Type of Reasoning
Cognitive process and
explanation of process
Role of process in
analogical
reasoning/worked
examples
Difficulty learners may
experience with this
process
Success learners may
experience with this
process
Analogical Reasoning
There are four cognitive
processes involved in
analogical reasoning. These
include retrieval, mapping,
inference, and
relational. Retrieval is the
process of finding structured
knowledge in LTM. Mapping
is the process of comparing
similarities between the target
and source. An inference is
"using a source analog to
form a new conjecture" (p.
128). Relational
generalizations are "abstract
schemas" that create a
representation from the
similarities between the target
and source (p. 130).
These processes are put together
when a situation arises and a
retrieval cue is used to retrieve
structured knowledge from longterm memory. It is then placed in
the short term memory and used
for mapping. The map is created
by finding similar relations
between representations from the
retrieval cues. Once the map is
formed inferences are created
about the target, which are
referred to as Copy With
Substitution and Generation
(CWSG) (p. 128) and then
integrated with prior knowledge
about the target. Then relational
generalizations are made which
allows us to form and create
schemas where both the source
and target are represented.
- When memory traces that
are similar to each other are
competing to be retrieved,
retrieval becomes difficult
- The greater number of
representations that need to
be analyzed tax working
memory
- Performing secondary tasks
taxes working memory and
inhibits analogical reasoning
-If there are strong
representations, mapping can
be incorrect which results in
inference errors
- If mapping is too difficult,
inferences cannot be made
- When similar structured
knowledge is available in
LTM for retrieval
- Studies by Gick and
Holyoak (1980) have shown
that giving users a hint, can
significantly increase
analogical reasoning (p. 123)
- When learners can find the
correct mappings between the
source and target, inferences
will be correctly made
- Mapping is more efficiently
achieved when learners have
enough working memory to
accomplish the task
- Goal oriented tasks generate
more effective schemas for
relational generalizations
Worked examples
Based on ACT-R framework.
Four stages: skill acquisition,
develop rules or schemas,
proceduralize schemas, and
automatically apply solution. In
these stages, the learner must
develop problem solving
schemas, and build
representations of problem
categories and develop specific
solution procedures.
Human information processing
system depends on limited
working – memory capacity,
long term memory capacity, and
automatic processing. Worked
examples are designed to reduce
the load on working memory so
that the learner can more
efficiently use cognitive
resources for induction of
problem solving schemas to be
used to solve future problems
with the same structures. Worked
examples are designed to reduce
ECL, enhance ICL, and increase
GCL.
1. When the learner is more
knowledgeable about the domain
worked examples become
redundant (redundancy effect)
Worked examples may add a
heavy cognitive load on working
memory (structured in a manner
– two + mutually referring
sources of information that
cannot be understood in isolation
3. Physically separated pictures
and texts. Split attention adds to
working memory load.
4. When instructional design
does not match learner abilities.
1. When the learner is a novice
learner with less domain specific
knowledge.
2. When there is a need to reduce
cognitive load on working
memory.
*ECL – Extraneous cognitive load: first source of load, the cognitive load that is imposed by instructional designs that require students to engage in activities – not directed a
schema acquisition or automation. Worked examples are designed to decrease ECL
*ICL – Intrinsic cognitive load: load that depends on difficulty of material. Depends on schemas that have been acquired by the individual. Novice or more experienced learner
affects how well worked examples enhance or hinder learning.
*GLT – Germane cognitive load: the load that result from cognitive activities that are relevant to the processes of schema acquisition and automation. Worked examples are
designed to increase germane cognitive load so that they can better induce inferences about the structure of the example and develop schemas that can be used in the future with
problem that have similar structures.