Morality in the Modern world
RMPS
Intermediate 2 / 1
Medical Ethics
1. The use of Human Embryos
2. Euthanasia
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Introduction
This part of the course is called Morality in the Modern World. Our chosen
topic is Medical Ethics. We are well aware of what we are talking about when
we refer to the modern world, but what is morality about? Morality is about
what we as individuals or as a society consider to be right ways to behave. It
is about what we should or should not do because we regard certain actions or
practices as right or wrong.
In the past people and societies had their moral standards and codes of
conduct, but things which they accepted then, such as slavery or child labour
we now reject as wrong. So what we believe about right and wrong can change.
There are issues today in the modern world that the ancient world did not
even know about. For example we today debate about the rights and wrongs of
having and using weapons of mass destruction. In ancient times they did not
have such weapons so it was not an issue.
There are two modern moral issues we are going to think about. The first is
the use of human embryos in medical research. The second is euthanasia.
Our first topic, the use of human embryos is very modern indeed, and only has
been an issue for the past few years. It did not exist in ancient times. Our
second topic euthanasia, which probably has been around much longer, but
today there is taking place a lot of debate on this subject. It is a topic which
is mentioned in the media quite often these days.
Part 1
The use of human embryos
What is a human embryo?
A human embryo is a fertilized human egg which is developing (the word
embryo literally means ‘that which grows’) and is less than 8 weeks old. Once
it is past the 8 weeks stage the embryo is becoming more human in appearance
and is developing more rapidly. It is from this point on referred to as a
foetus. Human embryos can be created in two ways. Either in the natural way
when a woman becomes pregnant after having sex, or by means of In Vetro
Fertilization (IVF), when a woman’s egg is extracted from her ovaries by a
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simple operation, and that egg is fertilized artificially with her partner’s
sperm in a glass dish. The fertilized egg (the embryo) is then re-implanted in
the uterus to grow to be born as her baby. The images below show what an
embryo a few days’ old looks like when viewed through a microscope.
Human Embryo 1 day old
Human Embry 3 days old
Human Embryo 5 days old
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Some basic information about a human embryo
A human embryo contains half the DNA from the mother and half from the
father (see the picture of the one day old embryo above). Thus if the embryo
is allowed to develop into the foetal stage and beyond until it is born, then the
baby will have some of the characteristics of its parents. This is why we have
some of our parent’s physical features and characteristics. Lisa Samson in the
episode called ‘The Stupid Gene’ was afraid she had inherited her father’s
dumbness.
More about DNA
DNA or Deoxyribonucleic acid, is the genetic material of all living
organisms. Every cell in the growing embryo contains the genetic code from
its DNA which will determine how the embryo will develop. DNA is the building
blocks of life. It is the code within each cell that instructs that cell how
to develop. That is why we are all different. But we are similar we all look like
humans because much of our DNA is similar. Every species develops
according to its own DNA. That is why humans grow to be humans and
elephants grow to be elephants. All species share some common DNA. This
indicates that we are biologically linked. Chimpanzees share 98% of our human
DNA, they are the closest species to humans. This is evidence that we are
related to chimps.
To use some technical language and diagrams, DNA consists of two long
polymers with backbones made of sugars. These two strands run in opposite
directions to each other and are therefore are anti-parallel. Attached to each
sugar is one of four types of molecules called bases. It is the sequence of
these four bases along the backbone that encodes information.
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The four bases can be represented by the letters A,B, C and D
The letters below could represent one gene
AADCBDCBCABCAACBBADADDCBABBDBBDAA
So for what purpose do scientists use human embryos?
So what would scientists want to use human embryos for? Our chosen modern
moral topic is Medical Ethics. So these human embryos are used in medical
research.
 In the world of medicine researchers are always trying to find out more
about how the human body works
 To find cures for the illnesses and diseases that affect us. Human
embryos have become an important part of this research in recent
times. Especially since the amazing understanding and development in
recent years in the area of genetics and stem cell research. So
scientists using human embryos see this as essential to their work for a
number of reasons.
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The first two involve the procedure of cloning
1. Therapeutic Cloning. (creating an embryo clone of a person to
heal that person)
Scientists today are able to create an embryo that has the identical DNA
of an existing fully grown adult. If that embryo was allowed to grow in the
womb and be born then it would look just like the person at each stage of
development. The way this clone is produced does not concern us here. What
does concern us is why this procedure is being carried out.
The reason it is being done is because an embryo of just a few days old
has very special and unique cells which are called stem cells. These stem
cells are special because they can develop into various types of human
tissue, such as skin cells or brain cells.
If someone has an injury that will not heal itself, stem cells can be
implanted, and will grow to repair the damaged tissue. Thus providing a
cure for an injury that was before medically impossible. The reason why
the stem cells are taken from a cloned embryo is that these stem cells will be
a perfect match for the person and there will be no problem with the body
rejecting them.
This process is legal in this country.
2. Reproductive Cloning (creating an identical person)
This is when a person is cloned and the embryo implanted in the womb and
allowed to develop and eventually be born. But why would you want to do
this? It could be that you could replace a child who has died by using that
child’s DNA to clone them. This is what the father of Jamie wanted in the
documentary ‘How to Build a Human. It is the theme of the film ‘Godsend’. It
could be in the future that the clone could be kept in storage and used to
supply spare part organs for people if needed (as in the film The Island).
in the event of a medical crisis. Clones it has been suggested could be used in
our army, as a fighting machine. It must be noted that reproductive cloning is
illegal in the UK.
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The next two therapies involve the procedure of genetic modification
As we mentioned above
3.Gene transfer therapy (removing a faulty gene and replacing it with a
good gene)
There are some medical conditions that can be passed on from parent to
child because of the similarities in the genes. It is possible to remove a
faulty gene in an embryo and replace it with a good one. A new gene can be
administered through an injection or by simply inhaling it through an aerosol.
By doing so inherited conditions are cured. An example would be cystic
fibrosis, this procedure would prevent it from being genetically inherited.
4. Germline Therapy. (changing sex genes to stop inherited diseases from
being passed on down the generation)
In this case the change involves the sex genes. This means that the
faulty gene will not be passed on to subsequent generations, through the
normal reproductive process. Currently this procedure is not allowed.
This last one only involves embryo testing and selection
5. Pre-Implantation embryo selection (selecting the best embryo out of
several for implantation)
This is the procedure in which embryos are produced through the IVF
method. In IVF treatment more than one embryo is produced. So this is just a
simple selection process. The embryos are tested for genetic disorders by
extracting a single cell from them. If no genetic disorder is found then
the embryo is implanted in the womb and allowed to develop to become
the baby. This procedure is allowed in the UK.
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The dangers of this research
Although there great advances are being made in medical research as a result
of the use of human embryos. Some people are against such research on the
basis of religious grounds. Others are against the research because they are
concerned about where all of this research might lead. In other words they
believe that there are hidden dangers in carrying out this work. So what
might these dangers be?
1. We may be trying to solve problems, but we may be creating other more
frightening problems from this research that we are not yet fully aware of.
2. Like it or not, maybe nature has a good reason for illnesses and disease.
Our messing about with genes could lead to some kind of imbalance in
nature that would be worse than the benefits we think we are bringing.
3. The cost of individual treatments be it therapeutic cloning or gene
transfer therapy is very expensive. Some believe that the resources could
be better used to help more people who require more conventional
treatments.
4. Although reproductive cloning is banned. If we allow therapeutic cloning,
then we are opening the door which may lead to reproductive cloning in the
future.
5. The whole process of using human embryos could lead our society to have
less respect for human life.
6. Who knows where all this cloning of embryos and genetic engineering will
lead in the future. Although what we see in films such as The Island, The
Sixth day, Godsend, and Gatacca seem pure science fiction. All of this
could become a reality. Do we really want to go down a road that could lead
eventually to those kind of societies. Copying an individual, cloning for spare
parts, designing babies.
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What the law in the UK says about the use of Human embryos in medical
research and treatments.
In the UK the use of human embryos in research and treatments including
the use of clones, is strictly controlled by the law. What the law says is
set out in the Human Fertilization and Embryology Act of 1990.
A government body called the Human Fertilization and Embryology
Authority (HFEA) makes sure that these guidelines are kept. So what
does the law say? What are the guidelines?
The Law
1. It allows the use of human embryos up until 14 days. This point is
chosen because after 14days the embryo begins to develop organs and may
feel pain.
2. The research must be for a good purpose. To cure diseases or improving
fertility treatments.
3. Research with no real aim is not allowed.
4. Embryos cannot be bought or sold.
5. A person must be asked permission before their embryo can be used.
6. Human and animal genetic material should not be mixed in experiments.
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The Moral issues
The use of human embryos in the ways that have been outlined above,
raises moral and ethical issues. Remember morality is about right and wrong,
and ethics is about what we have decided is right and wrong.
In relation to the use of human embryos in medical research and treatments,
people, both religious and non religious, have strong moral opinions about
this practice.
We will now turn our attention to what is being said. In doing this we will look
at what Christians have to say about the issue. They will use the teaching
of the Bible and the Church to help them in deciding their moral opinions and
beliefs. Christians divide into two main groups Roman Catholics and
Protestants. This is because they hold different beliefs about their faith.
Not surprisingly therefore when it come to the issue of the use of human
embryos in medical work, they do not all hold the exact same viewpoint. Yet all
use religious principles to guide them.
A Unitarian minister who gave up believing in God started an organisation
which became know as Humanism. People belonging to this group became
known as Humanists. Humanism represents people who have a non religious
view on life. Humanism though, is much more than non belief in God.
What it means to be a Humanist
 They do not believe in God.
 They believe that human beings are important,
 They believe that every person should live their lives working for
their own happiness and that happiness of others.
 beliefs should only be based on evidence not religious teaching or
stories from holy books.
 They believe that there is a right and wrong way for humans to
behave.
Humanists have a concern for all human beings and human life. Respect for
others and tolerance are very important values. They tend to believe that a
right action is what brings the greatest good for the most number of
people. We will learn what they have to say about the issue of the use of
human embryos. Again they might not all come to the same moral conclusion
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1. The Humanist non religious point of view on the use of human embryos.
 Generally they see no problem with using human embryos. The
embryos used come from fertility treatments. It is better to use them
for some good rather than just destroying them.
In deciding this they try to understand the facts, look at the dangers,
consider the consequences of such medical work. Does the good that
comes from this work outweigh the dangers? If so then it is right
and acceptable.
 Some humanists may doubt whether good outweighs the dangers and
therefore disagree withy the above. Some points that they may make
are listed on page 8. Go back and check them out. But the general view
of humanists is in favour of this research as set out by the British
Humanist Association.
‘Almost all the potential benefits of genetic engineering have the
potential to cause problems. Getting hold of and understanding the
facts, assessing the risks realistically, and balancing the possible
benefits against the possible harms, must be the basis of ethical
decision making,
www.humanist.org.uk
 They agree with the 14 day limit set by the HFEA. A human embryo
up to this period is only a potential person it is not person in the full
sense of the word, like you and I, or a baby, and therefore does
not have rights.
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Richard Dawkins a well known scientist and humanist says that genetic
engineering in itself is not wrong. It all depends on what you
engineer. Humans have been breeding animals for a long time, dogs and
race horses for example. That is a form of genetic engineering through a
breeding programme. But that is not considered to be wrong.
 To say as some religious people do that the use of human embryos and
genetic engineering is like ‘playing God’ and that makes it wrong.
Humanist reply that genetic engineering is not playing God. Any
medical help to cure an illness or prevent a disease could be
described as ‘playing God’.
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2. The Christian religious viewpoint on the use of human embryos
Despite belonging to the one Christian religion, Christians can have different
viewpoints on the use of human embryos. They have certain important
beliefs that influence their moral opinions. One important belief is that all
human beings are created by God. They believe that human beings are
special and unique made in God’s likeness. This simple means that humans
have characteristics which are like God. This may refer to our ability as
humans to shape our own destiny, or our intellect, or our ability to know right
from wrong. Whatever it means to be made in God’s likeness, for Christians
every human being is special.
There are two issues which Christians might think about when deciding what
their view is on the use of human embryos.
a. When does life begin? When should an embryo be classed a person or
potential person with rights, valued and respected as created in the
image of God?
b. Should humans be interfering with embryos and genes, or should this be
left to the natural processes put in place by God?
Having thought about these two issues Christians might come to one of the
following conclusions
1. Life begins at conception. We have a potential person created in the
image or likeness of God that deserves protection. The embryo should
not be interfered with. This means there should be no genetic
modifications, and no producing of clones which are later destroyed. This
applies even to therapeutic cloning. To destroy an embryo is murder.
2. Life begins at conception. Nevertheless, for the benefit of society
embryos can be used up until the 14 day limit set by the HFEA.
Human life it is said, has sometimes to be sacrificed for the benefit of all.
As in the case of wars.
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Many Protestant Christians in the Church of Scotland hold either of
the two positions above. When officials of the Church of Scotland sat down to
think about what guidelines they could give on this topic, they stated that it
would be great if there were no need for this research, but we must face
up to the reality of the benefits this research gives. They therefore said
that in their opinion this research should be accepted, as long as the
strict rules of the HFEA are kept. See page 9 for these rules.,
Individuals should make up their own minds about the issue following their
conscience. Many may believe that this research should not go ahead because
of the dangers outlined on page 8. Go back and check these out.
(Pre-conceived Ideas – a Christian Perspective on IVF and Embryology 1996)
This was updated in 2006 in light of the stem cell developments
The update states that stem cell research is acceptable as long as the
HFEA guidelines are kept.
In the Roman Catholic Church the official view which all are expected to
follow is opinion 1 above
1. Life begins at conception. This is a God given life, that deserves
protection. The Roman Catholic Church has always been against
abortion. It was pope John Paul II who said that abortion was ‘a grave
violation of the law of God’ It follows naturally from this that to
destroy embryos is regarded as equally wrong.
‘I knew you when you were in your mother’s womb’
Bible
2. God is the giver of life. It is wrong to create embryos or
interfere with the embryos in any way. There are no benefits
from embryo research that the Roman Catholic Church would
accept as morally right. This is the official teaching of the church,
though some individual members may privately disagree with this
position.
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Some quotes from official documents of the Roman Catholic Church on the issue of
cloning
‘It alters the natural process of sexual reproduction’
‘It possibly exploits women throughout the process’
‘How valuable would a clone feel?’
‘Using embryos in this technology is an abuse of the person’
What you need to be able to do to pass an assessment
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Explain what the word ‘morality’ means.
Explain what the word ‘ethics’ means.
Explain what a human embryo is.
Explain simply what human genes are and their function in human
cells.
Explain what is meant by the following:
Therapeutic cloning
Reproductive cloning
Gene Transfer Therapy
State where medical researchers get their human embryos from
State what the initials HFEA stand for
State what the HFEA rules are on the use of human embryos.
Give your opinion on when a human embryo / foetus should be
regarded as a person with the right to protection.
State some of the benefits to society that result from the work
done with human embryos and genetic engineering (modification).
State some of the dangers that people think might result from
the work done with human embryos and genetic engineering
(modification).
State the views of the secular group known as Humanists on the
whole issue of the use of human embryos in medical work and
genetic engineering (modification).
State the views of Christians (Protestant and Roman Catholic)
on the use of human embryos in medical work and genetic
engineering (modification).
State your own opinion on the issue of the use of human
embryos in medical work and genetic engineering (modification)
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Part 2
Euthanasia
Introduction
Our second moral issue that relates to medical ethics is euthanasia,
sometimes commonly referred to as mercy killing, or physician assisted
suicide. We are aware that if an animal is suffering, if it is in pain, then you
can take your pet along to a vet and have it as we say ‘put to sleep’ or ‘put
down’. This it is believed is a kind thing to do for the suffering animal.
Euthanasia is about giving humans the same painless and quick death if
they are suffering terrible pain and do not have long to live, or if their
quality of life is so poor, that they feel that life is not worth living. The
word euthanasia is a word that comes from the Greek language and simple
means ‘‘a good or gentle death’.
Although it may seem the loving thing to do, in the United Kingdom euthanasia
is not legal. If a doctor helps someone die peacefully, no matter how terrible
their suffering may be, he or she will be committing a crime.
It is not difficult to see how this topic relates to medical ethics. Euthanasia
is a topic which has been discussed by doctors whose care people who suffer
are in the hands of. It has been discussed by families who hate to see a loved
one suffer. It has been discussed by politicians, who are lobbied by pro
euthanasia groups to have the law changed.
Voluntary and Involuntary Euthanasia.
It is important to distinguish between these two forms of euthanasia. If you
volunteer for something then you make your personal feelings clear and you
chose to get involved. By voluntary euthanasia what is meant is that
euthanasia is something that a person has thought about and has decided
to agree to or have done to them if and when that person requires it.
Involuntary euthanasia is when euthanasia is administered to a person
without consulting them or knowing what they feel about it. In Hitler’s
Nazi Germany involuntary euthanasia was carried out on people whom it was
felt were too old or too ill to be of any use. Their lives were simple ended
without any consultation. In this topic it is voluntary euthanasia that we are
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mainly concerned with since no one thinks that involuntary euthanasia is a
good thing.
Passive and active euthanasia
The word passive when used to describe someone, means that that person is
not doing anything, it is the opposite from active. Passive euthanasia is when
nothing is physically done too someone to end their life, such as giving
them an injection, rather something is not done which will end in a person’s
death.
For example if medicine is withheld from a patient or food is not given to
them, then that would result in their death.
Active euthanasia is when something is done to the patient which will end
their life. For example tablets are given to them or they are given an
injection to stop their heart beating.
There is an important distinction here.
Some people regard withholding medicine or not giving a dying person
some other form of treatment that will unnecessarily prolong their life as
an acceptable way to proceed, while being against active euthanasia,
which involves directly killing a person.
Situations in which someone may wish or request voluntary euthanasia.
1. If someone is ill and has no hope of recovering, maybe in pain, or their
quality of life has deteriorated.
2. If someone is ill and their illness might end up leaving them in a vegetative
state, from which there is no recovery.
3. If someone is ill and they need constant care and they do not want to be a
burden to society or their family.
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So what might be the benefits of voluntary euthanasia?
1. It gives people control over all aspects of their lives, including when to
die.
2. It would free up health resources being used on people who do not want
to live.
3. It stops people taking their own life without medical help, which can
sometimes lead to more suffering.
4. If it is legal then we take the pressure off relatives who might want to
help us die but are breaking the law.
5. It allows a person to die with dignity, rather than enduring a long drawn
out life of pain with no quality.
6. It would mean that no one need fear the future because if something
terrible happened that destroyed you quality of life, there would be a way
out. This will make society a much happier place.
So what could be the fears of allowing voluntary euthanasia?
1. Doctors take a vow to cure people and help them. Is it right to put
doctors in the position where they are asked to take a life?
2. Society has a duty to protect people, maybe even from themselves.
Someone may chose euthanasia just to save their families any trouble but
not really want it for themselves.
3. Will euthanasia not cause our society to have less respect for human
life?
4. It could leave a patient who did not want euthanasia, but needed a lot
of care, feeling guilty that they are a burden on the health resources. A
doctor may even suggest it to a patient who does not want it.
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5. People who say they would like voluntary euthanasia may change their
mind but be unable to communicate this.
Euthanasia and the moral issues.
Remember by a moral issue we mean a topic that people have strong opinions
on about what is right and wrong. Individuals will either believe that
euthanasia is right while others might consider it to be wrong for a variety of
reasons. So what are the issues relating to euthanasia?
1. We respect and value human life. But does there ever come a point when
a life is no longer worth living? If you are no longer a conscious thinking
person. Is this still you? Is this a life to be saved at all costs?
a. Some people would argue that it is not just life which is important but
the quality of life. If your life is not worth living then euthanasia
should be an option open to you.
b. Others would argue that life is a sacred and precious thing no matter
what the quality. So life should always be respected and protected.
2. Whose life is it anyway? Some people would argue that euthanasia is an
issue of personal freedom. If a person wants to end their life they should
have the human right to do so.
a. Some would agree with this. They sate that euthanasia should be
allowed with proper safeguards in place which would protect others
from a misuse of euthanasia.
b. Others would disagree. Every life they would say belongs to God, it is
no your own. God gives life and only God should take it away.
3. What would the consequences be on a society that agreed with
voluntary euthanasia?
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a. Some people believe that if the consequences are good for the
majority of people then euthanasia should be allowed, but if the
consequences can be shown to be not so good, for example producing a
society with less respect for life then it should not be allowed.
Voluntary Euthanasia and the law in the UK.
The law states the following:
1. Intentional killing of a person even at their own request is a serious
Criminal offence.
2. Assisting someone in a suicide carries a punishment of a maximum 14
year prison sentence. This applies to doctors too.
3. In England and Wales suicide is not regarded as illegal. But to assist
someone in a suicide is against the law. There is no similar laws in
Scotland on suicide. It is not true that a physician assisted suicide is
legal in Scotland.
Voluntary Euthanasia and the law in the Netherlands.
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