European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization
Organisation Européenne et Méditerranéenne pour la Protection des Plantes
07-13386
DRAFT
Data sheets on invasive alien plants
Fiches informatives sur les plantes exotiques envahissantes
Polygonum perfoliatum
Identity
Scientific name: Polygonum perfoliatum (L.) L.
Synonyms: Ampelogonum perfoliatum (L.) Roberty & Vautier, Ampelygonum perfoliatum (L.)
Roberty & Vautier, Chylocalyx perfoliatus (L.) Hassk. Ex Miq., Echinocaulon perfoliatum (L.)
Meisn. Ex Hassk, Fagopyrum perfoliatum (L.) Raf., Persicaria perfoliata (L.) H. Gross, Tracaulon
perfoliatum (L.) Greene, Truellum perfoliatum (L.) Soják
Taxonomic position: Polygonaceae
Protologue: Systema naturae edition 10 p. 1006, published 1759 (The International Plant Names
Index website)
Common names: Asiatic tearthumb, devil's-tail tearthumb, mile-a-minute-vine, mile-a-minuteweed, minuteweed, tearthumb (English), knöterich, durchwachsener (German), ishimikawa
(Japanese), gang ban gui (Chinese).
EPPO code: POLPF
Phytosanitary categorization: EPPO A2/352
Geographical distribution
EPPO Region: Russia (Siberia, native), Turkey (alien, status unknown).
Asia (native):
Temperate: China (Anhui, Fujian, possibly eastern Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan,
Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Neimenggu (Inner
Mongolia, eastern part), southern Shaanxi, Shandong, Sichuan, Xizhang (Tibet, unconfirmed),
Yunnan, Zhejiang), Japan, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation (Far East), Taiwan.
Tropical: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Myanmar
(Burma), Philippines.
Oceania: Papua New Guinea.
North America (alien): USA (Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland, New Jersey,
New York, North-Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia, West Virginia,
Wisconsin).
Note: the plant has been eradicated from New Zealand. There is also a single record for Canada
(British Columbia), but no additional records since 1954.
In Turkey, the plant is present on the northern face of the Kaçkar range of mountains in North
Eastern Turkey, in Rize, district Ardeşen, near Firtina Deresi (Black Sea region).
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In the USA, the plant has been recorded in Mississippi, but herbaria curatorial staff in Mississippi
stated that publications indicating its occurrence in this State are erroneous.
History of introduction and spread
The first record of P. perfoliatum in North America is from Portland, Oregon (1890) where it was
believed to have arrived in ship ballasts (Stahl, 2002). This population was apparently short-lived as
the plant disappeared (Hickman and Hickman, 1977). In 1937, the plant was found in Prince George
County (Maryland), in the Glenn Dale Introduction Garden from a site planted with Meliosa seeds
from China. According to Moul (1948) Dr. Joseph Ewan of the USDA Plant Industry Station in
Beltsville, Maryland, writes that "Polygonum perfoliatum did appear at the Glenn Dale Introduction
Garden, Maryland, at a site where Meliosa seed from Nanking, China, had been planted. The
Meliosa failed to grow but the Polygonum perfoliatum appeared”. This population was eradicated by
routine weeding practices (Moul, 1948). The genus Meliosa does not exist and may have been
misspelled in which case it should read “Meliosma” (EPPO Panel on Invasive Alien Species).
The discovery of plants from the Gable Nursery in Stewartstown, Pennsylvania, in 1946 is
considered the first establishment site in the United States (Moul, 1948). Moul (1948) talked with
someone at the Gable Nursery in Stewartstown, York County, Pennsylvania, and states "the plant
made its first appearance in the nursery about ten years ago, when some holly seeds (Ilex spp.) sent
from Japan were planted and it came up with the holly". On the other hand, according to Okay
(1999) seeds of P. perfoliatum were probably unintentionally transported to this location in
rhododendron nursery stock imported from Eastern Asia in the 1930s (Okay, 1999). Whatever the
pathway of introduction (Ilex seeds or rhododendron stock), the owner of the nursery was impressed
by the beauty of the fruit and reproduced it (Moul, 1948); subsequent efforts to eradicate it failed. It
was also speculated that P. perfoliatum could have been introduced into the Gable Nursery in
Stewartstown, Pennsylvania with rhododendron stock from the Glenn Dale Introduction Garden
(Reed, 1979). Hickman and Hickman (1977) also reported its establishment on the campus of
Swarthmore College in Southern Pennsylvania and believed that it was spread primarily by
attachment to rhododendron plants purchased from the Gable Nursery. The distribution of P.
perfoliatum has radiated from the York County site into neighbouring states. In the past 55 years, the
range for this plant in the United States has extended up to approximately 500 km in several
directions from the York County site (Mountain, 1995, Okay 1997). It was found in Connecticut in
2000, and although its mean of introduction is unclear, it had apparently spread for a few years
before it was reported. It has also been reported in Rhode Island, where it was found growing in a
rhododendron/azalea nursery (IPANE Website).
Morphology
Plant type
Polygonum perfoliatum is an herbaceous trailing vine. It is an annual in temperate climates
(Mountain, 1989), but could behave as a perennial in tropical climates such as in Florida (Olivier,
1994).
Description
P. perfoliatum has a stem that can grow up to 6 m in length and as much as 15 cm per day. Roots are
few in number, fibrous, weak and do not penetrate the soil deeply (Moul, 1948). A characteristic
cup-shaped ocrea (or bract) surrounds the stem at the base of the petiole; those of the upper leaves
are conspicuously expanded. Stems, petioles and veins on the underside of the foliage are armed with
curved, retrorse barbs. The petioles are long and perfoliate. The thin, jointed, highly branched stems
are green to reddish-green in colour. The leaves are pale green, thin and glabrous. They are 2-8 cm
wide and shaped like an Euclidian equilateral (equal-sided) triangle and alternate along the delicate
stems (this leaf shape gives it one of its common names, devil's tail).
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Two to four flowers are borne on racemes 1-2 cm in length that emerge from the ocrea. These
inconspicuous white or pale red flowers, which become blue, at fruiting measure 3-5 mm. They are
deep, 5 lobed and bear 3 styles and 8 stamens, and often remain closed. Green, berry-like fruits, 5
mm in diameter, are produced in June (in New England, USA) and become a pale, metallic blue
colour as they ripen. Each fruit contains a shiny, black or reddish-black, nearly round achene 2 mm
in diameter which weighs 27.4 mg on average (Van Clef and Stiles, 2001). P. perfoliatum produces
fruit continuously until the first frost, when the plant begins to die back. Dead plants in winter are
reddish-brown to tan in colour, often forming brittle mats (IPANE Website).
Similarities to other species
Polygonum arifolium, P. sagittatum and P. scandens var. cristatum have ocreas, but they are not
entirely perfoliate (surrounding the stems) such as P. perfoliatum. Calystegia sepium has no ocrea.
Fruits are berry-like in P. perfoliatum, while they are lenticular achenes in P. arifolium, P. arifolium
and P. scandens var. cristatum and a capsule in Calystegia sepium (IPANE Website).
Biology and ecology
General
P. perfoliatum is a very tender annual, withering with a slight frost, and reproducing successfully
until the first frost.
Germination occurs in early to mid-March the following year and continues through April in regions
of North-Eastern United States (Kumar and DiTommaso, 2005). The plant reproduces sexually;
vegetative propagation has never been reported. It is primarily a self-pollinating plant (supported by
its inconspicuous, closed flowers and lack of a detectable scent), with occasional out crossing. Fruits
and viable seeds are produced without assistance from pollinators. The self-compatibility of this
species contributes to its successful dispersal because single plants once established in a new habitat
can produce new populations without the need for cross-pollination from neighbouring conspecies
(Okay, 1997). Until the first frost, the plant can grow up to 6 m long (15 cm per day), bearing about
50-100 seeds (Stahl, 2002). The species may produce a small peak of production of fruits in July
(which may safeguard production in years of severe drought) and a large peak of production ripening
from mid-September to early November (in regions of North-Eastern United States), which coincides
with major bird migration. Seed production can reach 66 seeds/m² during the peak of production.
Seed dormancy and germination of the plant is essential for predicting its potential range of
distribution.
Seed germination after 1, 2, and 3 years buried in forest soils was 75%, 25%, and 33%, respectively,
which indicates that the species forms a long-term seed bank (Van Clef and Stiles, 2001). It senesces
after the first frost in late October to early November (in regions of North-Eastern United States).
Van Clef (2001) found that seed longevity, seedling growth advantages provided by larger seeds, and
bird dispersal contribute most to increased invasiveness of the species in North America.
Habitats
In its native range, P. perfoliatum occurs in moist areas at elevations of 80-2300 m. It can be found
along rivers and roadsides in Eastern China; along valley streams and in thickets in Northern China;
mountain thickets, forest margins and stream banks at elevations of 200-1300 m in the Qinling
Mountains and Loess Plateau areas of North-Western China; ditches, stream banks and wasteland in
Central and Southern China; hillside thickets at 2100 m in Southern Tibet; and grassy slopes, forest
margins, roadsides and river banks at 500-2100 m in Yunnan, South-Western China (Zheng et al.,
2005).
In its alien range, P. perfoliatum invades a wide range of habitats, mainly open and disturbed ones;
edges of pastures, edges of woods, early successional forests, abandoned fields, roadsides, railroad,
nurseries, wood-piles, clearings and ditches. It thrives where forests are clear-cut (Oliver, 1996). The
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species has been reported to grow in areas where other invasive plants such as Pueraria lobata have
been killed by herbicides (Wu et al., 2002).
It is also found in freshwater habitats such as stream banks and moist thickets.
Environmental requirements
Although light and soil moisture are preferable for successful colonization by this species, it is
tolerant to shade and dryness. It will tolerate shade for a part of the day but needs a good percentage
(63-100%) of the available light. Weak growth can occur in low light (16% of ambient) under
greenhouse conditions (Van Clef, 2001). It can reach areas of higher light intensity by attaching to
and climbing over other plants with its recurved barbs and has been observed climbing the trunks of
trees up to 4 m high. It can survive in areas with relatively low soil moisture, but demonstrates a
preference for high soil moisture. P. perfoliatum generally grows in areas with an abundance of leaf
litter on the soil surface (Okay, 1999), but has also been found in extremely wet environments with
poor soil structure.
Johnson (1996) reported that seeds of P. perfoliatum germinate over a wide range of temperatures
from 5°C to 20°C and require at least 6 weeks of moist stratification at 2°C. Okay (1997) determined
that a stratification period of at least 8 weeks at 5°C was required for breaking seed dormancy. At pH
3.5, however, stratification was not required, although germination levels were significantly lower
(16.7%) than at pH 7.5 with cold treatment (46.7%). Although stratification requirements for
germination make P. perfoliatum an unlikely candidate to cause serious problems in Florida (Okay,
1997), germination could occur under acidic conditions in cypress swamps of Florida where the pH
can range from 2.8 to 3.9 (Kumar and DiTommaso, 2005). The ability of the plant seeds to germinate
at relatively cold temperatures provides it a competitive advantage over other annual and perennial
weeds that germinate at higher soil temperatures later in the spring (Kumar and DiTommaso, 2005).
Climatic and vegetational categorization
P. perfoliatum is considered a temperate species with subtropical tendencies and therefore has the
potential to invade those portions of the contiguous United States that have the appropriate climate to
provide a minimal eight week cold vernalization period. It is considered that its current geographical
distribution in the USA only represents 20% of its possible range (Okay 1999).
The plant is hardy in zones 6 and 7, meaning that average annual minimum temperature are between
-18°C and -12°C (Okay, 1997).
Pathways for movement
Many seeds fall to the ground beneath parent plants, which may allow local site dominance over time
for this annual species (Van Clef, 2001). The small, palatable, bright and attractive fruits are welladapted for dispersal by birds (Reifner, 1982). The seeds remain viable after passage through avian
digestive tracts (Okay, 1997). Birds are probably the primary long-distance dispersal agents of P.
perfoliatum (Okay, 1999). Transport of seeds over short distances by ant species has been observed
because they are attracted by the elaiosome at the top of the seeds which is a source of food (Okay,
1999). These seed-carrying ants may play an important role in the survival and germination of the
seeds of the plant. Other animals observed eating P. perfoliatum fruits are chipmunks, squirrel and
deer, and passage through their gut is not thought to alter germinability of the seeds (Toni
DiTommaso, pers. com.).
Water is also an important mode of long distance dispersal for P. perfoliatum as the fruits are
buoyant and well adapted for water-borne dispersal (Reed, 1979). The long vines frequently hang
over waterways, allowing fruits that detach to be carried away in the water current. Its fruits can
remain buoyant for 7-9 days. During storm events the potential spread of this plant is greatly
increased throughout watersheds (Okay, 1999).
The drupes may also be spread by railroad cars, mowing equipment or shoes (Wikimanual of
Gardening Website; Cusick and Ort, 1987).
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The plant’s seeds may be planted inadvertently with other plants while being transported in nursery
stock (e.g. Rhododendron stock) (IPANE, 2001). The plant is believed to have been introduced into
Staten Island (New York State) around 2000 with nursery material from New Jersey, Delaware,
Maryland or Pennsylvania.
Uses and benefits
The plant has “no apparent redeeming economic or social value” (Stevens, 1994). Nevertheless, in its
native range, it is used as an herbal medicine (Yang and Kim, 1993). The fruits are edible and of 40
wild fruits studied in Nepal, it had the highest sodium and potassium content (Bajracharya, 1980).
Impact
Effects on plants
Because P. perfoliatum can smother tree seedlings, this weed has a negative effect on forest
regeneration and commercial forest areas (Christmas tree farms).
In revegetation areas of Virginia, additional costs for site preparation, weed management, and labour
to replant tree saplings overtopped by this weed have been estimated to range from $60-500 per ha
(Stanosz and Jackson 1991). At harvested sites in Pennsylvania, Mc Cormick and Hartwig (1995)
observed mortality of regenerating tree saplings including Pinus taeda because of the dense canopy
formed by this weed.
P. perfoliatum is thought to have the potential to be a problem to nurseries, orchards and to the
ornamental shrub industry that are not regularly tilled as a cultivation practice (Lehtonen, 1994).
Most nurseries in the mid-Atlantic U.S.A are aware of P. perfoliatum, where it is considered 'an
emerging threat'. Its range is limited, thus most of the industry outside its range is unaware of this
species and does not perceive it as widespread or serious. This weed is not common in container
nurseries and may only become a concern in nurseries under very low management systems (0-1
maintenance operations per year), such as Christmas tree farms (R Bates, pers. com., 2007).
Infestation of apple trees can cause some defoliation (Moul, 1948). Even if P. perfoliatum has been
observed growing on the edges of corn and soybean fields in Delaware (Lehtonen, 1994), it does not
appear to be a threat in agricultural production probably due to continuous tillage and herbicide use
(Kumar and DiTommaso, 2005). Nevertheless, it can easily become a pest to gardeners and
landscapers, destroying ornamental plants and landscaped yards (Invasive Alien plants of Virginia
Website).
It is considered an important weed especially in less intensively managed agricultural lands in
Eastern Asia by Kasahara (1954), but Mountain (1989) suggests that in Korea and Japan, plant
scientists consider it a weed with little or no agricultural significance. The species is a widely
distributed native plant in Japan, but not listed as invasive either in orchards or in nurseries (S
Kurokawa, pers. com. 2007). In Siberia, where it is also native, the plant is not recorded as being a
threat (A. Orlinski, pers. com., 2007).
Environmental and social impact
P. perfoliatum is a threat to ecosystems as it has the ability to outgrow other species (Oliver, 1996). It
is known to grow rapidly, scrambling over shrubs and other vegetation, blocking the foliage of
covered plants from available light and reducing their ability to photosynthesize, which stresses and
weakens them, the shade killing grasses and wildflowers (Stevens, 1994). IPANE (2001) states that
trees and other native plants could suffer mechanical damage due to the weight of this plant. Okay
(1997) observed decreases in native plant species diversity in areas colonized by P. perfoliatum.
Lehtonen (1994) reports that the invasive Lonicera japonica has been displaced by P. perfoliatum
and that Sambucus canadensis and Rubus spp. were overgrown and killed by the competition.
Replacement of existing vegetation will deprive native animals of habitat and food (Olivier, 1994).
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Dense thickets of the sharp-spined plants are unpleasant for people (Binion, 2005) and can restrict
the movement of wildlife in natural areas (Okay, 1997).
Summary of invasiveness
The plant has negative economic impacts by smothering tree seedlings in tree farms and forest and
by outcompeting native vegetation in freshwater ecosystems.
Control
This species can form a long-term seed bank, which must be suppressed for any management
technique used (ISSG Database website, Van Clef, pers. comm., 2004).
Cultural and mechanical control
Control efforts for this plant should focus on eliminating or reducing seed output (Olivier & Coile,
1994), limiting the creation of gaps or openings in existing vegetation (Okay, 1999) and to maintain
vegetative community stability. Cultural methods can be utilized to create conditions which are not
favourable to the establishment of P. perfoliatum. Maintaining broad vegetative buffers along
streams and forest edges should help to shade out and prevent establishment of this weed. This
should also help to reduce the dispersal of fruits by water.
Physical removal is not recommended after fruit production which begins in July (in the mid-Atlantic
region of the USA) because it will help dispersal of the species (Van Clef, pers. comm 2004). Hand
pulling of seedlings is best done before the recurved barbs on the stem and leaves harden but may be
done afterwards with the help of thick gloves. The vines can be balled up in piles that can be left to
dehydrate for several days before disposal. The site must be rechecked at frequent intervals, and
removal of new plants should continue until the seed germination period is complete, roughly early
April until early July in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States.
Repeated mowing or trimming of plants should prevent the plants from flowering and thus reduce or
eliminate fruit and seed production.
Heavy deposits of dead and decaying plant matter should be cleared to reduce the mulch available to
seeds (Mountain, 1989). Old woodpiles should be removed or, where appropriate, eliminated using
fire (Olivier, 1996).
Chemical control
Studies have shown that pre-emergence applications of herbicide are most effective in controlling P.
perfoliatum with the herbicides sulfometuron methyl, hexazinone, imazapyr, atrazine, and
imazethapyr being the most effective. glyphosate and imazapyr are best for post-emergence control
(McCormick & Hartwig, 1995). Herbicidal soap helps burning back foliage of P. perfoliatum.
Because these products do not have the systemic ability of herbicides like glyphosate (i.e., these
products do not travel to the roots), they must be reapplied all season long to any regrowth.
glyphosate formulations adapted to upland areas or to wetlands, applied at a low rate will probably
be effective in killing the weed.
Biological control
A biological control program is currently undertaken in the USA (University of Delaware Website)
and a number of potential biological control agents for P. perfoliatum have been identified in China.
The weevil Rhinoncomimus latipes (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is regarded as a very promising
agent (J Hough-Goldstein, pers. com., 2007). It is host specific for P. perfoliatum (Ding et al. 2004).
and should have minimal potential non-target effects if released in the USA (Colpetzer et al. 2004a,
b). An environmental assessment has been performed for the field release of R. latipes (USDA,
2004). Regarding the release of R. latipes, this agent appears to have established and over wintered
wherever it has been released, and has built up to high numbers and apparently caused plant
mortality in a few places so far. It is still early to assess its effectiveness (since it has only been in the
field since late 2004).
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Other possibilities included the oligophagous leaf beetles Smaragdina nigrifons (Coleoptera:
Eumolpidae), Gallerucida bifasciata (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and Galerucella placida
(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), and the geometrid moth Timandra griseata (Lepidoptera:
Geometridiae). These all had an impact on the growth and reproduction of P. perfoliatum. The bug
Cletus schmidti (Hemiptera: Coreidae) and the sawfly Allantus nigrocaerulleus (Hymenoptera:
Tenthredinidae) were recommended for further trials of host specificity (Ding et al. 2004, Zheng et
al., 2005). Timandra griseata was found to have too broad a host range to be considered for release
in the USA., as it also fed on Fagopyrum esculentum and Fagopyrum tartaricum. Homorosoma
chinensis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is possibly host-specific to P. perfoliatum, but further trials are
needed with other potential host plants before its release in the USA. could be recommended (Price
et al., 2003).
Possibilities for eradication
P. perfoliatum was eliminated or did not establish permanent populations in both sites of first
introduction in the USA (Portland, Oregon, 1890 and Beltsville, Maryland, 1937) and in Canada
(Pitt, Meadows, British Columbia, 1954). However, efforts to eradicate it were not successful when it
was introduced in York County, Pennsylvania and spread with Rhododendron stock. In New
Zealand, Lee et al. (2001) stated that P. perfoliatum has been eradicated from Auckland.
Regulatory status
The plant is listed as a noxious plant by the following states in USA: Alabama, Connecticut,
Massachusetts, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina (USDA Website). In New
Zealand, it is also listed as a Total Control Pest Plant throughout the Auckland region (Auckland
Regional Council, 2006).
Acknowledgements
The following people provided information for this data sheet:
E Snyder, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Canada (snydere@inspection.gc.ca), J HoughGoldstein, University of Delaware, USA (jhough@udel.edu), RC Reardon, USDAFS, USA
(rreardon@fs.fed.us), R Bates, Department of Horticulture, Penn State University, USA
(rmb30@psu.edu), S Kurokawa, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Japan
(shunji@affrc.go.jp), A DiTommaso, Department of Crop & Soil Sciences, Cornell University, USA
(ad97@cornell.edu).
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(Polygonum perfoliatum) Columbia University.
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoffburg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/Polygonum_perfoliatum.htm
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U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Area.
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The International Plant Names Index website
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United States Department of Agriculture- Animal and plant Health Inspection Service (2004) Field
Release of Rhinoncomimus latipes (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a Weevil for Biological Control of
Mile-a-minute Weed (Polygonum perfoliatum), in the Continental United States. Final
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http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/enviro_docs/pdf_files/mile-a-minute.pdf
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Celastrus, and Parthenocissus: assessing methods of screening new plant introductions for invasive
potential. Ph.D. Dissertation. Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ. 166 pages.
Van Clef M, Stiles EW (2001) Seed longevity in three pairs of native and non-native congeners:
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Wikimanual of Gardening Website – Polygonatum perfoliatum
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A_Wikimanual_of_Gardening/Polygonum_perfoliatum
Wu Y, Reardon RC, Jianqing D (2002) Mile-a-minute weed in Van Driesche R, Blossey B, Hoddle
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Morgantown, WV: USDA Forest Service Publication FHTET 2002-04. Pp. 331-342.
Yang YJ, KIM YS (1993) Seed germination of Korean wild medicinal plants: Capsella bursapastoris, Persicaria perfoliata and Commelina communis. Journal of the Korean Society for
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Zheng H, Wu Y, Ding J, Binion D, Fu W, Reardon R (2005) Invasive Plants Established in the
United States that are Found in Asia and Their Associated Natural Enemies Volume 2. Chinese
Academy of Agricultural Sciences -Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in
Agriculture, USDA Forest Service - Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team. 185 p.
http://www.invasive.org/weeds/asianv2.pdf
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References for geographical distribution
Global Invasive Species database
http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=582&fr=1&sts=sss
Kumar V, DiTommaso A (2005) Mile-a-minute (Polygonum perfoliatum L.): an increasingly
problematic invasive species. Weed technology 19, 1071-1077;
http://www.css.cornell.edu/WeedEco/Published%20WT19-04-1071-1077.pdf
Asia
Binion D (2005) Pest Alert Mile-a-minute weed (Polygonum perfoliatum L.) United States
Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Northeastern Area. State and Private Forestry. 2p.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/pest_al/mm/pa_mam.pdf
ITIS (Integrated Taxonomic Information System), 2005. Online Database Polygonum perfoliatum
http://www.cbif.gc.ca/pls/itisca/taxastep?king=every&p_action=containing&taxa=Polygonum+perfo
liatum&p_format=&p_ifx=plglt&p_lang=
Zheng H, Wu Y, Ding J, Binion D, Fu W, Reardon R (2005) Invasive Plants Established in the
United States that are Found in Asia and Their Associated Natural Enemies Volume 2. Chinese
Academy of Agricultural Sciences -Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in
Agriculture, USDA Forest Service - Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team. 185 p.
http://www.invasive.org/weeds/asianv2.pdf
North America
USDA-ARS (United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service) National
Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online
Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.
http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?312862
Swearingen J (2006) WeedUS: Database of Plants Invading Natural Areas in the United States.
http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/list/WeedUS.xls
New Zealand
Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research Databases – New-Zealand Plants
http://nzflora.landcareresearch.co.nz/default.aspx?selected=NameDetails&TabNum=0&NameId=1D
4436D6-C093-4972-BDE2-D4172CDF426B
Turkey
Güner A (1984) A new record for the flora of Turkey and a new sub species from Anatolia.
Candollea 39, 345-348.
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