_________________________________________________________________
Record: 1
36399760275693520000601
Title: Fragments of Ancient Beliefs: The Snake as a Multivocal Symbol
in Nordic Mythology.
Subject(s): MYTHOLOGY, Norse; SYMBOLISM in folk literature; SERPENTS
-- Mythology; SNAKES -- Symbolic aspects
Source: ReVision, Summer2000, Vol. 23 Issue 1, p17, 6p, 10bw
Author(s): Mandt, Gro
Abstract: Explores the significance of the snake symbol in Norse
mythology. Overview of Nordic mythology; Snake symbolism in Norse
mythology; Different aspects of snake symbolism; Transformation of the
snake symbol.
AN: 3639976
ISSN: 0275-6935
Full Text Word Count: 4900
Database: Academic Search Premier
FRAGMENTS OF ANCIENT BELIEFS: THE SNAKE AS A MULTIVOCAL
SYMBOL IN
NORDIC MYTHOLOGY
When approaching the study of prehistoric religions in areas and time
periods where no solid evidence (such as sacred texts or descriptions
of rituals) is preserved, traces of beliefs and practices must be
pieced together from a variety of disciplines. Fragments of mythology
found in folk traditions, legends, and fairy tales; elements of
ancient beliefs occurring in written records from later periods;
linguistic data revealing the names of deities and sacred places; and
archaeological findings all contribute to the vast symbolic repertoire
of material available for religious and mythological interpretation.
The Nordic snake is a recurring symbol both in written records
relating ancient myths and in material cultural remains from
prehistoric and early historic times. In this article I will explore
the significance of the snake from ca. 4000 B.C. to A.D. 1200 in the
Nordic area.
Overview
Throughout world cultures, powerful symbolic qualities have been
attributed to the snake, as demonstrated by its diverse manifestations
in religion, mythology, and art in a variety of societies for
millennia. From a naturalist's point of view, the snake achieved its
unique position in the animal realm because of its shape and general
behavior. Snakes slither quickly; they often hide in crevices or
earthen caverns, they hibernate during the cold season, and they shed
their skins. Many are poisonous. They are considered to be enigmatic,
awesome creatures, and this ambiguity is reflected in people's beliefs
about them.
Visual representations of the snake include both naturalistic pictures
and abstract patterns associated with it, such as spirals, meanders,
zigzags, and wavy lines. The earliest known examples of the snake
motif in the shape of zigzag patterns occur in Neanderthal contexts,
ca. 40,000 B.C. (Gimbutas 1989, 19). Marija Gimbutas maintains that
the use of snake motifs represents one of humankind's earliest ritual
activities, and snake symbolism was primarily associated with the
female aspects of religion.
In Nordic material culture, naturalistic and abstract snake
representations are found from the late Stone Age, throughout the
Bronze and the early Iron Ages, to the Viking era and the early
medieval period. Written records referring to snakes (serpents as well
as dragons) appear only in the latter part of this timeframe, the
thirteenth century A.D., but are assumed to express beliefs and
traditions that are many centuries older.
Social, economic, and religious changes that took place in Nordic
culture are reflected in the changing attributes of the snake motif. I
will discuss these variations with an emphasis on their association
with female symbolism. Regarding more recent manifestations of the
snake symbol, where both written sources and material remains are
available, I will examine whether these two sets of data contradict or
support one another. Interpretation of earlier snake imagery will be
based partly on retrospective analyses and cross-cultural analogies
relating to universal concepts of the snake.
Snake Symbolism in Norse Mythology
Nordic culture maintained an oral tradition prior to its conversion to
Christianity around A.D. 1000. Knowledge of Norse cosmology of the
ninth to the eleventh centuries relies on memories of that period that
are reflected primarily in texts written after the conversion, 300-400
years later than the living tradition they reflect. The use of these
records, therefore, requires a considerable amount of caution, not
only because of the rime gap but also because of the likely Christian
influence on the narratives. Note also that the majority of the texts
were written by men, mainly monks, who had little or no knowledge of
the lore and practices of women (Davidson 1993, 107).
Norse mythology and cosmology are derived from manuscripts such as the
Elder or Poetic Edda, the Scaldic Verses, and the Prose Edda and Sagas
(for example, Davidson 1993, 65). In these texts, the snake motif is
revealed as a cosmic symbol, occurring both in creation myths and
myths about the destruction of the world.
Norse people, the "Vikings" as they are known in popular imagination,
pictured the world as a circular disk, in the center of which stood
the home of the gods, Asgard. Outside and around Asgard lay Midgard
'the place in the middle' where humans lived. Outside Midgard was
Utgard 'the place outside' which was the home of the Giants,
adversaries of both gods and humans. The ocean held a huge serpent,
which wound itself like a belt around the world, biting its own tail
(fig. 1). This is Midgardsormen the World Serpent banished by the gods
who feared the vicious monster (Holtsmark 1990, 155).
A huge ash, Yggdrasil, the World Tree, grew in the center of the
world. It reached from the underworld, Helheim, through the world of
the living right into the firmament (Holtsmark 1990, 65). The ash grew
by a well, where, it was told, there were "more snakes than anyone can
tell" (73). One of the snakes, Nidhogg, gnawed at the roots of the
World Tree, while four red deer fed on its leaves (65).
The World Tree is also a cosmic symbol denoting the continuity and
reproduction of society. As a living organism, however, it is subject
to destruction and death. The inevitable end of the world, Ragnarok,
is symbolized by the snake and the red deer gnawing at the roots and
leaves of Yggdrasil (Steinsland and Sorensen 1994, 33). The myth of
Ragnarok tells about the final battle between gods and giants
(Davidson 1993, 74). Various allusions to snakes occur in the tales of
this catastrophe. In the Realm of Death is a hall braided by the
bodies of snakes, where venom drips from its roof. Here, the serpent
Nidhogg is described as a "dark dragon" that flies above the
battlefields with dead bodies in its feathers "sucking corpses"
(Holtsmark 1990, 174-75).
The World Serpent, Midgardsormen, plays an important role in the
destruction myth when it escapes its bonds and joins in the attack.
The god who takes up the struggle with the monster is Thor, the
Thunder God, who appears to have been one of the most popular gods of
the Norse pantheon. In addition to being a fertility god, he is
guardian of Cosmos. In that capacity, he is continually fighting the
Giants in order to maintain balance between the cosmic forces
(Steinsland and Sorensen 1994, 56). In the final battle of Ragnarok,
Thor manages to destroy the World Serpent, but in the act he dies,
killed by the venom that the serpent spouts (Holtsmark 1990, 174).
The Snake Motif in Viking and Early Medieval Imagery
In the material culture from the same period as the Norse myths, the
late Iron Age, ca. A.D. 600-1000, the snake motif occurs even more
frequently than in the written records. Thanks to lavish burial
customs, numerous artifacts from everyday life and festive and
religious occasions have been preserved. The hallmark of the
decorative style of the Viking age is coiling, intertwined ribbons,
which give the impression of constant movement (fig. 2).
Although there is a preference for abstract forms, Nordic patterns
primarily render different species of animals; among the most favored
are serpents and dragons, the cosmic creatures of the myths
(Steinsland and Sorensen 1994, 200). Snakelike decorations occur on
women's jewelry and men's weapons, and they are carved in wood and on
memorial stones for the deceased. In the latter case, snakes are often
depicted together with runic inscriptions.
Artistic traditions from the Viking age persisted into the early
Christian era. The snake motif frequently appears as a decorative
element in the earliest religious structures, the wooden
stave-churches from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries A.D. Swarms
of twisting, winding snakes are frequently carved on the doorframes.
Heads of serpents or dragons adorn church roofs and are found on
keyhole-mountings and reliquaries. On memorial stones, the snake motif
occurs together with the Christian cross (see fig. 2).
Symbol of Ambiguity
The Norse snake manifests itself as an ambiguous or multivalent
symbol. To some extent, written texts and material imagery seem to
contradict each other. The serpents of the myths are presented as
monsters, associated with death and disaster, that fought against and
were chained by the gods. On the other hand, the snakes encountered in
the material culture appear to fulfill their ancient function as
guardians. It seems unlikely that the snake motif that decorates
jewelry and weapons symbolizes evil and destructive forces. On the
contrary, the snakes occurring in the decorative styles, or outlined
in the shape of finger-or arm-rings, were probably meant to protect
their owners.
In the Norse sagas are countless descriptions of mighty Viking
battleships, often referred to as "dragons." The largest and most
powerful of them was called Ormen Lange, the 'Long Serpent'. According
to the saga-teller, Ormen Lange's stem was formed in the guise of a
golden dragon's head, and its stern was shaped like a coiling
serpent's tail (Snorres Kongesagaer 1942, 164). When the first Viking
ships were excavated in Norway in 1880 and 1904, the descriptions in
the Sagas were more or less confirmed. Although no actual dragon heads
were found, the shape of the stems, particularly on the Oseberg ship,
resembled the coiling head and tail of a serpent.
Proclaiming and equipping battleships as dragons may have had an
apotropaic function to frighten an enemy. It is plausible, however,
that the guardian aspect was also at work, and that the ships were
expressing the powerful properties of the dragon (Steinsland and
Sorensen 1994, 202). The linguist Else Mundal has suggested that the
dragon was a symbol of rulers and that only the most prominent
chieftains adorned their ships with dragons' heads (personal
communication).
Under close scrutiny, the function of the snake as a protector and
guardian is discernible even in the myths. The World Serpent,
Midgardsormen, is pictured as an awesome monster. By encircling the
world, however, the serpent serves an important function in the
Cosmos; it keeps chaos at bay and protects the world order. The
earliest kenning (poetic metaphor) for Midgardsormen, dating to the
ninth century A.D., is "belt," meaning "something that holds together"
(Else Mundal, personal communication). Thus, Midgardsormen represents
the Ouroboros, the cosmic snake that girdles the world. Another
serpent-monster of Norse and Germanic mythology is the dragon Favne,
which is custodian of an enormous gold treasure.
Female Aspects of Snake Symbolism
The ambiguity inherent in the symbolism of the Norse snake conforms to
various cross-cultural aspects of the motif: the snake is a cosmic
being associated with death and the afterlife; it functions as
guardian and custodian and as a ruling symbol (Eliade 1987a, 1987b).
In myths all over the world, the snake is portrayed with both positive
and negative qualities. The snake is assumed to possess evil and
deadly forces, in addition to being immortal, life generating, and a
symbol of good fortune. Associated with both demons and deities, in
some religions the snake is cursed and worshiped simultaneously.
In the Norse myths, however, the association of the snake with
fertility, birth, and regeneration seems to be lacking (Gimbutas 1989,
121). Gimbutas draws attention to these positive qualities when she
claims that the snake symbol is associated with female divinity. This
association is related to Gimbutas's concept of the Great Goddess of
Old Europe. She envisages the snake as the symbol of life and
regeneration, fertility and growth (xix). Of particular interest is
the belief in the immortality of the snake inspired by its
reappearance in the spring after a period of winter hibernation and
its "renewal" by shedding its skin. Because of its alleged immortality
and its habitat in the earth and among stones, the snake represents a
link between the underworld of the dead and the realm of the living
and is believed to embody the energy of the ancestors (317). Within
this framework, the snake is benevolent, not evil. Although the
poisonous snake can kill, Gimbutas interprets this quality as a
representation of the death-wielding aspect of the Goddess (121,205,
209).
Gimbutas draws attention to the similarities between snake and bird
symbolism, pertaining especially to water birds such as swans, cranes,
storks, and geese, all of which have long, snake-shaped necks, and
that return each spring after spending the winter months in the south.
Both snakes and birds are seen as life energy incarnate and as
representing the souls of the dead (317). Both have death-wielding
aspects that are not considered evil, but are part of the natural
cycle of life.
Why are these important aspects of snake symbolism apparently lacking
in the tales of Norse snakes? I suggest that the snake's symbolic
meaning in the Nordic area has been transformed through the millennia
and that its life-generating, female aspects have been partly overlaid
and partly assimilated by later symbol systems. To explore this
possibility, I think it useful to examine material cultural remains
from periods before the Viking age, where written records are either
insufficient or altogether lacking.
The Snake Motif in the Preliterate Nordic Past
The earliest appearances of the snake motif in the Nordic area date to
the Neolithic, ca. 4000-3000 B.C. The motif is primarily found in rock
art, for example, at two large rock art sites in Western Norway,
Ausevik, and Vingen (Bakka 1973; Boe 1932; Hagen 1969; Walderhang
1994). The motif that dominates at these sites is red deer, but both
naturalistic snake depictions and abstract snake representations,
primarily in the shape of spirals, wavy bands, and zigzags, occur
frequently (fig. 3). Even human figures are depicted by means of
zigzags, the majority identifiable as female representations (fig. 4).
Similar decorations appear on some contemporary artifacts, for
example, on star-shaped "maceheads" (fig. 5), and on clay figurines
interpreted as "idols" (Bakka 1973, 170; Hagen 1969, 87). The
maceheads are thought to be weights for digging sticks; they may also
have been used by women in food collecting (Vinsrygg 1979, 1987). In
addition to snake representations, both the macehead decorations and
the rock art include various other motifs that, according to Gimbutas
(1989, xxii), may be associated with a system of female symbols--such
as plant and eye motifs, triangles, fringes, net patterns, multiple
arcs, and hooks (see fig. 4). Even motifs interpreted as vulvas are
found (Bakka 1973, 159) (fig. 6).
Numerous rock art representations of red deer (the majority of which,
due to lack of horns, appear to represent the female of the species,
namely hinds) can also be explained within the framework of fertility
symbolism (see fig. 4). In folklore, legends, and songs from all over
Europe traces appear of ancient rituals centered on homed animals,
mainly deer, in particular hinds (Storm 1995). The European cervine
tradition is reflected in song games, such as "the Hind Game," in
which the main themes are life and death, sexual love, supernatural
heroic women and men, and the association of deer with water, trees,
and snakes.
During the Bronze Age, ca. 1800 to 500 B.C., the snake motif occurs
frequently in a variety of contexts, ranging from spirals and meanders
adorning jewelry and weapons, to naturalistic and abstract snake
representations in rock art. The snake motif often occurs in
association with the ship motif, and Gimbutas has suggested that even
the curving stems of the ships should be interpreted as the heads of
snakes (1987, 247) (fig. 7). Spirals, meanders, and zigzags are
depicted both on open-air sites (for example, Svensson 1989) and on
grave cists (fig. 8).
A naturalistic snake representation occurs in the most outstanding
late Bronze Age hoard from Faardal in Denmark. In addition to numerous
pieces of women's jewelery, a group of bronze figurines were found,
including a kneeling woman, a curving snake, and two single- and one
double-homed animal heads, the latter combined with a waterbird
representation. It is assumed that the woman steered the snake, and
she is referred to as the "Snake Goddess" (Brondsted 1966a, 203). The
association of snake and homed animal (red deer?), as demonstrated in
the Ausevik and Vingen rock art (see fig. 3) is noteworthy; it is also
found in much later Norse cosmology (see fig. 1).
In the early Iron Age, ca. 500 B.C. to A.D. 600, traces of snake
symbolism can be recognized in the decorative motifs on jewelry and
weapons and in more naturalistic shapes on memorial stones, as in the
large collection round on the Swedish island of Gotland (Nylen 1978).
Evidence of a potential association between the snake motif and female
symbolism is, however, sparse in this period. The best illustration
appears on one of the memorial stones from Gotland, the so-called
Smiss Stone, dated A.D. 400-600. The decoration consists of a
crouching human figure, interpreted as a woman, who holds a winding
snake in each hand (fig. 9). She is referred to as the "Snake Witch"
(40). The figure is strikingly similar to a motif that Gimbutas
associates with the frog and interprets as an epiphany of the Great
Goddess or her uterus (Gimbutas 1989, 251). The "Snake Witch" is
considered simultaneously a symbol for burial and life; this is
amplified by the two snakes.
Naturalistic snake representations evident in two unique finds from
Denmark are undoubtedly related to ritual practices. Both are
decorated with scenes interpreted as illustrations of myths, including
human representations (deities?) and a variety of animal species,
among which are snakes. One find consists of two golden drinking horns
from Gallehus, dated to A.D. 400-450, of which only drawings are
preserved (Brondsted 1966b, 323). The other find is the large silver
cauldron from Gundestrup, dated to the first century B.C. (Davidson
1993, 25; Gorman 1987). Again, a relationship between snake and horned
animal (bull and/or stag) is attested to in the decorations on the
cauldron.
Transformation of the Snake Symbol
Although the empirical data which I have drawn attention to here are
relatively sparse, they seem to indicate that the symbolism of the
snake may have changed during the early Iron Age, between ca. 500 B.C.
and A.D. 400. In the Neolithic period, an association between snake
and woman is indicated both in rock art and on decorated maceheads. In
the Bronze Age, the "Snake-Goddess" of the Faardal hoard also suggests
a link between snake and woman. The appearance of snake motifs in
Bronze Age burials emphasizes the connection between snakes and a
death/rebirth symbolism. In the transition period between the late
Bronze Age and the early Iron Age, however, the association between
snake and woman becomes diffuse. One outstanding exception is the
"Snake Witch" of the Smiss Stone. Its function as a memorial stone for
a dead person stresses the death/rebirth symbolism of the snake. The
snakes of the Norse myths, if they indicate any gender, appear to be
male. The snake motif in the contemporary material culture, however,
does not seem to have been reserved for one or the other gender; it
occurs on women's and men's belongings alike. In the medieval period,
indications of an association between snakes and women are evident.
Legends include narratives that describe female saints who fought with
and conquered dragons. Through their victory over the dragons, the
saints gained the power to help women during childbirth (Egilsdottir
1994).
I assume that the alterations that seem to occur in snake symbolism
can be explained by changes in the religious belief system. In a
culture's conversion to Christianity, there are examples of older
deities' being transformed into demons or assimilated by the new faith
(Else Mundal, personal communication). Symbols associated with the
earlier religion continued to exist within the framework of the new
faith, but with altered meanings. Visual symbols may retain their
morphological shape, whereas altered meanings manifest through the new
contexts in which the symbols appear. Former religious traditions can
exist as undercurrents in the official belief system and only
occasionally emerge in the material culture or in myths.
One example of such a potentially long-lasting symbolic symbiosis is
the combination of snake and deer. It is seen in the Neolithic rock
art at Ausevik and Vingen (see fig. 3), in the late Bronze Age hoard
from Faardal, in the pre-Roman cauldron from Gundestrup, in the Norse
myth of Yggdrasil (see fig. 1), in early medieval memorial stones (see
fig. 2), and in stave church decorations. The degradation of symbols
can also occur in the sense that once-important symbols can lose their
profound meaning over time and be turned into mere amulets, bringing
luck or preventing evil (Eliade 1958, 440).
The "change-of-religion" model may explain other puzzling features of
snake symbolism in Norse culture. It is easier to understand the
guardian role of the otherwise vicious snakes of the Norse myths if
the snake is seen as a once powerful sacred image turned into a mere
luck-bringing or evil-averting symbol. Female saints who became aids
in childbirth after killing dragons may reflect a symbolism rooted in
ancient myths that link snakes with the entire cycle of fertility,
creation, death, and rebirth. It is tempting to ask whether when the
dragon became a ruling icon adorning the mighty battleships of the
Vikings, male warriors took over an ancient personification of the
female deity. Perhaps even the death-wielding aspect of the snake--as
well as protection and regeneration--was included in the symbolism of
the battleships of the Vikings.
Conclusion
To exemplify the multiple levels of meaning in the Nordic snake motif,
I will conclude by telling a story about Thor, the Thunder God, and
Midgardsormen, the World Serpent. One of the more popular tales of its
time, the tale is retold in different versions in the written records,
and the scene is depicted on several memorial stones (fig. 10).
Once Thor went out fishing with one of the Giants. After they had
rowed far out on the ocean, Thor threw out his bait, an oxhead
(another horned animal), and it was swallowed by none other than the
World Serpent, Midgardsormen. When Thor tried to pull the serpent out
of the water, he stepped so firmly into the bottom of the boat that it
was crushed, and he, therefore, stood with both his feet planted at
the bottom of the sea. When Thor lifted his hammer to slay the
monster, however, the giant grabbed his own knife and cut the line so
that the serpent slid unharmed back into the ocean (Steinsland and
Sorensen 1994, 57).
Some scholars suggest that this myth is much older than the Viking age
and may originally have been part of a creation myth in which the gods
bound various monsters (Davidson 1993, 52). An alternative explanation
is that the myth indicates some type of crisis. Both the Thunder God
and the World Serpent are guardians of Cosmos, but in his attempt to
raise the serpent from the deep, Thor endangered the stability of the
world (Steinsland and Sorensen 1994, 58). The serpent sank down into
the water again, leaving the world safe for awhile only to await the
final disaster--the destruction of the world depicted in Ragnarok
(Davidson 1993, 83).
In my view, this myth illustrates a conflict between two competing
belief systems presented in symbolic form. The serpent can be seen as
the age-old, powerful symbol of life, death, and rebirth, perhaps
symbolizing a regenerating, all-inclusive female deity. This
interpretation is strengthened by the close association between snakes
and horned animals attested from the Neolithic period onwards. The
androcentric ideology of the Viking age transformed the serpent into a
vicious monster whom the gods of the new religion chained and banished
because they feared for their safety. Because the ancient symbol was
so strong, some of its positive qualities have been preserved, and the
serpent has retained its cosmic function as protector of dynamic
balance. The attempt by the powerful male Thunder God to destroy the
serpent may symbolize the battle between the old female symbols of
creativity, destruction and regeneration--representing the Great
Cosmic Cycle--and the new androcratic order. In the myth Thor has to
surrender. Perhaps this signals an admission that the old belief
system had not lost its power and the time had not yet come for a New
World Order. Only in the final battle of Ragnarok does Thor kill the
serpent, and he and the entire known world are destroyed along with
it.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Ellinor Hoff for the drawings she produced for
this article, and especially for the visual work on Norse cosmology,
as shown in fig. 1. Thanks as well to Svein Skate for his technical
computer support.
PHOTO (BLACK & WHITE): Figure 1. Norse cosmology picturing Midgard,
the worm of the living, surrounded by Midgardsormen, the World Serpent
that is biting its own tail. In the middle grows the ash Yggdrasil,
the Worm Tree, with snakes gnawing at its roots and deer feeding on
its leaves. (Drawing by Ellinor Hoff.)
PHOTO (BLACK & WHITE): Figure 2. A memorial stone from Uppland,
Sweden, dated ca. 1000 A.D. The runic inscription says that the stone
was erected by a woman, Gillog, who had let a "bridge" be built for
the soul of her daughter, Gullog. In addition to the cross, bridges
are Christian metaphors. The decorative style of the stone is the
so-called Urnes-style, including snake- and deerlike elements, typical
of Swedish memorial stones from this period. This particular stone is
special, however, because both the deceased, for whom the stone was
erected, and the person who erected it are women. (Drawing Ellinor
Hoff, after Page 1993, 164.)
PHOTO (BLACK & WHITE): Figure 3. Section of a panel from Vingen, the
large rock art site in Bremanger municipality, Sogn og Fjordane
County. Note the close association between the two snake
representations and a horned animal, probably a red deer (after Bakka
1973, 161, fig. 5).
PHOTO (BLACK & WHITE): Figure 4. Section of a panel from the rock art
site Vingen. The dominant motif is deer representations, although
human figures and line patterns occur frequently. The human figure in
the center is filled with zigzag lines, and the animals are endowed
with abstract-geometric body decorations (after Bakka 1973, 160, fig.
4).
PHOTO (BLACK & WHITE): Figure 5. Drawing of decorated star-shaped
macehead from Rogaland County (after Bakka 1973, 173, fig. 12).
PHOTO (BLACK & WHITE): Figure 6. Oval-shaped figure on a panel from
Vingen, interpreted as a vulva (after Bakka 1973, 159, fig. 3.).
DIAGRAM: Figure 7. Ship figures, one with "snake heads," on a panel
from Samnoy, Fusa municipality in Hordaland County (after Mandt Larsen
1972, Pl. 66a).
PHOTO (BLACK & WHITE): Figure 8. Zigzag decorations on fragments of
grave slabs from an early Bronze Age grave cist from Mjeltehaugen, on
the island of Giske, Sunnmore (tracing by Gro Mandt).
PHOTO (BLACK & WHITE): Figure 9. The "Snake Witch" and various snakes
on the Smiss stone from Gotland. (Drawing Ellinor Hoff, after Nylen
[1978, 41]).
PHOTO (BLACK & WHITE): Figure 10. Section of a memorial from Altuna,
Sweden, dated ca. 1000 A.D. The picture shows Thor in the process of
slaying the monster Midgardsormen, that has just swallowed the ox
head. (Drawing by Ellinor Hoff, after Steinsland and Sorensen [1994,
57]).
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University of Bergen.
~~~~~~~~
By Gro Mandt
Gro Mandt is a professor of archaeology at the University of Bergen,
Norway. Her research focuses on the interpretation and conservation of
rock art in western Norway and feminist/gender studies in archaeology.
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