PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL CHALLENGES TO RELIGION - WEEK 2
FREUD’S OEDIPUS COMPLEX
INTRODUCTION TO RELIGION AND PSYCHOLOGY
ARGUMENTS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF GOD: the majority rely on the premise that
God is an objective reality whose existence can be proved by logical or empirical
means.
The God of Classical Theism is understood to be the Creator of the world, who stands
apart from it and yet is able to intervene in it.
PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF RELIGION: the God worshipped by believers is first and
foremost a construct of the human mind.
Instead of attempting to prove or disprove the existence of God, psychologists ask instead
‘What makes people religious?’.
Examining the mental processes involved in religion, they conclude that, under certain
circumstances, the brain is stimulated into a religious outlook.
The stimulus can be emotionally, socially or physically based.
These psychologists don’t necessarily assert that God cannot exist. What they claim is that
religious belief can be explained without requiring God, and that the primary reason why
people adopt a religion is because their psychological structure encourages them to.
FREUD’S THEORY OF RELIGION
Freud’s argument is that religion is an illusion based on human wishes. It is created by
the mind to help us overcome:
-
inner psychological conflict
stress, which stems from the structure of society
fear of the dangers of the natural world
‘Wish fulfilment’: In certain circumstances, the human mind will create beliefs and images to
satisfy its most basic longings and desires.
By referring to religion as an ‘illusion’ he did not mean that religion is necessarily false or that
there can be no God, but that it answers the inner needs of the person.
An illusion is true depending on whether there is any grounding in hard evidence for its
claims. In the case of religion, Freud argues that practically all of its features – including the
apparent evidence in its favour – can be explained in terms of the mind’s wish fulfilment.
RELIGION AS AN AID TO OVERCOME INNER PSYCHOLOGICAL CONFLICT
A summary of his main argument:
- religion is a form of neurotic illness (involves physical symptoms like pain,
compulsive behaviour etc, but have no physical cause – they are rooted in the mind)
- it stems from the unconscious mind
- it results from incompletely repressed traumatic memories
- the trauma is invariably sexual in nature
- therefore religion is an illusion resulting from sexual difficulties
Freud believed that the construction of the mind and the development of the human
personality led to deep inner conflicts, invariably sexual in nature. The mind’s solution to
such trauma is to lock it away in the unconscious mind. Such ‘locking away’ is unsuccessful,
And the trauma re-emerges later in the form of religion.
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TASK: Fill in the spaces below what we might think about in the different
parts of the mind.
Things that we think about in the:
CONSCIOUS MIND:
UNCONSCIOUS MIND:
SUBCONSCIOUS MIND:
FREUD’S REASONING
Freud’s work with patients suffering from hysteria led him to the idea that there were
unconscious parts of the mind, which we cannot normally access, along with the conscious
mind. Freud’s work on hypnosis and his studies of dreams led him to realise that the
unconscious mind comprises a vast store of information about events that we consider long
forgotten.
From his work with patients suffering from hysteria he demonstrated that unpleasant
memories are trapped in the unconscious can surface later in the form of hysterical
behaviour. This often takes the form of compulsive-obsessional disorders, such as
compulsive hand-washing.
THE LINK WITH RELIGION: Freud noticed close similarities between the behaviour of his
patients in relation to the source of their obsession and that of religious people in relation to
the object of their worship.
He noticed, for example, that both involve highly specific ritual behaviour.
In both cases, this behaviour is filled with symbolic meaning for its followers, while at the
same time it appears completely meaningless to the uninitiated. In both cases, failure to
perform a particular act results in severe guilt, which is inexplicable to others, and in both
cases the object of attention is regarded with ambivalence (love/hate relationship).
From this Freud concluded that religion was a form of neurotic behaviour, caused, as in the
case of the other hysterias, by traumas buried deep within the psyche.
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TASK: Fill in the steps of Freud’s reasoning
1. Working with…
2. He discovered…
3. Unpleasant memories result in…
4. The link with religion was…
5. The similarity between religion and neurotic behaviour….
6. From this Freud concluded….
THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX
Freud concluded that the neurotic behaviour of religion was caused by a trauma that was
invariably sexual in nature.
This was because, for Freud, the sexual drive, or libido, was the body’s most basic urge
and, as such, the one most capable of causing psychological problems within the
development of the individual.
The libido involves far more than the desire to have sex. It represents the body’s general,
subconscious desire for satisfaction.
The trauma that lies behind neurotic behaviour results from the problems in the sexual
development of the child. The major problem is what Freud refers to as the Oedipus
Complex:
Whereas the suckling child was used to having its mother’s sole attention, when the libido is
transferred to the sexual organ, there is already a present rival in the form of the father.
The acute feeling of jealousy and hatred combine with the respect and fear previously felt for
the father. The father is viewed with ambivalence.
This desire to possess the mother and the ambivalence towards the father is the
Oedipus complex.
Freud goes on to say that ‘In the conditions of our civilisation it is invariably doomed to a
frightening end.’
As a result, the child represses the conflict deep into the unconscious mind.
However the mechanism of repression is only partially effective. While the repressed event or
desire may appear to be long forgotten, the mind continues to struggle to prevent it from reemerging into the conscious. As a result of the conflict, the event is channelled out in the form
of neurotic symptoms. One of these symptoms is religion, which, as such, is termed the
‘universal obsessional neurosis of mankind’.
Summarise the Oedipus Complex by answering the questions:
- What is the body’s most basic urge? What does it desire?
- Where does the tension between the child and the father arise?
- Where
does
the child
repress
this conflict?
SUPPORT
FOR
FREUD’S
THEORY
OF RELIGION
- How does the conflict re-emerge?
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Two things at least need to be established for his theory to have any chance of success:
1) that the Oedipus complex is a universal sexual trauma
2) that buried trauma can reappear in the form (or is the cause) of religion.
1) WHY RELIGION IS THE ‘UNIVERSAL OBSESSIONAL NEUROSIS OF MANKIND’.
Freud speculated on the work of Charles Darwin to assert the idea that in primitive societies,
the social unit was something called a primitive horde.
HORDES: groups of people arranged around a single dominant male who had total authority
over the group and held claim over all the females. Over time, the resentments of the younger
males grew, until they grouped together to kill him.
Hence ambivalent feelings were held towards the dominant male – hatred on the one hand
combined with the veneration (profound reverence, respect) on the other.
The strength of these feelings was so great that the father became idolised and
transformed into the totem of the group.
So the Oedipus complex is not simply a personal trauma, but on that has affected all
society at a historical level. It explains why religion is universal and why the concept of God
is such a powerful one (since it stems from a historical experience that still affects us).
Hence religion being the ‘universal obsessional neurosis of mankind’.
Freud believed in some kind of psychological mechanism whereby guilt for the original
crime is passed on genetically.
2) HOW DOES RELIGION RESULT FROM SEXUAL GUILT?
Freud claimed the natural reaction of the psyche was to control feelings of guilt by transferring
it away from itself and on to surrounding objects and people.
The first stage of the development: animism.
When suffering from extreme guilt, the mind’s defence mechanism is to create idols (or
totems). This involves investing stones, trees or animals with spirits.
By redirecting the feelings of guilt on to the idol the mind can make amends through prayer
and sacrifice, for example. The mind is therefore able to control the feelings of guilt.
In effect, the idol or totem is a transformation of the father.
Drawing from the historical support of the primal horde, Freud observed that as veneration of
the father grew, the veneration was transferred on to a totem animal (see p.114 for ‘The Wolf
Man’ case study for his evidence that people suffering from the Oedipus complex frequently
transferred their fear on to animals).
The totem became the symbol of identity of the group, while the ambivalence remained. For
while it was generally forbidden to harm the animal in any way, once a year there would be a
ritual killing and eating of the totem animal.
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The second stage of the development: religion.
As time passed the animist emphasis on the totem proved unsatisfactory. As longing for the
father grew so did his reputation. Eventually he took on divine significance and became
transformed into the gods of religion.
The ambivalence to the original father remains in religion: a favourite example concerned
the Christian God who is venerated and treated with great respect by his followers. Every now
and then, however, he is ceremonially killed and eaten in the Communion feast.
This example provides an exact link with the animist killing of the totem.
Religion is therefore an illusion created by the mind to help us come to terms with powerfully
ambivalent emotions suffered during sexual development. It is a means of resolving this inner
conflict.
TASK: Draw a poster / comic strip depicting the transition from the animists
to religion. Cover each major stage:
-
primal horde
sacrifice of the totem / idol
from animist to divine
sacrifice in religion
There are two other reasons why the mind created the illusion of religion:
1. RELIGION AS AN ILLUSION TO OVERCOME THE CONFLICT BETWEEN OUR
NATURES AND CIVILISATION
Freud demonstrated how the nature of our society is at conflict with our most basic desires.
We have seen one such conflict, in the form of the Oedipal desire to the kill the father and
possess the mother.
If such conflicts were unbridled, society would not be able to operate. Society depends on
structure and order; those who have responsibility to govern must have authority and
this will inevitably conflict with the desires of each individual.
The essential point is that religion provides a reason to submit to authority. It explains
our suffering in terms of the need to obey an omnipotent God. It promises reward for suffering
in the afterlife and makes society bearable.
Religion provides the necessary motivation for the sublimation of unacceptable sexual
drives into more socially and personally acceptable channels. The most natural outlet
being forbidden, it forces our libidos into other areas. It also provides the believer the ample
scope for sublimation in fields such as religious art, music or charity work.
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2. RELIGION AS AN ILLUSION TO HELP US OVERCOME OUR FEAR OF NATURAL
FORCES
Freud’s final point is that the natural human response to being confronted by natural forces –
including death – is one of panic and helplessness at our defencelessness and solitude.
Religion helps by creating the belief that the natural forces are no longer impersonal and that
we are no longer powerless for through religious devotion we believe we can control them.
Religious belief provides for the adult a father who can protect just as the father protected the
child. To the ‘strange, superior’ powers of nature, the adult ‘lends… the features belonging to
the figure of his father; he creates for himself the gods’.
TASK: Both Feuerbach and Freud see religion as a human construct.
But they are very different.
What are the main differences between their theories of religion?
Think about the following points, for example:
- What is the purpose of ‘god’ in the theories?
- Where does the idea of ‘god’ come from?
- What is alienated in the two theories?
FREUD’S CONCLUSION REGARDING RELIGION
Freud does not provide any logical proof against the possibility of religion, he himself admitted
that his arguments prove nothing since God could exist objectively anyway.
In practice, however, he pointed out that beliefs that are derived from basic psychological
needs turn out to be false.
For example, the beliefs of obsessional neaurotics invariably have no grounding in fact. Freud
therefore argued that in the absence of any other evidence for religion, we are justified in
concluding that it is false.
He goes on to support a complete rejection of all things religious.
He considers two points on the importance of religion:
1. First, without religion, civilisation would turn to anarchy.
2. Depriving people of religion seems needlessly cruel: ‘Countless people find their one
consolation in religious doctrines and can only bear life with their help.’
Do you agree with these points?
Freud’s reply:
1. Yes, religion has performed ‘great services for civilisation’.
2. If religion were entirely positive, it would indeed be cruel to deprive people of it,
illusion though it may be.
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BUT… religion is not in fact beneficial.
- it does not prevent people from rebelling against the restrictions of society.
- Many believers abuse religion for their own purposes, to justify social immoralities.
e.g. penance: ‘One sinned, and then one made a sacrifice and then one was free to
sin once more.’
- Religion has all too often been used as a tool against the oppressed, to keep them
oppressed.
Freud argued that we have been ‘over-rating its necessity for mankind’
Freud’s alternative: to replace religion with a scientific, rational understanding of the world.
- would make people more willing to obey the demands of civilisation, because they
would see them as being for their own personal good.
- It is possible that humans can be educated to make their unruly passions subservient
to their wills.
Freud argued that the pain of removing religion would be more justified by the benefits.
A CRITICIAL APPRAISAL OF FREUD’S WORK
Almost all the evidence that Freud presents has been discredited in one way or another.
The following areas in particular have been attacked:
-
the historical and anthropological evidence regarding the primal horde
the psychological evidence regarding the Oedipus complex
Freud’s dependence on a narrow selection of evidence
Freud’s conclusion that religion should be overthrown.
HISTORICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCE REGARDING THE PRIMAL HORDE
Has now been discredited. The whole theory of the horde was based on Darwin’s mere
speculations. Now more likely that there was a greater variety in the way people were
grouped, rather than exclusively as hordes.
Not all societies had totem objects that they worshipped, and there is no evidence for
ambivalent attitudes towards the totems, such as the totem meal.
This means the primal crime never happened
Why does this criticism damage the Oedipus complex?
PYSCHOLOGICAL EVIDENCE REGARDING THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX
The major critic of the Oedipus complex is Bronislaw Malinowski, in his book ‘Sex and
Repression’.
Remember, Freud needed two things for the complex to be universal:
1. the complex had to be universal for it to be the cause of religion
2. needed to be caused by our natures for it to precede religion and be the cause of it.
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Malinowski’s attack:
1. The Trobriand race, where the role of the father is that of a weak nurse. So there is
no evidence of the complex in this race. Their religion, therefore, must have
originated elsewhere.
2. Looking at the animal world, he found nothing inherent in the nature of animals that
could cause such a complex. The role of both father and mother is one of support.
Malinski argued instead the complex is caused by the strict rules of religion – rather than
being the cause of them.
Sexual guilt is not the cause of religion. So Freud’s attack upon religion does not contain the
force that it was once believed to have.
A NARROW SELECTION OF EVIDENCE
His theories relied on the importance of the father figure, which is developed by the mind into
the male God of Judaism or Christianity.
They therefore failed to take account:
- religions based upon female deities (e.g. Egyptian Isis cult)
- religions which do not have any single dominant object of worship (Buddhism)
- societies such as the Trobriand race, where the father played an insignificant role in
the development of the child. No tensions with the father, required by the Oedipus
complex, occurs here.
Freud can therefore be criticised for:
- constructing a theory to explain the societies and religions with which he was familiar,
and ignoring those of others.
- the way in which he generalised the results of his five case studies, assuming that the
Oedipus complex detected in those cases was in fact at work everywhere.
THE OVERTHROWING OF RELIGION
Winnicott: religion is an essential buffer between the mind and external reality.
Religion is useful as it helps humans adapt to their environment by providing a source of
comfort and familiarity. The role and value of religion are similar therefore to those of art
and music.
Rizzuto: religion is no more an illusion than science.
Both disciplines require us to interpret data and impose order on the world. Freud’s
assumption that science has the sole claim to the truth is therefore unacceptable. Freud has
not so much removed the illusion of religion by replace religion with an illusion.
Do you agree with the defences of religion given above?
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