Natural Approach
Proposer/
advocator
Goals
Crashen & Terrell/ 1977
Students can acquire the
target languages in a natural
and communicative situation.
Mother Tongue
No mother tongue
Merits
1. Students acquire the target
language in a natural and
easy way.
2. Teaching materials are
designed very well.
Students ca acquire
language from easy to
difficult, from simple to
complex, and from
concrete to abstract.
Limits
1. Students may use the target
language fluently, but they
cannot use it accurately.
2. Teachers should collect
various teaching aids and
use them appropriately.
3. Special teaching designs is
necessary for the students
with better abilities.
Teaching Aids
Visual aids, such as pictures,
maps, advertisement; games
Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT)
?/1972
Audio-lingual Method
(ALM)
Charles Fries /1939
Be able to communicate
Be able to listen, speak,
with others in the target
read, and write in the target
language in different
language, with emphasis on
situations
listening and speaking
Both mother tongue and
Less mother tongue
target language
1. Students have the
1. Students can learn target
opportunities to express
language in natural order:
their own thoughts and
listening—speaking—read
opinions.
ing—writing.
2. Students have the
2. Students can speak the
opportunities to
correct answers without
communicate with each
thinking by overlearning.
other in the classroom.
3. Students can learn the
culture of the target
language because the
teaching materials are
related to the social
environments.
4. The communicative
situation makes students
reconstruct their
knowledge and thoughts,
so students can learn to
fluently speak the target
language more easily.
1. It’s difficult for a
1. It fails to teach the
long-term communicative
nonnative speaking
teacher who is not very
proficiency.
proficient in the target
2. Structural linguistics
language to teach
didn’t tell us everything
effectively. Teacher
about language that we
training and certification
needed to know.
are needed.
3. It’s impossible and
2. Students’ pronunciation
unnecessary to teach
and grammatical
students without using
knowledge is poor.
native languages.
3. It is difficult for teachers 4. It’s boring for students to
to evaluate students’
overlearn the drills and
expression in the learning
it’s tiring for teachers to
process.
teach.
(a)Interesting and meaningful Textbooks, drills, tapes,
materials, such as linguistic language labs
games, role plays, and
problem solving materials.
(b) Technology—films,
videos, TV, computers, can be
used as teaching aids.
Features
1.
1. 5 important hypothesis 1. Language learning is
learning to communicate.
A. the Acquisition-Learning H
The primary function of 2.
Students acquire language
language is for
subconsciously in the
interaction and
natural and communicative
communication.
situations.
2.
Classroom goals are
3.
B. the Monitor H
focused on all of the
Students may call upon
components of
learned knowledge to
4.
communicative
correct themselves when
competence and not
they communicate, but that
restricted to grammatical
conscious learning has only
or linguistic competence
this function.
3.
Students learn to use the
C. the Natural Order H
appropriate language
5.
The acquisition of
forms
in
the
different
grammatical structures
places.
proceeds in a predictable
4.
Communicative activities 6.
order.
include functional
D. the Input (i+1) H
communicative activities
Students acquire language
and social interaction
best by understanding input
activities.
that is slightly beyond their
5.
Teachers are assistants,
current level of competence.
guides, counselors and 7.
E. the Affective Filter H
group process managers.
Student work should center
6. Students are expected to
on meaningful
interact with each other
communication rather than
rather than with the
on form; input should be
teacher.
8.
interesting and so contribute
7.
Learners
should
take
the
to a relaxed classroom
responsibility of the failed
atmosphere.
communication.
------------------------------------2. The teacher was the source 8. Language is created by
the individual through
of the learner’s input and
trial and error. Correction
the creator of an interesting
of errors may be absent
and stimulating variety of
or infrequent.
classroom activities.
9.
Students can speak
3. Learners don’t need to say
fluently but not
anything during the “silent
accurately.
period” until they feel
10.
Four language skills are
ready to do so.
practiced. Reading and
4. Start with TPR commands.
Writing can start from the
5. Use visuals, typically
first day, if desired.
magazine pictures, to
introduce new vocabulary.
6. The focus in the classroom
is on listening and
reading abilities.
7. No sentence patterns
practice and no error
correction during the
process of acquisition.
New material is presented
in dialogue forms
There’s dependence on
mimicry, memorization
of set phrases, and
overlearning.
Structural patterns are
taught using repetitive
drills.
There’s little or no
grammatical explanation.
Grammar is taught by
inductive analogy
explanation.
There is much use of
tapes, language labs, and
visual aids.
It is based on Behaviorist
psychology. Students’
successful responses are
immediately reinforced
and their errors are
corrected immediately.
The teaching sequences
are aural training,
pronunciation training,
speaking, reading, and
writing.
Structures are sequenced
by means of contrastive
analysis and taught one at
a time.
Hypothesis
the Acquisition-Learning H
the Monitor H
the Natural Order H
the Input (i+1) H
the Affective Filter H
Definition
“Acquisition” is a unconscious and intuitive process of constructing the
system of a language. “Learning” refers to a process in which conscious rules
about a language are developed. Learning cannot lead to acquisition.
Conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor that checks and
repairs the output of the acquired system.
The acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order.
Errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes and during
acquisition, similar developmental errors occur in learners, no matter what
their mother tongue is.
People acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond
their current level of competence. If an acquirer is at stage or level “i”, the
input (s)he understands should contain “i+1.” Input should neither be so far
beyond their reach nor so close to their current stage.
The ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly; it emerges
independently in time.
The learner’s emotional state or attitudes as an adjustable filter that freely
passes, impedes, or blocks input necessary to acquisition. Three kinds of
affective or attitudinal variables are: (1) motivation, (2) self-confidence (3)
anxiety. The best acquisition will occur in environments where anxiety is low
and defensiveness absent.
Direct Method
Natural Approach
Similarity
1. It emphasized that the principles underlying the
1.
method were believed to conform to the principles
of naturalistic language learning in young
children.
It is believed to conform to the naturalistic
principles found in successful second acquisition.
Difference
DM focuses on:
1. Teacher monologues
2. Direct repetition
3. Formal questions and answers
4. Accurate production of target language sentences
NA focuses on:
1. Exposure input
2. Optimizing emotional preparedness for learning
3. Listening & Reading
Proposer/
advocator
Goals
Total Physical Response
(TPR)
Asher/ 1964
Be able to respond
physically to the sentences
made in the target language.
Mother Tongue
No mother tongue
Merits
1. It provides rapid and
rather permanent
language gains on early
levels, so students can
remember the learned
vocabulary for a long
time.
2. Students respond
actively and feel
interested in the learning
processes.
3. It’s easy for teachers to
teach students verbs.
Limits
1. It’s difficult to teach the
abstract content with
TPR
2. Students’ pronunciation
is poor.
3. Teachers have to do
obvious actions
carefully or students
would be confused and
be misled by the
unnecessary hints.
4. TPR has been an
experimental model
with volunteer students;
its, not useful for the
inactive students.
5. TPR is especially
effective in the
beginning levels of
language proficiency,
but then loses its
distinctiveness as
learners advance in their
competence.
Teaching Aids
No text. Body language
and practical materials.
Community Language Learning (CLL)
Counseling Learning Method
Curran/1961
To get the language competence and performance by
asking questions.
Both mother tongue and the target language
1. Each student lowers the defenses that prevent open
interpersonal communication.
2. The anxiety caused by the educational context is lessened
by means of the supportive community.
3. The teacher’s presence is not perceived as a threat, but as
a counselor.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The counselor-teacher can be too nondirective. Some
intensive inductive struggle is a necessary component of
second language learning. Learning “ by being told” is
much better.
Translation is an intricate and complex process that is
often “easier said then done.” If subtle aspects of
language are mistranslated, there could be a less than
effective understanding.
The training is required for an ideal knower. (s)he would
have a perfect command of the foreign language and
would have to be professionally competent in both
psychology and linguistics.
It has limitations in a large-group situation with one
teacher.
There’s a need for clients who speak a common
language.
Various materials for different purposes; colored coded
signals; tapes; recorders
Features
1.
Based on 3 important
hypothesis:
(A) the Bio-program H
Children, in learning
their first language,
appear to do a lot of
listening before they
speak, and their listening
is accomplished by
physical responses.
(B) the Brain
Lateralization H
Motor activity is a
right-brain function that
should precede left-brain
language
processing—speaking.
(C) Reduction of Stress H
An important condition
for successful language
learning is the absence
of stress.
2. Imperative(祈使句)
drills are the major
classroom activity in
TPR.
3. Commands are easy
first, and then become
more and more
complex.
4. Students are listeners
and performers. They
do a lot of listening and
acting until they master
the commands. They are
required to respond both
individually and
collectively.
5. Students respond to the
commands physically.
No verbal response is
necessary.
1.
The sense of belonging needed by both students and
teachers.
2. Both teachers and students have the responsibility for the
learning activity.
3. In a good knower-client relationship, there quickly
develops a warm, sympathetic attitude of mutual trust
and respect. The client emulates the language and person
of the knower; the knower is fulfilled and enriched
through the counseling-teaching experience.
4. More important to learners is the freedom and initiative
they are permitted.
5. The most basic ingredient in CLL is a mutual interest,
respect and concern of teachers for students and students
for students.
6. A group of ideas concerning the psychological
requirements for successful learning are collected under
the acronym—SARD. (S-security, A-attention and
aggression, R-retention and reflection, D-discrimination)
7. The teaching procedure:
(a) The students sit in a circle, and the teacher(s) is(are)
outside the circle.
(b) During the first stage, a tape recorder is normally used.
The only voices taped are those of the student-clients
when they are speaking in the target language.
(c) The students initiate the conversation in their native
language and the knower Translates it into the target
language. They then repeat in the target language what
they have heard the knower said.
(d) Students assist each other and they use the teacher when
there is a need. The knower provides translation only
when someone signals by raising his/her hand.
(e) Color coded signals are used. If red is flashed, an error
has been made. If amber, there is a more suitable idiom
and a better way. If green, the utterance is acceptable.
Blue indicates native expertise.
8. Students’ developmental stages:
(a) The “Embryonic Stage” (胚胎期)
Students are totally dependent on the teacher.
(b) The “Self-assertion Stage”(自我肯定)
The student-clients begin to show some independence
and tries out the language.
(c)IThe “birth Stage” (誕生期)
The students speak independently. They are most likely
to resent what they feel unnecessary assistance from the
knower.
(d) The “Reversal Stage”(逆轉期)
They are secure to take correction.
(e) The “Independent Stage”(獨立期)
Interruptions are infrequent. They occur for enrichment
and improvement of style.
Proposer/
advocator
Goals
The Silent Way
Gattegno/ 1972
Suggestopedia / Suggestology
Lozanov/ 1978
Let students use the target language to
Conduct the many negative “suggestions”
express their own thoughts and feeling
or fears which inhibit learning feelings of
independently and develop the ability to correct incompetence and fear of making mistakes,
their errors by themselves
and make students learn the target language
in a relaxing atmosphere.
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language Both mother tongue and the target language
Features
1. Learning is facilitated if the learner
1. In a relaxing atmosphere with carpeted
discovers or creates rather than remembers
floor, easy chairs and classic
and repeats what is to be learned. The
music –Baroque, integrated the use of
learners should develop independence,
music, the element of lecture and
autonomy and responsibility.
theater, through the reputation of the
2. Learners in a classroom must cooperate
method and the instructor, students’
with each other in the process of solving
language competence, confidence and
language problems.
wills to communicate are reinforced.
3. Teachers provide single-word stimuli, or 2. Students are encouraged to be as
short phrases and sentences once or twice,
“childlike” as possible, yielding all
and then students must refine their
authority to the teacher.
understanding and pronunciation
3. Every student is provided a new name
themselves.
and a new role within the target
4. Teachers utilize a set of Cuisinere
language on the first day of class. They
rods—small colored wooden rods of
live with a new identity rather than
varying lengths to introduce vocabulary,
struggle with a foreign language. The
verbs and syntax, especially about the
new names also contain phonemes from
spatial relationships and related
the target language culture that learners
prepositions as well as every aspect of
find difficult to pronounce.
language ranging from comparisons to
4. The dialogues are presented to the
tense, the conditional and the subjunctive.
students in three phases:
5. Teachers use a series of colorful wall charts
(a) explicative reading
to introduce pronunciation models,
(b) intonational reading
grammatical paradigms.
(c) concert
6. The teacher is silent as much as possible, 5. Students engage in interaction activities
and make students work out solutions
to review the material and involve new
themselves.
utterances as much as possible.
7. Four language skills are emphasized and 6. The teacher maintains a solemn attitude
students are encouraged to read and write
towards the session and shows absolute
the sentences they have heard and spoken.
confidence in the method.
8. Students correct the errors themselves and
teachers view these errors as the responses
to the teaching and give students some
hints and help.
Merits
1. Students interact not only with teachers but 1. Students are willing and able to
also with each other.
communicate in the target language and
students learn the target language in a
relaxing atmosphere.
2. Easy grammatical explanation helps
students learn the target language more
easily.
Limits
1.
2.
3.
4.
Teachers must know their teaching
objectives clearly and make use of the
teaching aids effectively.
Students may be confused with the
symbols of the colored wooden rods.
Students waste too much time struggling
with a concept that would be easily
clarified by the teachers’ direct guide.
It is difficult for teachers to evaluate
students’ progress in their learning process.
Teaching Aids Cuisinere rods, phonic charts, transparencies
Students don’t concentrate on the
language learning because eof the
music.
2. Students’ speech is somewhat
inaccurate grammatically and
phonologically.
3. All students need to share a common
native language.
4. Teachers must be proficient not only in
the target language but also I students’
native language.
5. Not all teachers are skilled in acting,
singing and choosing the appropriate
music and not all students can
appreciate the music.
A carpet, sofas, classic music tapes, flowers
and pictures
1.
Proposer/
advocator
Goals
Grammar-Translation Method (G-T)
1840~1940
To learn a language in order to read its
literature or in order to benefit from the
mental discipline and intellectual
development that result from foreign
language study.
Mother Tongue
Both mother tongue and the target
language
Limits
1 Students learn the target language
indirectly.
2 Students just learn the knowledge of
books not the common language, so
they may have trouble applying their
knowledge to the real social
situations.
3 Students have poor listening and
speaking ability because they seldom
practice listening and speaking.
Direct Method (Natural Method)
?
Students can understand the target language
without translation
No mother tongue
1.
It overemphasizes and distorts the
similarities between naturalistic first
language learning and classroom foreign
language learning and it fails to consider the
practical realities of the classroom.
2. It lacks a rigorous basis in applied linguistic
theory.
3. It requires teachers who are native speakers
or who have native like fluency in the
foreign language. It is largely dependent on
the teachers’ skill, rather than on a textbook,
and not all teachers are proficient enough in
the foreign language to adhere to the
principles of the method.
4. Sometimes a simple brief explanation in the
students’ native tongue would have been a
more efficient route to comprehension.
Merits
1 With translation of the native
1 Students can learn the target language
language, students can read and write
directly and systematically.
the target language I an easy and
2 Students can pronounce correctly.
meaningful way.
3 Students can learn to use both the written
2 Students can learn the grammars of
form and oral form of the target language.
the target language with a systematic 4 Students can have interest in learning.
and correct way.
Teaching Aids Textbooks and grammar books
Pictures and articles related to the textbooks
Features
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Reading and writing are the major
focus; little or no systematic
attention is paid to speaking or
listening.
Vocabulary is based on the reading
text used, and words are taught
through bilingual word lists,
dictionary study and memorization.
The sentence is the basic unit of
teaching and language practice.
Accuracy is emphasized.
Grammar is taught deductively.
The student’s native language is the
medium of instruction.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Classroom instruction is conducted
exclusively in the target language.
Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are
taught.
Oral communication skills are built up in a
carefully graded progression organized
around question and answer exchanges
between teachers and students in
small-intense classes.
New teaching points are introduced orally
before students see the written form.
Concrete vocabulary is taught through
demonstration objects and pictures; abstract
vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
Both speech and listening comprehension
are taught.
Correct pronunciation and grammar are
emphasized; grammar is taught inductively.
Students have to offer the interesting
materials to draw students’ curiosity to learn
the target language.
Proposer/
advocator
Goals
The St. Cloud Method
?/1951
To learn target languages in a situation
presented by various media
Microwave Device
Stevick/1964
To organize the power of the structure,
vocabulary and communication of the target
language in a short-term intensive language
program.
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language
Not limited
Features
1. A carefully structured course in which 1. This device is like a microwave cycle. It
students are immersed in multi-media
consists of an utterance which includes a
language presentations.
question and 4 to8 replies.
2. Cultural, situational and nonverbal
2. The cycle of instruction includes an M
component should permeate the
phase (mimicry, manipulation and
presentation.
mechanics) and a C phase
3. The Direct Method is employed.
(communication, conversation and
4. Initially students watch a picture
continuity).
sequence, then repeat the material
3. It should play “a supporting role” , or at
chorally. Students don’t see the written
most “a co-starring role” in language
language until after sixty hours of
materials.
instruction.
5. Communication depends on asking
questions and answering.
Merits
1. Because courses and related media are 1. Because of the different learning goals,
designed well, it is appreciated by
students can learn different materials.
non-native teachers who are not
2. Students can communicate with others in
completely secure in the language they
the accurately structured target language
are teaching.
in a short time.
2. It produces better phonological than
communicative competence.
3. It has proven more satisfactory with
younger students than with those of
college age.
4. The meaning of the pictures or films
and the goal of course are easy to
know.
Limits
1. Students’ communicative competence 1. It just supplies variable activities instead
and performance are not good.
of a complete course.
2. It is difficult for teachers to evaluate
2. It sacrifices the practices of reading and
students’ progress in their learning
writing to reinforce the listening and
process.
speaking competence.
3. It wastes too much time speaking and
listening without writing.
4. It’s difficult to get the teaching media
and appropriate teaching materials.
Teaching Aids Film strips are the dominant medium and
Variable materials for different special
pictures are supplement.
purposes
Proposer/
advocator
Goals
Situational Reinforcement Method
Hall/1978
Aural Discrimination Method
Winitz & Reeds/1973
Be able to use the target to communicate in
Learn to discriminate the vocabulary,
the real situations
inflection, phonology and syntax by a
visually-cued listening approach.
Mother Tongue
Not limited
Not limited
Features
1. Discard the sequenced grammatical
1. Teachers introduce vocabulary four or
approach.
five times as fast as possible. Students
2. It involves students in “authentic
listen to teachers’ pronunciation and
communication.”
then from four pictures select the one
3. It’s built in cognitive choices in order to
which best represents what they have
avoid mere mechanical repetition.
heard.
Students may analyze language and use it 2. Students don’t speak until they have
effectively in the new situations.
mastered the basic structures and
4. Students learn concrete objects before
vocabulary of the target language.
they learn abstract ideas.
Merits
1. Students enjoy the realistic situations
1. It’s interesting and meaningful to utilize
which enhance students’ willing to learn.
pictures as teaching media, and they
2. By simulating the realistic language
attract students’ attention easily.
situations, students can understand what a 2. Students have the opportunities to think
language is and why to learn it.
about the messages by judging the
3. Students learn to communicate with these
different pictures according to what
materials quite soon and they can use the
they heard.
materials even outside the classroom.
Limits
1. Teachers have to spend lots of time and 1. Students just can learn the concrete
energy creating the real situation and not
objects; they cannot learn the abstract
every situation can be simulated well.
ideas.
2. Excessive repetition is in the lesson
2. It focuses on listening competence, and
format.
ignores speaking, reading and writing.
3. The unstructured-unsequenced material
As a result, students’ listening ability is
can give students the feeling that they are
good, but their three other language
not making any real progress.
abilities are poor. Therefore, it just can
be seen as an assistant method rather
than as a major teaching approach.
3. It lacks the variety of some methods
and the relevance inherent.
Teaching Aids Authentic languages
Pictures, tapes, and video tapes
Proposer/
advocator
Goals
Stylized Mnemonics
Lipson/1971
Structured Tutoring
Harrison/1976
In order to learn the target language by
Make students learn the target language
recalling the memory of the drawings
in an individually structured course.
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language Both mother tongue and the target language
Features
1. Use translation at the outset of instruction. 1. Initially, this approach is used to teach
2. A corpus of sentences is learned through
disadvantaged children how to read. It
choral repetition and translation, but
involved volunteer tutors—adults or
drawings replace translation almost
peers.
immediately.
2. It focuses on reading and writing, even
3. Interesting and culturally relevant
introduces to beginners during the
vocabulary is combined in exotic
second week of instruction.
situations to teach the target language.
3. It is an informal remediable course
4. Some grammatical explanation are
designed for the low-achievement
presented but the emphasis is on
students.
communication
4. The courses are well structured.
5. The situations become more and more
Students cannot learn the next unit until
involved, new combinations of language
they reach the goals of the last unit.
are constantly generated.
5. Tutors spend 80 percents of their time
on grammar during seven out of the
eight units.
6. The tutors should be volunteers, and
their mother tongue is the target
language. Before they start to help the
students, they have to be trained.
7. The students who must be literate
native tongue, receive one-hour tutorial
visits a week and work four to six hours
on their own.
Merits
1. This approach is cognitive, culturally
1. Students can reach the learning objects
oriented, systematic and interesting.
in a short period of time.
2. Variable comprehensible drawings as cues 2. It includes the negligible cost involved
to introduce vocabulary are interesting to
simply administrative and material
students and can help them memorize the
charges.
new vocabulary more easily.
3. Students get the needed help, so the
good will is generated in their hearts.
Limits
1. This approach requires bilingual teachers. 1. It’s difficult to find volunteer
2. Not all teachers are artists; not every
native-speaking tutors overseas.
teacher can draw pictures well.
2. Some experienced teachers think their
3. Initially students should be linguistically
teaching skills are bound under the
homogeneous at least.
tightly controlled tutorial materials.
4. The bizarre situations of the drawings
3. It overemphasizes reading and writing,
may create an amuse detachment on the
students’ speaking competence is
part of learners.
ignored.
4. It’s boring with the one-by-one
teaching.
5. Students may feel bored with the
overemphasis on the grammar teaching.
Teaching Aids Pictures with explanatory words
Well structured teaching materials