Antecedents and Outcomes of Adolescents’ Involvement with Romantic Partners
Melanie Zimmer-Gembeck, Ph.D.
Contact:
Melanie Zimmer-Gembeck
University of Minnesota
Institute of Child Development
51 E River Rd
Minneapolis, MN 55455
zimm0225@tc.umn.edu
Poster presented at the annual meeting of the Western Psychological Association, Portland,
Oregon, April 2000
Zimmer-Gembeck
Page 2
Antecedents and Outcomes of Adolescents’ Involvement with Romantic Partners
One developmental task of adolescence is the establishment of romantic interests, but the
onset of this task (e.g., dating) varies among adolescents. Although there is evidence that these
individual differences are influenced by biological and social factors (Collins & Repinski, 1995),
onset does not always accurately represent patterns of involvement with romantic partners during
subsequent years. Therefore, we know less about antecedents and outcomes of patterns of
involvement with romantic partners across adolescence. Antecedents and outcomes of patterns of
romantic involvement should be identified because this developmental task is accompanied by
benefits such as friendship, social support, and peer status, but might also be accompanied by
difficulties for some adolescents such as rejection, suicidal thoughts, conflict and aggression.
For example, a lack of peer companionship has been associated with serious social and
emotional difficulties, and low quality relationships, particularly relationships marked by
aggression and maltreatment, can also be quite challenging for adolescents (Baumeister & Leary,
1995; Goodman, et al, 1993; Hartup, 1983, 1989; Leary, 1990; Parker & Asher, 1987; PirogGood & Stets, 1989; Walker, 1984, 1987). Yet, the establishment of high quality romantic
relationships provides an important base of support during adulthood that has been linked to
physical and emotional health. In this study, the goals were to determine some of the
antecedents and outcomes of patterns of female adolescents’ involvement with romantic partners
during high school.
Zimmer-Gembeck
Page 3
Hypotheses
Predictors of Trajectories of Involvement with Romantic Partners
Hypothesis 1. Early relationships with males and individual characteristics will speed up the rate
with which females become involved with romantic partners
Greater popularity with males, a greater number of male friends, being more attractive, and
having a more mature appearance in grade 9, as well as having older romantic partners will be
associated with more involvement with romantic partners throughout high school.
Hypothesis 2. The level of involvement with female friends and family will slow the rate with
which females become involved with romantic partners.
Greater popularity with females, spending more time with female friends, a greater number
of female friends, and spending more time with family in grade 9 will be associated with reduced
rates of involvement with romantic partners throughout high school.
Outcomes of Trajectories of Involvement with Romantic Partners
Hypothesis 3. Trajectories reflecting greater involvement with romantic partners during high
school will have both positive and negative outcomes.
Greater involvement with romantic partners during high school will be associated with
positive outcomes of reduced depression, loneliness and higher quality romantic relationships in
late adolescence. Greater involvement with romantic partners during high school will be
associated with the negative outcome of having lower quality female friendships in late
adolescence.
Zimmer-Gembeck
Page 4
Method
Participants
Participants were 102 white females between the ages of 17 and 19 who had recently
graduated from high school (M age = 18; SD = 0.7). Recruitment took place at two sites in the
Northwestern United States including a large urban high school and a large urban university.
Almost all participants were from low to middle income families.
Self-Report Measures
Self-Report Measures
Dating. Dating was defined as a planned encounter that involved spending time with a
person you were romantically interested in with the understanding that you were together as a
dyad whether or not you were alone. A steady romantic relationship was defined as a mutual
relationship that lasted longer than 2 weeks and that the interviewee felt had been a relationship
that she was emotionally connected to or invested in at the time. These definitions were
discussed during the interview and participants were encouraged to ask questions when unsure of
who to include as romantic partners.
Participants listed all of the steady romantic relationships they had before or during high
school, the age of these romantic partners, when they began going steady with each person
(month and year), when each relationship ended (month and year), and the length of time each
relationship continued. For this study, this information was used to determine the average age of
romantic partners.
Friendships. Participants were asked to report the number of best female friends and very
good or best male friends they had at 8 times during high school (in the fall and spring of grade
Zimmer-Gembeck
Page 5
9, 10, 11, and 12). For this study, this information was used to determine the number of female
best friends (M = 3.0, SD = 2.4) and very close or best male friends (M = 2.3, SD = 3.5) each
individual had in the ninth grade.
Mature Appearance. To measure an aspect of maturity that is recognized by others,
participants were also asked to report how they "looked" in ninth grade compared to other
females who were the same age. This was reported on a 5-point Likert-type scale with choices
ranging from “much younger than other females in the ninth grade” to “much older than other
females in the ninth grade” (M = 3.1, SD = 1.1)
Popularity. Popularity has been found to be only somewhat stable across time. However, the
correlation between popularity with males and popularity with females has been found to be low
(Franzoi, et al., 1994; Miller, 1990). Therefore, each participant in this study was asked to give
ratings of her popularity with males in the ninth grade (M = 2.7, SD = 1.3), and to give ratings of
her popularity with females in the ninth grade (M = 2.8, SD = 1.0). Five possible responses
ranged from: “much more popular with boy (girls) than other girls in the ninth grade” to “much
less popular with boys (girls) than other girls in the ninth grade.”
Attractiveness. One item measured participants’ self-perceived attractiveness in the ninth
grade in comparison to other females that age. Five possible responses were options ranged from
“much more attractive than other girls in ninth grade” to “much less attractive than other girls in
ninth grade” (M = 2.6, SD = 0.9).
Emotional Tone and Peer Relations. Emotional tone and peer relations were measured with
two subscales of the Self-Image Questionnaire for Young Adolescents (SIQYA; Peterson, et al.,
1984). Emotional tone was the average of 11 items that measured lack of anxiety, sadness, and
Zimmer-Gembeck
Page 6
loneliness (alpha = .88, M = 4.6, SD = 0.9). The peer relation score was an average of 10 items
that measured sociability and ease of making friends (alpha = .86, M = 4.6, SD = 0.9).
Loneliness. Loneliness was measured with the UCLA loneliness scale (Russell, et al., 1980).
This scale is a sum of 20 items that reflect feelings of being remote from others, and lacking in
social companionship and meaningful relationships (alpha = 90, M = 37.8, SD = 10.0).
Positive qualities of friendships and romantic relationships. The Networks of Relationships
Inventory (NRI; Furman & Buhrmester, 1985; Furman, not dated) was used to assess twelve
qualities of current (or most recent past) peer relationships including: (a) reliable alliance (a
lasting dependable bond), (b) admiration (enhancement of worth), (c) affection, (d)
companionship, (e) instrumental aid, (f) intimacy, (g) nurturance, (h) satisfaction, (i) conflict, (j)
punishment, and (k) antagonism, and (l) relative power in the relationship. All subscales were
completed about the current “very best” female friend and current (or most recent past) romantic
partner. Seven of the subscales (in italics) were combined to form a measure of positive qualities
of peer relationships (alpha = .89 when reporting about best female friendships and alpha = .94
when reporting about romantic partner).
M positive qualities in current female friendships = 3.6 (0.6)
M positive qualities in current (or most recent past) romantic relationship = 3.4 (0.9).
M Current romantic partner only (n = 58) positive qualities = 3.7 (0.7)
Interview
Eight estimates of time spent (in the fall and spring of the grade 9, 10, 11, and 12) with best
female friends, romantic partners, and family were collected retrospectively. After focusing on
each point in time, adolescents were asked to "estimate on a scale of 0 to 100, where 0 is no time
Zimmer-Gembeck
Page 7
at all, 50 is about one-half of your free-time, and 100 is every minute of free-time you had, how
much time you spent with your best female friends?" Participants were given a visual-analog
scale and asked to write a number to indicate the time they select. This procedure was repeated
asking about time spent with the steady boyfriend (romantic partner) and family. Numbers
selected were summarized and any discrepancies were discussed with the participant. Fall and
spring ratings from grade 9 were averaged to form the rating of time spent with social partners in
grade 9 used in this study.
Results
Correlations between Time Spent with Romantic Partners, Antecedents and Outcomes
For reference, Table 1 shows the correlations between antecedents and outcomes. Table 2
shows correlations of the amount of time spent with romantic partners in each grade of high
school with all hypothesized antecedents and outcomes.
Females who were more popular with males in grade 9 and had more male friends in grade 9
also spent more time with romantic partners in each grade in high school. Physical
attractiveness, mature appearance, and popularity with females in grade 9 had stronger positive
correlations with the amount of time spent with partners in the early years of high school, while
having older partners predicted spending more time with partners in the later years of high
school.
Spending more time with romantic partners in the later years of high school predicted a more
positive emotional tone (less sadness and nervousness), reduced loneliness, and higher quality
romantic relationships in late adolescence.
Zimmer-Gembeck
Page 8
Identifications of Trajectories of Time Spent with Romantic Partners
A k-means clustering algorithm (Hartigan, 1975) was used to classify participants based
upon repeated measures of the amount of leisure time spent with romantic partners during high
school and differences between patterns of time spent with partners. K-means clustering was
used to minimize within cluster variance on criterion variables and between cluster differences,
while allowing all profiles to be considered. This algorithm makes no attempt to obtain groups
of similar size. The criterion variables used to identify clusters were average time spent with
romantic partners in 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th grades. The mean square ratio statistic (R;
Hartigan, 1975) was used to guide the selection of the appropriate number of clusters. To justify
selecting a larger number of clusters, R was required to be at least 10.
A 3-cluster solution was chosen that identified a “low involvement” cluster of 59 females
(58%), an “increasing involvement” cluster of 21 females (21%), and a “high continuous
involvement” cluster of 22 participants (22%). Average trajectories of time spent with romantic
partners in each cluster are shown in Figure 1.
Hypothesis 1. Early relationships with males and individual characteristics will speed up the rate
with which females become involved with romantic partners
As predicted, greater popularity with males, a greater number of male friends, and older male
partners sped up involvement with romantic partners in high school (see Table 3). Females in
the high continuous involvement cluster were the most popular with males in grade 9 and had
more male friends in grade 9 when compared to the low involvement and the increasing
involvement clusters. Both the high continuous involvement and the increasing involvement
clusters dated older males when compared to the low involvement cluster. However,
Zimmer-Gembeck
Page 9
attractiveness and maturity of appearance did not significantly differ when comparing these three
clusters.
Hypothesis 2. Involvement with female friends and family will slow the rate with which females
become involved with romantic partners
On the contrary, greater popularity with females and spending more time with female friends
in grade 9 actually sped up involvement with romantic partners during high school (see Table 3).
However, it did appear that the group who increased their involvement with partners during high
school spent the greatest amount of time with female friends in grade 9, while the low
involvement and high continuous involvement clusters spent less time with friends. Number of
female friends and the amount of time spent with family in grade 9 did not differ when
comparing the clusters.
Hypothesis 3. Trajectories reflecting greater involvement with romantic partners during high
school will have both positive and negative outcomes
Positive outcomes
Average positive emotional tone (reduced sadness and nervousness), loneliness and quality
of romantic relationships in late adolescence differed when comparing the three clusters (see
Table 3). Females in the increasing and high continuous involvement clusters had more positive
emotional tone, reported higher quality romantic relationships in late adolescence, and were less
lonely than the low involvement cluster. In addition, females in the increasing and high
continuous involvement clusters reported that they were more sociable in late adolescence.
Zimmer-Gembeck
Page 10
Negative outcomes
No negative outcomes of high continuous and increasing involvement with romantic partners
were identified (see Table 3). Contrary to prediction, the high continuous involvement cluster
did not report lower quality female friendships in late adolescence.
Summary and Conclusions
Lower attractiveness and popularity early in high school, as well as having fewer close male
and female friends results in a pathway of reduced involvement with romantic partners that is
associated with reduced emotional and social functioning later in life when compared to other
females. Females who had low involvement with romantic partners throughout high school were
less attractive, looked younger, were less popular with males and females, spent less time with
female friends, and had fewer male friends in grade 9 when compared to females who increased
time with partners or had high continuous involvement with partners during high school. After
high school, the low involvement group was more sad, nervous, and lonely, less sociable and
competent with peers, and reported lower positive qualities in romantic relationships.
Although no negative outcomes of early initiation of romantic relationships were identified in
this study, it is still likely that those who are involved in romantic relationships early and
continuously may experience some difficulties along the way. For example, in other research,
individuals who began dating early (before age 14) were more likely to use alcohol and drugs,
and to participate in delinquent behavior (Thomas & Hsiu, 1993; Wright, 1982), and others
report that females who date early engage in problem behavior because they date older males
Zimmer-Gembeck
Page 11
and become associated with an older peer group (Stattin et al., 1989). This study also found that
females more involved in romantic relationships dated older males, on average. Future research
should extend this study to include a wider range of outcomes such as problem behaviors, dating
aggression, identity development, and vocational development.
Focusing on girls, Douvan and Adelson (1966) wrote that, “once a girl begins to date, her
interests change and she finds little to share with girlfriends who have not yet entered the dating
phase” (p.215). However, this study indicates that it is the females who have low involvement
with romantic partners as other are forming these relationships that are experiencing the most
emotional and social difficulties.
In this study, popularity with females in grade 9, but not the number of best female friends,
was higher among females with more involvement with romantic partners during high school.
Some researchers have suggested that friendships are a context in which adolescents learn about
and practice intimacy, reciprocity, nurturance, conflict resolution, and power (Douvan and
Adelson, 1966; Furman & Wehner, 1997; Sullivan, 1953). In other words, friendships may be a
template for the qualities young people will search for in romantic relationships. Additionally,
friends may provide concrete help with the specifics of the task of romantic relationships, such as
advice on selection, feedback about choices, support during conflict and break-ups, and
encouragement of dissolution of unhealthy relationships. In this study is appears that relations
with females are influences on trajectories of involvement with romantic partners. Future
research is needed to understand these changes and the variety of strategies adolescents use to
accomplish the task of developing high quality romantic relationships, as well as to understand
the ways to accomplish this task that result in optimal identity development, minimize
Zimmer-Gembeck
Page 12
internalizing and externalizing disorders, and promote a variety of healthy, high quality social
relationships.
References
Baumeister, R.F., & Leary, M.R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal
attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529.
Collins, W.A., & Repinski, D.J. (1995). Relationships during adolescence: Continuity and
change in interpersonal perspective. In R. Montemayor, G.R. Adams, & T.P. Gullotta. Personal
relationships during adolescence, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Douvan, E. & Adelson, J. (1966). The adolescent experience. New York: Wiley & Sons.
Franzoi, S.L., Davis, M.H., & Vasquez-Suson, K.A. (1994). Two social worlds: Social
correlates and stability of adolescent status groups. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 67, 462-473.
Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1985). Children's perceptions of the personal relationships
in their social networks. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1016-1024.
Furman, W. (not dated). Instructions for scoring Network of Relationships Inventory.
Denver, CO: University of Denver.
Furman, W., & Wehner, E.A.. (1997). Adolescent romantic relationships: A developmental
perspective. . In S. Shulman & W.A. Collins (Eds.). Romantic relationships in adolescence:
Developmental perspectives (pp. 21-36), San Francisco,: Jossey-Bass.
Zimmer-Gembeck
Page 13
Goodman, L.A., Koss, M.P., Fitzgerald, L.F., Russo, N.F., & Keita, G.P. (1993). Male
violence against women: Current research and future directions. American Psychologist, 48,
1054-1058.
Hartigan, J. (1975). Clustering algorithms. Wiley: New York.
Hartup, W.W. (1983). Peer relations. In E,M, Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of child
psychology (Vol. 4): Socialization, personality, and social development (pp. 103-198). New
York: Wiley.
Hartup, W.W. (1989). Social relationships and their developmental significance. American
Psychologist, 44, 120-126.
Leary, M.R. (1990). Responses to social exclusion: Social anxiety, jealousy, loneliness,
depression, and low self-esteem. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 221-229.
Miller, K.E. (1990). Adolescents' same-sex and opposite-sex peer relations: Sex differences
in popularity, perceived social-competence, and social cognitive skills. Journal of Adolescent
Research, 5, 222-241.
Parker, J.G., & Asher, S.R. (1987). Peer relations and later personal adjustment: Are
low-accepted children at risk? Psychological Bulletin, 102, 357-389.
Peterson, A.C., Schulenberg, J.E., Abramowitz, R.H., Offer, D., & Jarcho, H.D. (1984). A
self-image questionnaire for young adolescents (SIQYA): Reliability and validity studies.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 13, 93-111.
Pirog-Good, M.A., & Stets, J.E. (1989). Violence in dating relationships: Emerging social
issues. New York: Praeger.
Zimmer-Gembeck
Page 14
Russell, D., Peplau, L.A., & Cutrona, C.E. (1980). The revised UCLA loneliness scale:
Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
39, 472-480.
Stattin, H., Gustafson, S.B., & Magnusson, D. (1989). Peer influences on adolescent
drinking: A social transition perspective. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 227-246.
Sullivan, H.S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton.
Thomas, B.S., & Hsiu, L.T. (1993). The role of selected risk factors in predicting adolescent
drug use and its adverse consequences. The International Journal of Addictions, 28, 1549-1563.
Walker, L.E. (1984). The Battered Woman Syndrome. New York: Springer.
Walker, L.E. (1987). Assessment and intervention with battered women. In P.A. Keller &
S.R. Heyman (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice: A sourcebook, Vol. 6. Sarasota, FL:
Professional Research Exchange.
Wright, L.S. (1982). Parental permission to date and its relationship to drug use and suicidal
thoughts among adolescents. Adolescence, 17, 409-418.