How Populations Evolve I Diversity is one of the key aspects of biology The diversity of living organisms is called biodiversity Change is normal in biology This makes sense since the planet is constantly changing The Diversity of Life For all of human history, people have named, described, and classified the inhabitants of our natural world Taxonomy is the branch of biology concerned with identifying, naming, and classifying species The Linnaean system includes a method of naming species and a hierarchical classification of species into broader groups of organisms In the Linnaean system, each species is given a two-part Latinized name, a binomial The first part of a binomial is the genus (plural, genera), a group of closely related species The second part of a binomial is used to distinguish species within a genus Linnaeus also introduced a system for grouping species into a hierarchy of categories Beyond the grouping of species within genera, taxonomy extends to progressively broader categories of classification - family, orders, classes, phyla (singular, phylum), kingdoms, and domains Grouping organisms into broader categories is a way to provide structure for our understanding of the world However, the criteria used to define more inclusive groups such as families, orders, and classes are ultimately arbitrary Explaining the Diversity of Life Before the 1800s, it was thought that the earth was only about 6000 years old All of life must have come into being relatively recently and in the current forms that were seen However, the discoveries of fossils of creatures no longer alive confused this line of thought Lamarck and Evolutionary Adaptations Naturalists compared fossil forms with living species and noted patterns of similarities and differences In the early 1800s, French naturalist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck suggested that the best explanation for these observations is that life changes, that it evolves Lamarck explained evolution as the refinement of traits that equip organisms to perform successfully in their environments He proposed that by using or not using its body parts, an individual may develop certain traits that it passes on to its offspring Of course, Lamarck was wrong in his ideas but his progressive thinking set the stage for other naturalists to follow Charles Darwin In 1831, Charles Darwin set sail on the H.M.S. Beagle, employed as the ship’s naturalist and captain’s companion Darwin’s thoughts were shaped by the ideas of many of his contemporaries Charles Lyell noted the dynamic geological nature of Earth Jean-Baptiste de Lamark explored the possibility of descent with modification Cuvier noted the extinction of some species Earth and the appearance of others within different time-frames Darwin spent many years thinking about descent with modification before he concluded that the driving force was natural selection The key piece was an essay by Thomas Malthus on the limits of human population growth Alfred Russel Wallace Another English naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace also concluded that natural selection is the principal process underlying evolution In 1859, Darwin finally published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life He pulled together ideas about: the vast diversity of organisms their similarities and differences their origins and relationships their geographical distribution their adaptations to the surrounding environments Descent with modification Darwin argued that there was clear evidence that modern species are descended from earlier ancestral species Used the term “descent with modification”, not “survival of the fittest” He proposed that the descendants of the earliest organisms spread into various ecological habitats over millions of years They then accumulated different modifications or adaptations appropriate to these diverse ways of life In the Darwinian view, the history of life is like a tree At each fork of this evolutionary tree is an ancestor common to all of the evolutionary branches that extend from that fork There are successful (surviving) and unsuccessful (extinct) branches of the tree Once a branch ends, there are no more descendants of that lineage But “surviving” refers to an instant in time Evidence of evolution Evolution has left, and continues to leave observable signs There is extensive evidence in the fossil record There are also historical vestiges seen in modern life Radiometric dating has provided accurate data for the age of the planet as well as the times of various major geological events Fossil record Fossils are preserved remnants or impressions left behind by organisms Most fossils are found in sedimentary rocks Because of this, each rock strata contains a unique set of fossils that represents a local sampling of organisms that lived when the sediment was deposited Fossils from the same evolutionary periods are consistently found together in the same geologic strata We have also found a consistency between the relative ages of fossils as assigned by evolutionary theory and the absolute ages determined by radiometric dating Comparative anatomy The comparison of body structures between different species Similarities indicate common ancestry Forelimbs of mammals They have different functions They have similar structures Particularly the skeletal elements The structural similarity due to common ancestry is called homology This confirms that evolution is a constant remodeling process Old structures are modified to provide new functions Unfortunately, this descent with modification also leads to anatomical imperfections Consider the human spine and knee joint The retina of the eye is essentially installed backwards Goose bumps attempt to warm us by fluffing up our long-gone fur Descent with modification also leads to vestigial characters - structures which used to serve a purpose but no longer do so Comparative embryology The comparison of structures that are present during the early development of different organisms Related organisms often have similar stages of embryonic development All vertebrate embryos have a stage in which gill pouches are present Many organisms show embryonic structures that are gone by birth Darwin considered embryology “... the strongest single class of facts in favor of change of forms.” Biogeography This is the study of the geographical distribution of species, both surviving and extinct Discoveries in the field of biogeography were crucial to the development of Darwin’s ideas The animals and plants of the Galápagos Islands resembled species found on the South American mainland more than those found on similar but distant islands (Cape Verde Islands) Biogeography can explain the prevalence of certain types of organisms in certain places Australia There are a wide variety of marsupials but relatively few placental mammals This is much different from anywhere else in the world Introduced placental mammals have thrived in Australia The early Australian marsupials evolved in isolation from other regions where early placental mammals diversified In Australia, the marsupials were just more successful Madagascar Lemurs are only found in Madagascar Their closest relatives are in Africa Biogeography can also explain the unique distribution of certain organisms Like the lungfish The past and current distribution of organisms indicates that life on Earth has been shaped by major geological forces over vast periods of time Molecular biology DNA, RNA, proteins, macromolecules The more closely related two species are, the more similar the genes and gene products The more distantly related, the more different the genes and gene products Based on the degree of similarity, can determine how related two species are Remember that the same genetic code is used for all living organisms Evolutionary Trees Homologous structures, both anatomical and molecular, can be used to determine the branching sequence of an evolutionary tree Some homologous characters, such as the genetic code, are shared by all species because they date to the deep ancestral past In contrast, traits that evolved more recently are shared by smaller groups of organisms