Paragraphing
WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH?
A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. Learning to
write good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and
revision stages. Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a piece
of writing. You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't presented in an
organized fashion, you will lose your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing).
THE BASIC RULE: KEEP ONE IDEA TO ONE PARAGRAPH
ELEMENTS OF A PARAGRAPH
To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Topic
Sentence, Supporting Evidence, Unity, and Coherence. As you will see, all of these traits
overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you construct
effective paragraphs.
Topic Sentence
A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way the idea the paragraph will
expand upon. It is always the first sentence of the paragraph.
Supporting Evidence
The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and
adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's
purpose, but writers should beware of paragraphs that only have two or three sentences.
It's a pretty good bet that the paragraph is not fully developed if it is that short.
Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:











Use examples and illustrations
Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
Use an anecdote or story
Define terms in the paragraph
Compare and contrast
Evaluate causes and reasons
Examine effects and consequences
Analyze the topic
Describe the topic
Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)
Unity
The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with a one
focus or major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander within
different ideas.
Coherence
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader,
meaning that every sentence flows into the next. To achieve coherence, you must write
with a purposeful sequence in mind, and you must use transitions to alert your reader to
that sequence.
Transitions
Transition words and phrases are used to relate ideas. Writers may use transitions
within paragraphs or between paragraphs so that ideas flow smoothly between
sentences and between paragraphs. The following table provides some common
transitions and how they are used.
Use
Transition Word or Phrase
To add
and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further,
furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition,
first (second, etc.)
To compare
whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the
contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, although, conversely,
meanwhile, in contrast, although this may be true
To prove
because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently,
furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case,
that is
To show time
or sequence
immediately, thereafter, soon, finally, then, later, previously, formerly,
first (second, etc.), next, and then
To give an
example
for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion,
in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an
illustration
To summarize
or conclude
in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I
have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a
result, consequently, on the whole
To emphasize
definitely, obviously, in fact, indeed, absolutely, positively, naturally,
surprisingly, always, forever, unquestionably, without a doubt,
certainly, undeniably
To repeat
in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted
Topic Sentences
Before writing any essay or even a paragraph, it is important to think, first about the
topic and then what you want to say about the topic. Most often, the topic is easy, but
the question then turns to what you want to say about the topic which is the controlling
idea. Topic sentences should always contain both (1) a topic and (2) a controlling idea,
which is a feeling or feature about the topic.
Read the following topic sentences. They all contain a topic (in red) and a controlling
idea (in green). When your paragraph contains a clearly stated topic sentence such as
one of the following, your reader will know what to expect and, therefore, understand
your ideas better.
1. People can avoid burglaries by taking certain precautions.
(The precautions for…)
2. There are several advantages to growing up in a small town.
(The advantages of…)
3. Most US universities require a high SAT score for a number of reasons.
(The reasons for…)
4. Air pollution in Mexico City is the worst in the world for a number of reasons.
(The causes of…) or (The effects of…)
5. Fixing a flat tire on a bicycle is easy if you follow these steps.
(The steps for…)
6. There are several enjoyable ways to travel between the US and Canada.
(The ways to…) or (The methods of…)
7. Animals in danger of becoming extinct come from a wide range of countries.
(The different countries… [parts, kinds, types])
8. Effective leadership requires specific qualities that anyone can develop.
(The qualities (or characteristics or traits) of…)
9. Industrial waste poured into Lake Michigan has led to dramatic changes in its ability
to support marine life.
(The effects of…)
10. In order to fully explore the wreck of the Titanic, scientists must address several
problems.
(The difficulties of…) or (The obstacles to…)
In Summary: A carefully thought out topic sentence will serve two important functions.
First, it will provide you, the author, the means to stay focused on your objective. It's a
lot easier to write if you know what you are going to write about! Second, a clearly
stated topic sentence will provide readers with the tools they need to clearly understand
what you have to say. These are important reasons to carefully consider topic sentences
before beginning writing.
“Josh is great.” This is not an effective topic sentence. It is vague and has no controlling
idea to develop.
"Josh was born in Chicago." This does not work either. It just states a fact, so it is
difficult to develop.
"The fact that Josh was born in Chicago had a profound effect on his life." This is a fine
topic sentence. The writer has much to develop with this claim but not too much to
manage.
Read the following topic sentences to determine their effectiveness. Ask yourself if there
is one topic and if the sentence clearly states a controlling idea (function or feature).
A post-secondary education can have very positive effects on income.
The cockroaches that inhabit many city apartments are parasites that are almost
impossible to exterminate completely.
Many television cartoons contain an unhealthy amount of violence.
Supporting Evidence
The substance of any essay consists of its supporting evidence--the specific statements
that clarify and back up the topic sentence. Support is not general; it is specific. It can
come from many sources: statistics, facts, quotations, names, dates, details and
examples.
While general statements are not hard to write, it is often difficult for writers to move
from the general to the specific and thereby provide solid support for their topic
sentences. As a result, such paragraphs are weak and have little to offer their audience.
Below are two sample paragraphs. Which one is replete with generalities and which
uses specifics?
Our run-down city block was made special by a lot called The Community
Garden. The lot was planted with all sorts of plants, vegetables, and flowers. There was
a path curving through it. We went there to think. The Community Garden made our
block special. Though our neighborhood was known as "tough," no one ever vandalized
the garden.
Our run-down city block was made special by a once-vacant lot called The
Community Garden. I'm not sure who first had the idea, but the thin soil had been
fertilized, raked, and planted with a surprising assortment of vegetables and flowers.
Anyone interested in gardening could tend green pepper plants, string beans, fresh
herbs, even corn. Others planted flowers, which changed with the seasons--tall red
dahlias, white and purple iris, and taxi-yellow marigolds to discourage the insects. A
narrow path curved gracefully among the plants, paved with bricks no doubt left over
from the building that once stood here. The Community Garden was our pride, the
place we went to think and to be still. Though our neighborhood was known as "tough,"
no one ever vandalized the garden.
Coherence & Transitions
Look at the following paragraph:
The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people's bodies by
making mummies of them. Mummies several thousand years old have been discovered
nearly intact. The skin, hair, teeth, fingernails and toenails, and facial features of the
mummies were evident. It is possible to diagnose the disease they suffered in life, such
as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies. The process was remarkably
effective. Sometimes apparent were the fatal afflictions of the dead people: a middle-aged
king died from a blow on the head, and polio killed a child king. Mummification
consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and
out, and then wrapping the body in layers of bandages.
Though weak, this paragraph is not a total washout. It starts with a topic sentence, and
the sentences that follow are clearly related to the topic sentence. In the language of
writing, the paragraph is unified (i.e., it contains no irrelevant details). However, the
paragraph is not coherent. The sentences are disconnected from each other, making it
difficult for the reader to follow the writer's train of thought.
Below is the same paragraph revised to be coherent. The sequence is logical!
The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people's bodies by
making mummies of them. In short, mummification consisted of removing the internal
organs, applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then wrapping the body in
layers of bandages. And the process was remarkably effective. Indeed, mummies several
thousand years old have been discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth,
fingernails and toenails, and facial features are still evident. Their diseases in life, such
as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies, are still diagnosable. Even their fatal
afflictions are still apparent: a middle-aged king died from a blow on the head; a child
king died from polio.
The paragraph is now much more coherent. The organization helps readers move easily
from one sentence to the next.
Remember: Coherence means “a sticking together.” Take the following paragraph. Is
it coherent?
Television's greatest benefit, however, is that it is educational.
Preschoolers learn colors, numbers, and letters from public television
programs like Sesame Street that use animation and puppets to make learning
fun. In the same way, adults, too, can get education from courses given on
television. Also, television widens adults' knowledge by covering important
events and current news. Science shows for older children, like Fun with
Nature, go on location to analyze everything from volcanoes to rocket
launches to the habitats of lemurs. Viewers can see and hear presidents'
speeches, state funerals, natural disasters, and election results as they are
happening.
The problem with this paragraph is that it comes across as a jumble of information.
The relation between sentences feels very arbitrary. There is no clear sense why
this information follows that information in that order. One way to better organize it
would be to take advantage of the different ages. Start first with preschoolers, then
move to older children, and end with adults. Then you can pull all the adult
information together. That provides a better roadmap for readers to work through
your information.
Now, look at this paragraph. Can you identify the main points?
Each of the U.S. manned space exploration projects had specific major goals. The
Mercury project was designed to test whether or not human beings could survive and
function in outer space. The Mercury project tested rockets with the new Mercury
space capsule, which could hold one person. The Gemini project was intended to find
out whether two people could work in the weightless environment of space. Gemini
astronauts took "spacewalks." They floated outside their spacecraft in a spacesuit,
connected to it by a tether. Gemini astronauts tried out new flying skills. Some
astronauts flew two spacecraft extremely close together; this procedure was called
"rendezvous." On some Gemini flights, astronauts physically linked two spacecraft
together. Linking, or "space docking," was a major goal of the Gemini program. The
Apollo project, with three astronauts, was intended to test spacecraft and skills so that
people could actually fly to the Moon and land on it. Performing scientific experiments
on the lunar surface and collecting rocks for study on Earth were goals.
Was this paragraph a little confusing to read? Now consider the same paragraph with a
few changes:
Each of the U.S. manned space exploration projects had specific major goals. For
example, the Mercury project was designed to test whether or not human beings could
survive and function in outer space. In addition, the Mercury project tested rockets with
the new Mercury space capsule, which could hold one person. As another example, the
Gemini project was intended to find out whether two people could work in the
weightless environment of space. One way of doing this was by having Gemini astronauts
take "spacewalks." That is, they floated outside their spacecraft in a spacesuit, connected
to it by a tether. Gemini astronauts also tried out new flying skills. For example, some
astronauts flew two spacecraft extremely close together; this procedure was called
"rendezvous." On some Gemini flights, astronauts physically linked two spacecraft
together. This linking, or "space docking," was a major goal of the Gemini program.
Finally, the Apollo project, with three astronauts, had the goal of testing spacecraft and
skills so that people could actually fly to the Moon and land on it. Other goals included
performing scientific experiments on the lunar surface and collecting rocks for study on
Earth.
Transitional Devices
Transitional devices are like bridges between parts of your paper. They are cues that
help the reader to interpret ideas a paper develops. Transitional devices are words or
phrases that help carry a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to
another, or from one paragraph to another. And finally, transitional devices link
sentences and paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps or
breaks between ideas.
Various Methods of organizing supporting details and the most common
purposes for each are listed below.
� Chronological Order
� Spatial Order
� Order of Importance
� Cause and Effect
� Comparison and Contrast
� Explanation
� Classification
Unity
Unity
Unity in writing means that all material is clearly relevant to the main point. Any ideas
that are off-topic will lead your audience away from your point. Consequently, such
material must be revised or deleted.
The following is an example of a paragraph that lacks unity:
Philip Randolph, the great African-American champion of labor and civil rights,
led confrontations with three very popular presidents. Mr. Randolph called for a march
on Washington by thousands of African-Americans on July 1, 1941, if President
Roosevelt would not take action to end discrimination in defense industries during
World War II. Mr. Randolph was born in Florida. After much delay, the president met
with Randolph and one week later and opened many defense jobs to black workers. A
few years later, in 1948, Mr. Randolph threatened mass civil disobedience if President
Truman did not end segregation against African-Americans in the military. On July 25,
Truman approved the order that integrated the armed services. The last confrontation
was with John F. Kennedy, who sought to stop the 1963 civil rights March on
Washington. The march featured the Reverend Martin Luther King's unforgettable "I
Have a Dream" speech.
At least two of the sentences in the quote above do not directly support the topic
sentence and, therefore, should be deleted. Can you tell which two?
Quotation Integration
Rules to Live By
Two things you must remember:
 Correct integration of quotes is illustrated by the use of shorter quotes proving
the topic sentence, while incorporated with smooth precision.

Quotes that do not directly prove/support the topic sentence, quotes that
summarize, or quotes that are too long detract from the quality of the writing.
Do not do this!
Refer to this checklist of Do’s and Do Not’s whenever you write using quotes.
Do:
 Determine if you are incorporating dialogue or narration.
To incorporate dialogue, you must first state the speaker, then use a
comma, and then incorporate the quote. Example: During his speech,
Marcellus emphatically cries, “I will never give up my struggle for
freedom” (33).
To incorporate narration, you must blend the partial quote with words of
your own. Example: In the end, Ralph recognized “the darkness of man’s
heart” and felt sorry for the death of his friend, Piggy (149).
 Follow this 3-step process for quote integration.
(1) Introduce the quote. (2) Include the quote. (3) Explain what the quote
proves.
For example: At first, Juliet has doubts about her future. She tells Romeo that the
marriage is “too rash, too unadvised, too sudden” (645). Because she is more
cautious, she is able to foresee the possible consequences of hasty actions.
 Do eliminate irrelevant information by using an ellipsis.
The prologue states, “Two young lovers forfeit their lives…with an untimely
death” (447).
*note: the use of ellipsis does not interfere with the smooth flow
 Do use a bracket to indicate changes you make to ensure that the sentence is
clear.
“At the final meeting, [Mayor Daniel Robertson] demonstrated his anger
toward city council” (33).
*note: the use of brackets does not interfere with the smooth flow
 Do look at the idea in your TS. Do look at your Q. Make sure the Q directly
prove the TS!
 Do make sure your page number is in parentheses directly before the period.
…forever” (2).
Do NOT:
 Do NOT ever use first person (I, we, me, us) or second person (you, your)
pronouns
 Do NOT use anything like: This quote proves… This quote shows…
The reader knows…
 Do NOT put words in ( ).
 Do NOT use slang terms while writing.
 Do NOT try to support a vague TS.
Finally, remember this: You must NOT plot summarize. When you reread your
paragraphs, ask yourself if you prove something or simply summarize the story!!!!
Clincher
The clincher sentence is the last sentence of the paragraph. Its function is to summarize
the significance of the supporting evidence in the paragraph. Take a look at the
following successful clincher:
Our run-down city block was made special by a once-vacant lot called The
Community Garden. I'm not sure who first had the idea, but the thin soil had been
fertilized, raked, and planted with a surprising assortment of vegetables and flowers.
Anyone interested in gardening could tend green pepper plants, string beans, fresh
herbs, even corn. Others planted flowers, which changed with the seasons--tall red
dahlias, white and purple iris, and taxi-yellow marigolds to discourage the insects. A
narrow path curved gracefully among the plants, paved with bricks no doubt left over
from the building that once stood here. The Community Garden was our pride, the
place we went to think and to be still. Though our neighborhood was known as "tough,"
no one ever vandalized the garden.
Now, put your name on the top of your own sheet of paper. Label and answer each of the
following questions.
Exercise 1
The following groups of sentences can be rearranged to form paragraphs. Make a note
of the order in which they should be placed.
Paragraph 1
1. Next, add antifreeze to your windshield washer fluid; otherwise, the fluid will freeze
and possibly break the container.
2. First, put on snow tires if you plan to drive on snowy, icy roads very often.
3. Driving in winter, especially on snowy, icy roads, can be less troublesome if you take
a few simple precautions.
4. Finally, it is also a good idea to carry tire chains, a can of spray to unfreeze door
locks, and a windshield scraper in your car when driving in winter weather.
5. Second, check the amount of antifreeze in your radiator and add more if necessary.
Paragraph 2
1. A breakthrough in one of these areas will hopefully provide a means of relieving both
the overstretched oil market and the environment.
2. Researchers in the automobile industry are experimenting with different types of
engines and fuels as alternatives to the conventional gasoline engines.
3. One new type of engine, which burns diesel oil instead of gasoline, has been available
for several years.
4. Finally, several automobile manufacturers are experimenting with methanol, which is
a mixture of gasoline and methyl alcohol, as an automobile fuel.
5. A further type is the gas turbine engine, which can use fuels made from gasoline,
diesel oil, kerosene and other petroleum distillates.
Paragraph 3
1. Later on, people began to write on pieces of leather, which were rolled into scrolls.
2. In the earliest times, people carved or painted messages on rocks.
3. In the Middle Ages, heavy paper called parchment was used for writing and books
were laboriously copied by hand.
4. With the invention of the printing press in the middle of the fifteenth century, the
modern printing industry was born.
5. Some form of written communication has been used throughout the centuries.
Exercise 2
Write good topic sentences to begin each of the following paragraphs. Remember to
include both a topic and a controlling idea.
1. Americans relaxing at home, for example, may put on kimonos, which is a Japanese
word. Americans who live in a warm climate may take an afternoon siesta on an
outdoors patio without even realizing that these are Spanish words. In their gardens,
they may enjoy the fragrance of jasmine flowers, a word that came into English from
Persian. They may even relax on a chaise longue, while sipping a drink made with
vodka, words of French and Russian origin, respectively.
2. In European universities, students are not required to attend classes. In fact,
professors in Germany generally do not know the names of the students enrolled in
their courses. In the United States, however, students are required to attend all classes
and may be penalized if they do not. Furthermore, in the European system, there is
usually just one comprehensive examination at the end of the students' entire four or
five years of study. In the American system, on the other hand, there are usually
numerous quizzes, texts, and homework assignments, and there is almost always a final
examination in each course at the end of the semester.
3. For example, the Eskimos, living in a treeless region of snow and ice, sometimes
build temporary homes out of thick blocks of ice. People who live in deserts, on the
other hand, use the most available material, mud or clay, which provides good insulation
from the heat. In Northern Europe, Russia and other areas of the world where forests
are plentiful, people usually construct their homes out of wood. In the islands of the
South Pacific, where there is a plentiful supply of bamboo and palm, people use these
tough, fibrous plants to build their home.
Exercise 3
Now write a topic sentence for each of the following topics. Make sure you have a
controlling idea.
Example:
Topic: Television's effects on children
Topic sentence: Television is harmful to children because it teaches violence as a
way of solving problems.
1. Smoking cigarettes
2. Foreign travel
3. Space exploration
4. Rock music or rock musicians
5. Studying a foreign language