems Theory, 350
Goal accomplishment, 7, 9
Goal orientation, 172, 192
Goal setting, 388, 389
Goals and values component of organizations, 351 Graen, George, 235
Grapevine, 292, 294
Graphic rating scale, 314, 315
Great Man Theory of leadership, 5, 6
Gresham's "Law of Planning," 269
Group (s)
activities, 135 characteristics of that lead to performance and satisfaction, 170 cohesion, 142-143, 386 competition, 142
composition, 140 conditioning, 182 definition of, 131 deviants, 36
dynamics, 25
effectiveness, 169-172
extra-organizational, 132, 133, 135
functional, 132
heterogeneous, 140
homogeneous, 140
identity, 194
membership, 133
norms, 139
performance, 1 1
primary, 133, 136
punishment, 79-80, 81-82
reference, 133-134
rewards, 81-82
secondary, 133
size, 140
structure, 136
synergy,173
task, 131, 133, 136
Group development
evaluation and control, 172
growth and productivity, 182
internal problem solving, 178
orientation, 172-174
stages of, 172-174
Groupthink, 179, 180, 181, 268, 272
Growth and productivity, 178-182
Growth need, 56, 94
Habit, 264
Habituation, 36
Hackman, J. Richard, 93, 94, 171, 348
Hall, Douglas T., 155
Halo error, 314, 316
Hamner, W. Clay, 79, 80
Hawthorne Study, 141
Hershey, Paul, 232
Herzberg, Frederick, 89-91, 96
Hetergeneous groups, 140
Hierarchical power, 201
Hierarchy of needs, 54
Historical development of leadership theory, 4-6
Hollander, Edwin P., 210, 212
Holmes, Thomas, 107
Homans, George C., 134
Homogeneous groups, 140
Honesty, 306
"Hot Stove Rule" of punishment, 81
House, Robertj., 237, 238
Human resources accounting, 169
Humanistic design of organizations, 358, 360, 361,
362
Index
Huntington, Samuel P., 405, 428, 429
Hygiene factors, 89
Image exchanging, 202
"Impoverished" leadership, 231
Incremental changes, 332, 334
Individual (s)
ability, 1 1
characteristics, 35
dynamics, 25
inputs, 32-37, 40
motivation, 1 1
outputs, 32, 40, 42-43
performance, 10,11
as a system, 31-35, 40, 43
throughputs, 36-37
Ineffective leadership, 5, 6, 7
Ineffective subordinates, 319
Inequity, prevention of, 60-61
Influence process, 25
Informal contract, 150, 212
Informal leadership, 173, 182
Informal organizational structure, 360
Informal socialization, 158
Informational power, 216
Ingraham, Larry H., 161
Initiating structure behavior, 229, 230
Initiation, 162
Innovation, 151, 155, 157, 158, 159, 196, 354
Inputs, 59-60
Inspirational decision strategies, 270
Instrumental behavior, 238, 239
Instrumentality, 63
Intelligence, 253
Intentions, 65
Interactionist approach, 6
Interactive model of stress, 109-1 14
Interface, 23, 25
Intergroup conflict, 194, 196, 197, 198, 199
Internalization, 150-151, 160
Internalization of organizational objectives, 444, 448
"Internals," 41
Interpersonal attraction, 135
Interpersonal competence, 386
Interpersonal relations, 172
Intervention, 383, 384, 385
Intimacy, degree of, 175
Intrinsic reward outcomes, 63
Inward movement, 156, 15 7
Janis, Irving L., 180
janowitz, Morris, 123, 405, 406
455
Japanese industry, 183, 184 job (s)
behavior, 254-255
Characteristics Inventory (JCI), 96, 97 design, 87, 91, 93, 94, 96 dissatisfaction, 89-91 engineering, 252
enlargement, 87, 91 enrichment, 87, 93, 94 maturity, 232 redesign, 94 related stress, 103, 1 16-1 19 rotation, 87,
91 satisfaction, 89 job Characterics Inventory (JCI), 96, 97 judgmental decision strategies, 267 Jung, Carl, 41
Kohlberg, Laurence, 43, 421-424, 431
Laboratory training, 386
Language,39
Lateral movement in organizations, 15 7 Law of Effect, 71, 72
Law of Land Warfare, 429
Lawler, Edward E., 348
Lawrence, Paul, 361
Lazarus, Richard, 114, 124
Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ),
229
Leader responsibilities
clarification, 173
coordination, 173, 174
evaluation, 173
facilitation, 173-174
Leader-counselor role
characteristics of, 306
definition of, 305
limits of, 308
Leader-follower interaction, 21 1
Leader-member (LM) relations, 244-245 Leadership, definition of, 6-8
Leadership and expectancy, 66
Leadership as a science, 3-6
Leadership as an art, 4
Leadership behavior, 226, 228, 236, 254, 256 achievement-oriented, 238, 240 benevolent-authoritative, 254
consultative, 254 1 country club," 2 3 1 employee-centered, 256 exploitive-authoritative, 254
456
"impoverished," 231
initiating structure, 229, 230 instrumental, 238 job-centered, 254-255 1 middle of the road," 2 31 participative, 238
participative group, 254 supportive, 238, 239
"task," 231
t,team," 231
Leadership dynamics, 24
Leadership function, 443, 447
Leadership style, 241, 250
Leadership theory, history of, 4-6
Leadership traits, 5-6, 226-228
Learned skills, 445, 446, 448
Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale, 241-243, 250
Legal orders, 428
Legitimate authority, 428, 430
Legitimate power, 216, 217, 276
Leniency error, 314, 316
Levinson, Daniel, 43, 44-45
Liaison groups, 197, 198-199
Life Change Units (LCU's), 107, 329
Life Cycle Theory of Leadership. See Situational Leadership Theory.
Life stages of stress development, II 0- 1 12
Likert, Rensis, 254-255
Linkages, 236
Linking pin, 22, 234, 289, 402, 404, 406
Location and status, 138
Locus of control, 41, 238, 239
Lorsch, Jay, 3 61
Losers in competition, 195
Love needs, 55
MAAC-L, 329
Macroview of leadership, 21
Maintenance (Career), 155
Management, 8
Management by Objective, 388
Managerial Grid, 230-231
Manipulating thoughts, 40
Marshall, S. L. A., 123-124, 340
Marx, Karl, 6, 225
Maslow, Abraham H., 54-56, 89, 94, 218
Mathematical equations for decision making, 270-271
Matrix organizations, 354, 356, 363
Maturity
group, 233, 234
job, 232
psychological, 232-233
Index
subordinate, 233-234
Maximizing, 271
Mayo, Elton, 360
Mc Clelland, David C., 57-58
Mc Gregor, Douglas, 81, 218, 219, 220, 312
Means to ends membership, 135
Mehrabian, Albert, 287
Member satisfaction, 170-172
Membership groups, 134
Mentor relationship, 158
Message
characteristics of, 298-299
discrepancy, 298
distortion of, 285, 295
intended, 284-286
novelty of, 298-299
perceived, 284, 286
source of, 297-298
structure of, 298
Meyer, Herbert, 311
Microview of leadership, 17
Middle adulthood, 47
"Middle of the road" leadership, 231
Middle-group, 236
Milgram, Stanley, 430, 431
Military academies, 162
Military institution, 399
Miller, James G., 34
Mitchell, Billy, 429
Model building, 15, 16
Model for leadership effectiveness, 240-241
Model of Organizational Leadership, 15-25, 372, 399,
400, 402
Mood and communication, 286-287
Moral development, 419-424
social learning approach to, 423-424
More, Sir Thomas, 425
Motivation
and communication, 286, 287
definition of, 53
factors, 89
sources of, 54
two-factor approach to, 88-91
Motivational pattern, 252
Motivational process, 18
Mouton, Jane, 230
Muddling-through strategy, 272
Multiple Affective Adjectives Checklist (MAAC-L),
329
My Lai, 419, 428, 431
Index
Need categories, 57
Need deprivation, 55
Need for achievement, 58, 238
Need for achievement training, 58
Need for adaptation, 378
Need hierarchy, 54-55
Need satisfaction, 54
Need theories, 54
Need to belong, 134
Needs
belongingness (love), 55 deficiency, 56 esteem, 55
existence, 56 growth, 56 physiological, 55 safety, 55
self-actualization, 55-56
Negative leadership, 8
Negative reinforcement, 74
Nervous system
autonomic, 105
parasympathetic, 106
sympathetic, 105
Nominal Group Technique (NGT), 271-272
Nonprogrammed decisions, 263, 264, 269
Nonverbal communication, 285, 287-289
Nonverbal cues, 286, 288
Normative Model of Decision Making, 273-277
Norms, 78, 114, 139-140, 152, 338
definition of, 139
Oath of office, 42 7
Obedience, 428-431
Objective model of civilian control, 405
Observing work, 313
OD consultant, 381, 382, 383, 384
OD intervention, 384
OD strategies, 384-389
Oedipal complex, 420
Officer Evaluation Reporting System, 311
Officer's commission, 426
Officership, 425
Ohio State University studies, 228-229, 232
On-the-job training, 158
Open cybernetic system, 16
Open system perspective of organizations, 349, 350,
351,398,399,406
Operant behavior, 42
Operant conditioning, 71
components of, 72
Operant response, 72
457
Operative goals, 269
Optimum stress level, 326 Organizational
adaptation, 371, 372, 375, 376 boundaries, 16, 350, 398, 399, 402, 405, 406 change,371,378 climate, 330, 331,
432, 433 design, 358, 364 development (OD), 381-383 leadership, 6-11, 48-49, 441, 442, 446 leadership
process, 16, 17, 23 structure, 351 suprasystem, 22, 23, 25, 398-404 system, 22, 25
Organizational Development. See OD consultant; OD
intervention; OD strategies.
Organizational Effectiveness Consultant (OEC), 383
Organizational perspectives
communication, 349
decision making, 349
functional, 349
open system, 356
power, 349
sociological, 349
traditional perspectives, 349
Out-group, 236
Overreward, 60
Panic reaction, 124
Participation in decision making, 268 Participative behavior, 238
Participative Group leadership, 254
Path-Goal Theory of Leadership, 236-240, 244 Peaceful coexistence, 198
Peer ratings, 314
Peers Commission Report, 419, 431
Perceiver characteristics, 37-38
Perception, 37-40
Perceptual set, 37
Performance, 305, 306, 310, 314, 316 appraisal system, 311-316 evaluation and stress, 326, 332, 338 longterm, 338 norms,139
outcomes, 62, 65
poor quality, 87
structural dimensions, 143
Performance-centered counseling, 308, 311-319
Performance-stress curve, 326, 327
Personal attributes, 256
Personality, 8, 40-42, 109 and decision making, 266
458
Index
Person-Situation Interaction Model of Stress, 326, 328 Phases of socialization, 153, 155-157
Physical separation, 194
Physiological responses to stress, 105, 106
Piaget,jean, 39, 43
Pivotal attributes of socialization, 154 Planning work, 312
Porter, Lyman W., 348
Position power (PP) rating, 245, 248
Positive leadership, 8
Potential for conflict, 192 Power, 213-218
coercive, 214, 215 expert, 215, 217, 276 legitimate, 216, 217, 276 perspective of organizations, 349 referent, 216, 217
reward, 214 subordinate, 214, 216
Praise, 318
Presentation of awards, 79
Prestige, 135, 139
Primary groups, 4
Prisoner of war, 160
Privilege and status, 13
Proactive adaptation to change, 371, 375, 380, 381,
383
Problem solving, 197, 201, 308, 309
Problem-centered counseling, 308, 309
Procedural guidelines, 444
Process consultation, 387
Production emphasis behavior, 230
Production of behavior, 42-43
Productivity, 91, 92, 93
and participation, 268
Profession, 428
Professional ethic, 24, 25
Professional Officer Corps, 24
Programmed decisions, 263, 264, 269
Promotion, 159
Psychological
amputation, 180
contract, 152, 158, 159, 162 environment, 32
maturity, 232-233
response to stress, 105
system, 31, 32
Psychosexual development, 43
Psychosocial component of organizations, 352, 356,
357, 358
Psychosocial development, 43
Punishment, 80-82
contingency, 82
organizational, 432, 433
principles of, 80-81
Quality of decisions, 268
Quality rules for decision making, 273-274 Questioning in counseling, 307
Queuing in communication, 294
Rahe, Richard, 107
Rationing, 410
Raven, Bertram H., 214
Reactive adaptation to change, 375, 381 "Real leader," 216
Receiver of message, characteristics of, 299 Redundancy, 295
Reference groups, 133-134
Referent power, 216, 217, 276
Referral, 309, 310
Reflex behavior, 42
Regulation of behavior, 76
Reinforcement, 211
Reinforcement schedules. See Schedules of reinforcement.
Reinforcement-oriented approach to motivation, 7576
Reinforcer (S'), 73
negative (S'-), 73
positive (S'+), 73, 79
primary, 79
secondary, 79
Relatedness needs, 56
Relationship behaviors, 232
Relevance and the environment, 400, 402, 403
Relevant attributes of socialization, 152
Representativeness, 405, 407
Resistance Stage of stress, 106-107 Resistance to organizational adaptation, 377 collective, 377, 378 group, 377, 378
individual, 377, 378 organization-wide, 379 overcoming, 379
Resource, 214
Respect for others, 306
Responsibility, 405, 406
Reward
extrinsic, 63
intrinsic, 63
organizational, 432, 433, 444, 449
outcomes, 62
overreward, 60
Index
power of, 21 1
underreward, 60
Rewards and punishments, 78-82
applications of, 78-79
contingencies, 79, 82, 83
Risk-taking, 180
Rite of passage, 162
Rokeach, Milton, 40, 41, 45
Role, 136-137
acceptance, 175, 176
ambiguity, 136
clarity, 136, 385
communication, 294
conflict, 137, 199
expectations, 137
individual, 136
model, 158, 159, 431, 432
negotiation, 176
Rotation, leader, 253
Routinization, 264
"Rules of thumb" for decision making, 264
Saab-Scandia job enrichment, 92, 93
Safe counseling strategies, 307
Safety needs, 55
Satisficing, 271
Schedules of reinforcement
continuous, 75
fixed interval, 76
fixed ratio, 76
partial, 75
variable interval, 76
variable ratio, 76
Schein, Edgar S., 152, 156, 361
Scientific management, 87-91, 359, 360
Secondary groups, 133
Selection, leader, 253
Self-actualization needs, 55
Self-awareness, 306
Self-esteem, 41-42, 155, 156, 159, 162
Self-identity and communication, 286
Self-image, 158, 159-161
Self-judgment, 78
Self-regulation, 77-78
Selye, Hans, 106, 109
Seniority, 159
Sensing, 375, 377
Sensitivity training, 386
Sequence of adult development, 45-48
Setting standards, 312
Shape of organizations, 354, 355, 356
Shaping behavior, 182
459
Shaw, Marvin E., 135
Sherif, Muzafer, 199
Shils, E., 123
Short-term performance, 338
Simon, Herbert A., 269, 270
Situational favorableness, 244, 251
Situational Favorableness Scale, 249
Situational Leadership Theory, 232-234@ 240
Situational variables, 233, 244, 256
Situationist approach to leadership, 6
Size of organizations, 353, 354, 356
Skill variety, 94
Skinner, B. F., 71, 72, 75
Smoothing out, 409, 410
Social comparison process, 211
Social exchange, 2 1 0
Social learnidg approach to moral development, 423424, 432
Social organizing, 348
Social ranking, 138
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), 107, 108,
114, 329
Social support system, 134, 338 Socialization, 149-162
anticipatory, 153, 154, 156, 157 and career development, 155 collective, 158 continuing, 155 definition of, 150 entry, 153155 fixed, 158
individual, 158
informal, 158
process of, 157
variable, 158
Society and stress, 327, 331
Sociological perspective of organizations, 349
Socio-technical interactions, 358, 359
Source of message, 297-298
Sources of stress
combat, 340
group, 330
interpersonal environment, 332 multiple demands, 333 nature of the task, 330 organizational climate, 330, 331
organizational socialization, 332, 338 organizational structure, 332 peers, 330
society, 331
superiors, 330
work environment, 332
460
Specialization, 354, 357, 360
Status incongruence, 138-139
Stimuli, 34
characteristics of, 35, 36, 38
conditions of, 35, 36
Stogdill, Ralph, 5, 6, 227, 230, 424
Strategies, decision making. See Decision making strategies.
Strategy of avoidance, 197 Stress
Activation Stage of, I 1 2 adaptation process to, 18, 106
Alarm Stage of, 106-107
and combat, 119-124, 325, 326, 327 definition of, 325 dysfunctional, 112, 116, 330, 332, 333 fight or flight response to,
105 functional, 112, 116, 326 generalizations regarding, 1 1 5-116 inoculation, 335 interactive model of, 109-114 jobrelated, 103, 116-119 life stages of, I 10- I 1 2 and organizational socialization, II 7, 118 and organizational structures, II 6,
118 and performance, 1 1 3 and personality, 109 person-situation model of, 1 1 1 physiological responses to, 106-107, 110,
112 Resistance Stage of, 106, 107 and role ambiguity, I 1 7, 118 and role conflict, I 1 7 sources of. See Sources of stress.
and tasks, 1 1 7
and work environment, 1 1 7 -118
Stress management strategies, 332
adjusting physical environment, 333 allocation of resources, 333 biofeedback, 336, 337 communication, 333, 335, 339
contingency management, 336 institutional, 338 physical fitness, 335 relaxation, 336, 339 reward system, 333 social
support, 338 stress inoculation, 335 time management, 333, 334 time-out, 337, 339 training for stress, 334
Structural component of organizations, 322, 353, 356
Structural dimensions of groups, 136
Index
Structuring thought, 39, 45
Subcultures, 403, 404
Subordinate expectations, 444, 446
Subordinate power, 214, 216, 217
Subordinates
characteristics of, 227, 230
ineffective, 319
levels of maturity, 233
Subsystems, 16
group, 19, 25
individual, 17, 19, 25
leadership, 21, 25
Superego, 420, 421, 433
Superordinate goals, 197, 199, 200
Survey feedback, 384, 385
Symbols of status, 138
Synergy, 173
Systems approach to decision making, 266-267
Systems approach to model building, 15
Systems approach to socialization, 151, 162
Tangible nature of work, 193
Task
activity, 172
behaviors, 231, 232
complexity, 355
demand, 326, 329
environment, 401, 402, 406, 408, 411
identity, 94
issues, 175, 177
organizational, 133
requirements, 175
significance, 94
"'Task" leadership, 231
Task structure (TS), 244
Task Structure Adjustment Scale, 247
Task Structure Rating Scale, 246
Taylor, Frederick W., 87-88, 359
Taylor, Telford, 429
Team building, 387
"Team" leadership, 231
Technical component of organizations, 352, 356, 357,
358
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 35
Theory X and Y, 219, 312, 319, 360
Thompson, James D., 269, 399, 408, 41 0
Thorndike, E. L., 71
Thought
coding, 39
manipulating, 40
structuring, 39
Threat appraisal, 1 14
Index
Throughput. See Transformation process.
Time and decision making, 267
Time orientation, 194
Toffler, Alvin, 107, 372
Tolerance of uncertainty behavior, 230
Traditional perspectives of organizations, 349
Training, 444
Trait approach to leadership, 5, 6, 225, 226
Transformation process, 150, 151, 157, 161
Transition meeting, 389
Trigger event, 123
Turnover, 87, 88, 93, 94
Two-factor approach to motivation, 88-91
Type A personality, 109, 110, 329
Type B personality, 109, 329
Uncertainty, 399, 400, 401, 402, 408, 409, 411
Underreward, 60
Unfreezing, 155
United States Army, 386, 426
United States Constitution, 425
United States Military Academy, 316, 339, 381
Unity of command, 359
University of Michigan studies, 228
Upward movement, 156
Valence, 64, 65
Value systems and communication, 286
461
Values, 40
Variable interval of reinforcement, 76 Variable movement, 158, 159
Variable ratio of reinforcement, 76
Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory (VDL), 232-240 Vertical job loading, 91, 92, 93, 95
Vietnam War, 404, 417-419
Volvojob enrichment, 92, 93
Von Bertalanffy, Ludwig, 350
Vroom, Victor, 274, 277
Wakin, Malham, 425, 429 Weber, Max, 6, 359
"We-ness," 179
"We-they" syndrome, 194
"Win-lose" situation, 195
Winners in competition, 195
Women and socialization, 162
Work
observing, 313 outcomes, 94 planning, 312 redesigning, 91-98 Work-related stress, 1 1 7-118
World War 11, 419, 428, 429
Yetton, Philip, 274, 277