Motivation and foreign language learning
by Vana Koutalakidou, MA
Primary School English Teacher
Gardner (in Dörnyei, 2001b: 47), the founder of motivation theories in the
L2 field, stresses the importance of considering the foreign language as
different from the other subjects of the school curriculum since it requires from
the learners not only to learn about the new language itself, but also to
incorporate elements of another culture into their own lifespace. He also
makes the distinction between "integrative" and "instrumental" orientations in
motivation, orientation being his term for goals (in Dörnyei, 2001b: 48).
Learners who are integratively motivated wish to learn the new language in
order to establish closer links with the language community within which it is
used, while learners who are instrumentally motivated wish to learn it for "the
potential pragmatic gains of L2 proficiency, such as getting a better job or a
higher salary" (Dörnyei, 2001b: 48). Considering that in primary schools the
learners are still very young to be interested themselves in the pragmatic
gains of L2 proficiency just mentioned, we believe that English primary school
teachers should firstly be concerned with the learners’ positive disposition
towards the L2 and the L2 community.
Arousing the learners’ interest towards the language and the language
community, however, is not by itself enough to keep learners motivated for
such a lengthy process as the mastery of a second language. Williams and
Burden (1997: 121) present a non-linear model which separates the
motivational process into three stages: reasons for doing something, deciding
to do it and sustaining the effort, or persisting. They (ibid: 121) consider that
the first two stages are more concerned with "initiating motivation" while the
latter with "sustaining motivation." Thus, according to this model, motivation
should not only be generated but also maintained and protected throughout
the learning process.
The role of the teachers is crucial in the whole motivational process.
Quoting Clark and Trafford’s findings, Dörnyei (2001b: 79) points out that the
teacher-pupil relationship is regarded as "the most significant variable
affecting pupils’ attitudes towards L2 learning." Additionally, the teacher’s role
may vary from being the person who directly attempts to involve the learners
in the learning process to being the person who exerts indirect influence on
the learning process by arranging the conditions and circumstances in such a
way that a particular course of action is more likely to be chosen by the pupils.
Some suggestions on how these conditions and circumstances may be
arranged will now be presented.
1.1 Motivational strategies
There is a number of techniques that can serve as tools in teachers’
hands to promote the learner’s goal-related behaviour. They are called
motivational strategies and they are defined by Dörnyei (ibid: 28) as "those
motivational influences that are consciously exerted to achieve some
systematic and enduring positive effect." These strategies cannot be
employed in a "motivational vacuum", but should be preceeded by a good
teacher-learners relationship, a pleasant and supportive classroom
atmosphere and a cohesive learner group (ibid: 31). Once these conditions
have been achieved, the teacher should be versatile enough to select those
motivational strategies that would be more effective with his/her particular
group of learners. Teachers are warned that even the motivational strategies
which are considered most reliable may not work with a particular group. The
motivational strategy selected to be discussed below is considered as one of
the most effective in primary classroom contexts.
1.2 Adding stimulation and enjoyment in the primary language
classroom
In the present teacher's opinion, children cannot be more easily tempted
to communicate in the target language than when they enjoy themselves,
while playing.
Dörnyei (2001a: 72) stresses that since people generally are willing to
spend more time on things they enjoy doing, there is no point in presenting
language learning as a boring and tedious chore instead of a stimulating and
enjoyable process. Many other researchers also pinpoint the effectiveness of
play in the language classroom. Holderness (1991:18) mentions play as one
of the forces stimulating children into activity; Rixon (1991:33) claims that
young children learn better through play and agreeing with her but taking her
point a little further, Khan (1991:142) pinpoints that games offer a lot of
opportunities for interaction and, in the process, interaction facilitates the
development of language skills. She also adds, "games provide contexts for
play, reasons for playing and routines for playing." Khan also supports the
idea of using games from a behavourist perspective, that is games which
involve routines and repetitive formulae which, she comments, can prove
particularly charming for young children "who often relish the familiarity of
favourite activities."
Additionally, the role of games is mentioned by some of the major
learning theorists. For example, Piaget refers to games as "the most
admirable social institutions" (in Khan, 1991:143), while Bruner mentions play
as one of the ways in which learning can be enhanced (in Williams and
Burden, 1997:26). Before proceeding to a discussion of the different roles
games can play in the language classroom, however, it is worth referring to
the concept of "game" in a classroom context.
1.3 Games in the classroom
Children enjoy playing games in their lives outside the classroom. When
they are allowed to be themselves, they stay active even in the classroom
environment. It is through "doing" that children learn (Holderness, 1991: 19),
and they can prove excellent imitators and actors. Consequently, games can
prove a powerful tool in teachers’ hands in their "battle against passivity"
(Bruner, in Khan, 1991: 144). "A game", however, in the language classroom,
in the present teacher’s sense of the word, should not only have an enjoyable
character but also a significant pay-off in terms of language acquisition.
According to Khan (1991: 143) games should be activities:
"…governed by rules, which set up clearly defined goals. The
achievement of these goals signals the end of the game. Games involve a
contest either between players or between the players and the goal, and
games should lead to having fun. Games are for playing and this element of
play is crucial."
The goals referred to in the definition above, address the content goals
set up by the game. These goals could concern, for example, guessing
correctly or filling in an information gap activity.
1.4 Exploiting games in the primary classroom
Games help in creating a friendly, non-threatening environment into
which a teacher can further develop children’s language skills. The pleasant
nature of games stimulate effective language use but "involve no conscious
analysis of language" (Khan, 1991: 144). Thus, they can be a pleasant
environment in encouraging learners develop language skills.
Games can serve a variety of purposes in the primary classroom: they
can serve as warm-ups for the beginning of the lesson, as opportunities for
consolidation after new vocabulary or structures have been introduced, as
light fillers after a period of intense effort or as orientation activities to signpost
a change of mood or topic. They can be adapted by the teacher to suit the
level of the students and sometimes, when there is a relevant language payoff, games native children play may be selected. Rixon (1991: 44) argues that
knowing that the game you play is also enjoyed by native children "must add
to the satisfaction of playing it" while she also pinpoints that apart from the
additional enjoyment children experience, they are also offered a culture
lesson (ibid: 44).
Although it is more convenient to engage static games in the classroom,
there is no reason why games which involve some movement cannot be
engaged. Sometimes, if the weather permits it, even the playground can
accommodate some children’s games that may exist in the native culture.
Generally, however, what should characterize the sort of games selected
apart from their learning value, is the element of challenge that would be
considered necessary in order to trigger learners’ interest to participate.
Nevertheless, whatever purpose from the ones already discussed the games
serve, there is one thing teachers should not forget: games cannot and should
not substitute the class syllabus. Rather they should complement it in the
most effective way. One should take Rixon’s (1991: 45) words into serious
account when she advises language teachers "let the syllabus or coursebook
be your backbone, but seek ribs to add to it."
REFERENCES
1. DÖRNYEI, Z., (2001a), Motivational Strategies in the Language
Classroom, Cambridge: CUP.
2. DÖRNYEI, Z., (2001b), Teaching and Researching Motivation, Harlow:
Longman.
3. HOLDERNESS, J., (1991), ‘Activity-based Teaching: Approaches to Topiccentred Work’, in BRUMFIT, C., MOON, J., and TONGUE, R., (eds)
Teaching English to Children, London: Collins, pp. 18-32.
4. KHAN, J., (1991), ‘Using Games in Teaching English to Young Learners’,
in BRUMFIT, C., MOON, J., and TONGUE, R., (eds) Teaching English to
Children, London: Collins, pp. 142-157.
5. RIXON, S., (1991), ‘The Role of Fun and Games Activities in Teaching
Young Learners’, in BRUMFIT, C., MOON, J., and TONGUE, R.,(eds)
Teaching English to Children, London: Collins, pp. 33-48.
6. WILLIAMS, M., and BURDEN, R.L., (1997), Psychology for Language
Teachers, Cambridge: CUP.