What is grammar?
Grammar is concerned with how sentences and utterances are formed. In a typical English sentence,
we can see the two most basic principles of grammar, the arrangement of items (syntax) and the
structure of items (morphology):
I gave my sister a sweater for her birthday.
Arrangement of items (syntax)
The meaning of this sentence is obviously created by words such as gave, sister, sweater and
birthday. But there are other words (I, my, a, for, her) which contribute to the meaning, and,
additionally, aspects of the individual words and the way they are arranged which enable us to
interpret what the sentence means. For example, we know it is I who gave the sweater, not my
sister, because I comes before the verb (gave). In English, subjects (the doers of actions) come
before verbs in statements. We also know the relationship between the indirect object, my sister,
and the direct object, a sweater, (that the sweater was given and my sister was the recipient)
because indirect objects come before the direct objects. We also expect my to come before sister,
not after. These aspects of the arrangement of things in sentences is referred to as syntax. Syntax is
one of the two basic principles of grammar.
Structure of items (morphology)
The example sentence also illustrates the other basic principle of grammar. I and my are two
different forms, one with a subject meaning, the other with a possessive meaning, even though they
both refer to the same person. Gave refers to past time, in contrast to give/s , which refers to present
time. Sweater is singular; if there were more than one sweater, the form would be sweaters. These
small items of meaning, such as I, my, the past form gave, a plural –s ending, are called
grammatical morphemes, and come under the heading of morphology. Morphology is concerned
with the structure of words and phrases. It is the second basic principle of grammar.
Phrases
Our initial example sentence may also be seen as composed of units or building blocks of different
sizes, not just individual words and their endings. For example, the sentence could be divided up
thus:
I
gave
my sister
a sweater
for her birthday.
We have now divided the sentence into its constituent phrases (items which have individual
functions in the sentence). It is the phrase a sweater which acts as the object, not just the word
sweater, and the whole phrase for her birthday indicates the reason or circumstances of the giving.
1
Introduction to word classes and phrase classes
In MORPHOLOGY we will explore the types and functions of words and how they form phrases.
We will introduce terminology and definitions and lay a basis for more detailed treatment later. The
main word classes, traditionally called parts of speech, which will be dealt with are: nouns and
determiners, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs and prepositions.
A further word class, conjunctions, will be dealt with in syntax. There are also minor word classes
such as interjections (ouch, oi, oh, ah). However, these minor types operate outside of the clause
and sentence structure.
Word classes can be either open or closed. Open classes admit new words, whereas closed classes
are a more limited set and only rarely admit new words. For example, nouns are an open class and
new nouns are created all the time; pronouns, however, are a closed class and it is not easy to create
new pronouns. Thus, the growth of the internet has resulted in many new nouns such as blog (from
„web-log‟), smiley, spam, hypertext, but the new written pronoun s/he has failed to be universally
established.
Many languages use word endings to distinguish between nouns and verbs and other word classes.
In English different word classes can be formed by the process of derivation using suffixes. For
example, the suffix –ment, when added to the verb arrange, changes the word class to the noun
arrangement. However, although English uses such word endings, they are not a reliable guide to
word class; for example, augment is a verb, and comment can be a verb or a noun, depending on
context.
Word endings can also be inflections, which indicate categories such as tense, person, number, etc.
The inflection –ed can change a verb from present to past tense (walk/walked), and the inflection –s
can indicate third person singular (walk/walks), or it can indicate the plural form of a noun
(book/books). The inflection –er indicates the comparative form of a gradable adjective (fine/finer)
and the –est the superlative form (fine/finest). But inflections do not change the word class. Walk
and walked are both verbs, book and books are both nouns, etc.
A word may have more than one grammatical form. For example, sing belongs to the word class of
verb and yet has several different forms such as: sings, singing, sang, sung. We refer to the verb
sang as the past form of the word sing. It is common for a single form to have different grammatical
functions. For example, in the case of the verb cut the present and past form of the verb are the
same. There is, however, only one underlying form, lexeme, in each case: sing and cut.
Items within a particular class may consist of more than one word. For example, the phrasal verb
take off (as in take off your coat / take your coat off) consists of two words but operates
syntactically and semantically as a unified item.
Words combine to form phrases; we speak of a noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb
phrase and prepositional phrase.
2
NOUNS
Nouns are the largest class of words. They denote classes and categories of things in the world,
including people, animals, inanimate things, places, events, qualities and states. For example,
accident, cat, club, competition, conscience, garage, soldier, pride, James, Paris are nouns.
Nouns are not usually identifiable by their form. However, there are some common suffixes which
may enable words to be recognized as nouns:
suffix
-age
-al
-ant
-dom
-ee
-er, - or
-hood
-ing
-ism
nouns
wastage, postage, mileage
approval, withdrawal
deodorant, disinfectant
kingdom, wisdom
referee, tutee
trainer, runner, actor, vendor
childhood, girlhood
building, fencing
socialism, idealism
suffix
-ist
-ity
-ment
-ness
-ship
-tion, -sion
-tude
-y
nouns
artist, realist, pessimist
identity, practicality
amazement, containment
fitness, toughness
ownership, fellowship
addition, extension
altitude, multitude
entry, discovery
Nouns can also be formed by conversion from verbs:
to desire something
to lack something
to cheat
to walk
to pay, to rise
a desire to do something
a lack of something
a cheat
a long walk
a pay rise
Occasionally, adjectives may be converted to nouns:
He‟s a regular at our local pub.
The clubs are mostly full of young singles.
New nouns can be formed by other means, for example by prefixes (e.g. postmodifier, pre-meeting,
non-event ?) and by compounding (mousepad, website).
Types of nouns
Nouns differ in their types of meaning, for example common nouns (e.g. table, boy and most
nouns) versus proper names (e.g. Joanna, New York), or concrete nouns (cup, bus) versus
abstract nouns (love, beauty).
The major grammatical distinction in common nouns is between a) count nouns and b) non-count
nouns. Count nouns refer to people and things which can be counted. Non-count nouns refer to
things which are treated as indivisible wholes which cannot be broken down in order to be counted.
However, count and non-count nouns are not mutually exclusive terms. Many nouns have both
count and non-count uses. (For details see The Plural, pp.8 - 10 )
a) Count nouns are the largest group of nouns. They refer to objects, people, abstract entities, etc.
which are seen as easily counted (e.g. leaves, cups, footballers, cousins, results, ideas). Count
nouns are also known as countable nouns. They have both a singular and a plural form which can
usually be distinguished by different inflectional endings. The most common plural form is –(e)s.
3
For example, cat – cats, wish – wishes. Some nouns have irregular plurals, mainly because they
reflect older English form or are derived from foreign words. E.g. ox – oxen, alumnus – alumni.
(For details see The Plural, p.16) The indefinite article can be used with count nouns in the
singular.
b) Non-count nouns denote things treated as non-divisible. They refer to entities which do not
have clear boundaries (e.g. music, sand, water, love, advice, air, progress, homework, ice, coffee).
They show no contrast in number between singular and plural. Non-count nouns are also known as
uncountable nouns.
There are two types of non-count nouns: singular and plural.
(For details see The Plural, pp.8-10 )
Gender
English nouns are not, as they are in some languages, masculine, feminine or neuter. However,
English does distinguish living (animate) from non-living (inanimate) things. For example, he, she
and who are used to refer to animate nouns; it and which are used to refer to inanimate nouns:
She‟s a famous actress. Isn‟t she the one who was in „Four Weddings‟?
Here‟s the bag. Don‟t forget it‟s the bag which has already been stolen twice this week.
Animate nouns can refer either to people (personal) or animals (non-personal), and can be used to
refer to both males and females. They do, however, sometimes refer to male or female people or
animals, or consist of a pair where one is used as the neutral term covering both sexes and the other
is more marked. For example, host - hostess, father - mother, widower - widow, dog - bitch (where
dog is the neutral term).
Some female forms of nouns are no longer used (e.g. poetess, murderess), and in some cases the
(formerly) male noun is now used to refer to both sexes (e.g. actor, host). Usually, gender-neutral
nouns are preferred (e.g. police officer, fire-fighter, flight attendant).
Sometimes male and female terms are used as premodifiers to distinguish the gender-reference of
the head noun. Examples are: male model, male nurse, female plumber, boy soprano, women
novelists. These terms are all socially sensitive and should be used carefully.
In some contexts, the word person is preferred to man or woman:
She was elected chairperson of the committee.
He was the best spokesperson we‟ve had for a long time.
Most non-personal animate nouns refer to animals. Animals which have a special place in human
society can be referred to by the pronouns he, she and who, especially in spoken language. A degree
of subjectivity in labelling the gender of an animal is usually present:
There‟s a black dog in the street. He looks lost.
Is she a big eater, your cat?
Some animals are given separate male and female words. These words are mainly used in specific
contexts, for example by breeders or vets, or other experts and people working in the field.
Common examples are listed below, with the common general name for the animal given alongside.
4
male
lion
fox
dog
tiger
bull
drake
female
lioness
vixen
bitch
tigress
cow
duck
common name
lion
fox
dog
tiger
cow
duck
When the pronoun it is used with human reference, it normally only applies to babies or to small
children and is used both for general reference and for occasions when the gender may not be
known:
Every child misses its mother.
The baby is upstairs. It‟s always crying.
[said to a mother about a forthcoming birth]
Are you going to have it at home or in hospital?
5
THE PLURAL OF NOUNS
Why English is so hard
We’ll begin with a box, and the plural is boxes;
But the plural of ox should be oxen, not oxes.
Then one fowl is goose, but two are called geese;
Yet the plural of moose should never be meese.
You may find a lone mouse or a whole lot of mice.
But the plural of house is houses, not hice.
If the plural of man is always called men ?
Why shouldn’t the plural of pan be called pen?
The cow in the plural may be cows or kine,
But the plural of vow is vows not vine.
And I speak of a foot, and you show me your feet,
But I give you a boot – would a pair be called beet?
If one is a tooth and a whole set are teeth,
Why shouldn’t the plural of booth be called beeth?
If the singular is this and plural these,
Should the plural of kiss be nicknamed kese?
Then one may be that, and three may be those,
Yet the plural of hat would never be hose.
We speak of a brother and also of brethren,
But though we say mother, we never say methren.
The masculine pronouns are he, his, and him,
But imagine the feminine she, shis and shim!
So our English, I think you’ll agree,
Is the trickiest language you ever did see.
6
Singular and plural forms of nouns
I. Regular plurals end in –s/-es: cakes, jobs, matches, boxes
city – cities
lady – ladies
Spelling:
but
but
day – days
boy – boys
Attention!
Proper nouns ending in –y: Do you know the Kennedys?
I hate Februarys!
Pronunciation:
- [ s ] after p, t, k, f, : drops, pockets, proofs, myths
- [ iz ] after sibilants: noises, pages, masses, crashes, speeches, taxes
- [ z ] after vowels and all other consonants: eyes, verbs, chairs
Mind the pronunciation of:
house [haus] but houses [hauziz]
- cloths
II. Irregular plurals
a) Irregular spelling and pronunciation of nouns ending in -f /-fe ( “12 apostles” + “an elf”)
calf – calves
half – halves
leaf – leaves
loaf – loaves
self – selves
sheaf – sheaves
b)
knife – knives
life – lives
wife - wives
shelf – shelves
thief – thieves
wolf - wolves
elf - elves
Plurals ending in –„s:

after letters: Mind your p‟s and q‟s
How many s‟s [εsІz] are there in the word “possess”?

after years: the 1890‟s (but „the 1890s‟ is also acceptable)

after abbreviations: VIP‟s, MP‟s (but MPs, VIPs is also acceptable)
c) Plural forms of nouns ending in –o
-oes: echo, tomato, hero, potato, Negro, torpedo
-oes or -os: buffalo, cargo, commando, grotto, halo, mosquito, tornado, volcano
-os: bamboo, kangaroo, oratorio, radio, studio, video, zoo, kilo, photo, concerto,
piano, solo, soprano, Eskimo
d) Plurals formed by internal vowel change
foot – feetman – menmouse – mice
goose – geesewoman – womenlouse - lice
tooth – teeth
7
child – children
ox – oxen
brother - brethren
e) Plural same as singular

names of certain animals, birds, fish, compounds with –craft, and some words
ending in –s.
e.g. sheep, deer, grouse, mackerel, plaice, salmon, sheep, trout, aircraft,
hovercraft, spacecraft, means, series, species, etc.
A sheep is grazing. or

Sheep are grazing.
certain nouns describing nationalities
a Chinese-two Chinese
a Swiss – two Swiss
a Vietnamese–two Vietnamese
a Portuguese–two Portuguese
a Lebanese – two Lebanese
a Japanese – two Japanese
III. Non-count (uncountable) nouns
A) Singular non-count nouns
a)
Singular non-count
(uncountable) nouns
advice
baggage
beer
bread
clothing
chocolate
coffee
furniture
glass
grass
homework
ice-cream
information
knowledge
lightning
luck
luggage
money
news
progress
publicity
research
salt
sugar
tea
water
weather
wind
made countable using partitive expressions or another count noun
a piece of / two bits of advice
a piece of baggage; a case / a trunk / a bag
a glass of beer / or two beers
a piece / a slice / a loaf of bread; a roll
an article of clothing
a bar of chocolate
a cup of coffee / or three coffees
a piece / an item of furniture
a pane of glass
a blade of grass
a piece / an item of homework; a homework assignment
a cone of ice-cream
a piece / an item of information
a piece of knowledge
a flash of lightning
a bit / a stroke of luck
a piece of luggage; a case / a trunk / a bag
a sum of money ; a note; a coin
a piece of news
a step forward
an advertisement
a piece of research
a pinch of salt
a piece / a lump of sugar
a cup of tea / or two teas
a glass of water
a spell of bad weather
a gust of wind
8
b) Singular non-count (uncountable) nouns ending in -s
Some non-count nouns end in –s but are grammatically singular, i.e. are followed by a singular verb.
They include names of some school/university subjects, physical activities, diseases, and games:
school/university subjects
physical activities
diseases
games
geographical names
acousticsathleticsmeaslesa game ofAthens
civicsaerobicsmumpsbowlsBrussels
classicscallisthenicsshinglesbilliardsNaples
economicsgymnasticsdarts
ethicsdominoes
linguisticsdraughts
maths/mathematicsskittles
mechanics
physics
politics
phonetics
pragmatics
statistics
But: arithmetic, logic, rhetoric
Note:
The acoustics of the concert hall are excellent. (acoustics = characteristics of the hall)
Statistics are an aid to research. (statistics =statistical methods)
c)
Singular non-count (uncountable) nouns
Count (countable) nouns with a change of meaning
in Czech
in Czech
business
a business/businesses
chocolate
a chocolate/chocolates
experience
an experience/experiences
glass
a glass/ glasses
hair
a hair/hairs
paper
a paper/papers
work
a work/works
a works (-works)
Some example sentences:
I had no military experience.
The funeral was a painful experience. He‟s written a story about his experiences with the natives.
I washed my hair.
He had black hairs on the back of his hands.
This is hard work.
This is a work of art. His works are famous.
The old gasworks has closed.
9
More sentences to show the difference in meaning of some singular and plural nouns:
His novels are all form and no content.
She uncorked the bottle and poured out the contents.
The total cost of the holiday came to $300.
Your costs are the total amount of money you must spend on running your house/business.
It is our custom to take our shoes off when we go to someone else‟s house.
Arriving in a foreign country, everyone has to go through customs.
I agreed to help pay for the damage to the floor and the ceiling.
He finally got $4000 in damages.
Her voice and manner changes suddenly.
He was fat, with a lazy manner.
It is bad manners to point at people.
Wait a minute.
She was appointed to take the minutes of the meeting.
I have a pain in my chest.
A cup of tea was all I got for my pains.
A people is all the men, women, and children of one particular country, nation, or race.
B) Plural non-count nouns
a) The commonly occurring non-count nouns below are always grammatically plural,
i.e. are followed by a plural verb.
belongings
clothes
congratulations
earnings
goods
italics
looks (personal appearance)
mains
oats
outskirts
particulars
premises (buildings)
proceeds
remains
riches
savings
surroundings
thanks
Some example sentences:
All my belongings are in this bag.
The proceeds of the concert are all going to charity.
The outskirts of the city are rather uninteresting.
b) Nouns which can combine with a pair of: e.g. trousers, glasses, scissors, pliers, tongs
are also followed by a plural verb.
instruments
binoculars
glasses
goggles
spectacles
garments
briefs
knickers
underpants
pants
trousers
shorts
pyjamas
overalls
tools
pincers
pliers
scissors
shears
tongs
tweezers
Glasses cost rather a lot nowadays. x A pair of glasses costs rather a lot nowadays
Where are my jeans? – They‟re in the wash.
10
IV Collective nouns
Some nouns with a singular form can be treated either as singular (followed by a
singular verb) or plural (followed by a plural verb):
association
audience
class
club
college
committee
community
company
crowd
department
enemy
family
firm
generation
government
group
jury
orchestra
population
press
public
school
staff
team
university
and the names of specific organisations such as: The Bank of England, BBC, IBM, Sony,
etc.

A singular verb is used if the institutions or organisations are thought of as a whole unit,
and a plural verb is used if they are seen as a collection of individuals:
The crowd was growing bigger and bigger.
The council has (or have) postponed a decision on the new road.

In some contexts a plural form of the verb is needed:
The committee usually raise their hands to vote ”Yes”.

In others, a singular form is preferred:
The school is to close next year.
! The nouns police, goods and cattle are followed by a plural verb.
With a singular verb we use it, its and which/that. With a plural verb we use they, their and
who/that.
The government wants to improve its image.
The government want to improve their image.
The crowd which has gathered here is in a cheerful mood.
The crowd who have gathered here are in a cheerful mood.
Practice
Ex 1 Supply the correct plural forms.
WHAT DOES IT COME UNDER?
If you‟re dieting there are certain (food)1 foods you really have to
avoid: (cake)2 _____________ and (biscuit)3 ____________ are
out for a start, but you can‟t live for ever on (tomato)4
_______________ and (orange)5 _______________. There are
(man)6 ________________ and (woman)7 ________________
who spend their entire (life)8 ______________ counting the
calories they take in each day. Some national (cuisine)9
____________ make you fat. The (Japanese)10 _____________
have a high protein diet, while the (Swiss)11 _______________
eat a lot of milk (product)12________________.
11
Personally, I‟m lucky not to have to diet, but my friend, John, can‟t eat anything without
looking it up in his Calorie Chart. This is carefully organized so that (strawberry)13
_________________ and (peach)14 __________________ are under „Fruit‟; (potato)15
_________________ and (spaghetti16) ________________ come under „Starchy Foods‟ and so
on. I entertained John to a nice low calorie meal yesterday and at the end I offered him some
jelly. „What does “jelly” come under?‟ he asked looking at his chart. „Half a litre of double
cream,‟ I said, pouring the stuff over my plate!
Ex 2 Insert each of the following nouns into the sentences below, and add the
appropriate form of the verb in brackets.
advice
flock
hair
knowledge
music
news
progress
suburbs
trousers
a My parents are both dark, but my hair is naturally blonde.
(be)
b The __________ you gave me ___________ really useful – thank you!
(be)
c Oh no! My _____________ ________________! What can I do?
d I‟m afraid that the ______________ ______________ worse than we‟
(split)
(be)
feared.
e The ___________ of most large cities ____________ heavily polluted.
f The ____________ of sheep in the pen ____________ about 100.
(be)
(number)
g My ____________ of English _______________ gradually – the
teacher has told me _____________ ______________ good.
h _____________ really _______________ me relax.
(increase, be)
(help)
Ex 3 Supply is, are, has or have. Give two forms where possible.
1 The government is/are bringing in a new bill.
2 The company ______________ going to employ six staff.
3 All governments ______________ trying to control crime.
4 The jury ______________ trying to decide now.
5 The youth of today ______________ many advantages.
6 There ______________ vermin in this restaurant.
7 The military ______________ occupied the house.
8 The police______________ interested in this case.
9 The public ______________concerned about it.
10 How many people ______________ coming tonight?
11 The committee ______________ meeting now.
12 A lot of people ______________ signed the petition.
12
Ex 4 Complete the sentences with pronouns. In some of the sentences, there is
more than one possibility. Choose the appropriate singular or plural verb in
parentheses where necessary.
1 I have a wonderful family. I love them very much, and they love (loves, love) me.
2 I looked up some information about the average American family. I found out that
__________________________ (consists, consist) of 2.3 children
3 The soccer team felt unhappy because _________________ had lost in the closing
moments of the game.
4 A basketball team is relatively small. _________________ (doesn‟t, don‟t) have as many
members as a baseball team.
5 The audience clapped enthusiastically. Obviously _____________ had enjoyed the concert.
6 The audience filled the room to overflowing. _________________ (was, were) larger than I
had expected.
7 The crowd became more and more excited as the premier‟s motorcade approached.
_________________ began to shout and wave flags in the air.
8 The crowd at the soccer game was huge. _________________ exceeded 100,000 people.
9 The office staff gave _________________ boss a gold watch when she retired.
10 The office staff isn‟t large. _________________ (consists, consist) of a secretary, a file
clerk, and a receptionist.
11 The young couple finally saved enough money to make a downpayment on
_________________ own house.
12 The class is planning a party for the last day of school. _________________ (is, are) going
to bring many different kinds of food and invite some of _________________ friends to
celebrate with _________________.
13 The class is too small _________________ (is, are) going to be cancelled.
Ex 5 Supply is, are, has or have.
1 The acoustics in this room are very good.
2 The crossroads ______________ dangerous.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
There ______________ four crossroads in our village.
Acoustics ______________ a subject I know little about.
Our company headquarters ______________ in London.
There ______________ many series of books on birds.
______________ there any kennels in this area?
The statistics in this report ______________ inaccurate.
______________ there any statistics for road accidents?
Many species of moth ______________ disappeared.
This species ______________ green and white spots.
12 Our work ______________ a good canteen.
13 My maths______________ got worse and worse!
14 There ______________ crossroads every mile.
13
Ex 6 Supply the missing words.
1 The goods you ordered have arrived.
2 Where ____________ the scissors? _____________ are in the first drawer on the left.
3 How much______________ a good pair of trousers cost these days ?
4 How much did you pay for __________ trousers? ___________ were very expensive !
5 I know he‟s clever, but ______________ aren‟t the only thing in life.
6 I‟m so pleased you got into university! ______________ on your success!
7 If your clothes______________ dirty, please put them in the laundry basket.
8 My jeans (not) ______________ faded much even though I keep washing _______________ .
9 I‟m looking for the pliers. – You‟ll find ______________ on that shelf.
10 All their belongings ______________ been destroyed in a fire.
11 My earnings (not) ______________ high, but at least they _______________ regular.
12 These shorts ______________ fit me at all !
Ex 7 Put in singular or plural verb-forms.
LIES, DAMN LIES?
Statistics (be) 1 is a branch of economics, but it is often said that there (be) 2 __________ lies,
damn lies and statistics. Recent statistics of British life (show) 3 ______________ that the family
(be) 4 ______________ happier than it used to be. The youth of today (be) 5 ______________
likely to live longer than the previous generation. People (own) 6 ______________ more things than
they used to, but more police (be) 7 ______________ employed to fight crime. Mathematics (be) 8
______________ a subject which is studied more by boys than by girls, as (be) 9 ______________
physics. The earnings of working woman (be) 10 ______________ getting higher all the time and
many women earn more than their husbands. Good manners (be) 11 ______________ declining. The
public (spend) 12 ______________ more on clothes, and clothes (be) 13 ______________ becoming
more and more expensive. Glasses (be) 14 ______________ worn by more people, but only a
minority (favour) 15 ____________contact lenses. Statistics (make) 16 __________ us want to grind
our teeth and can probably tell us if we have any teeth left to grind!
14
V. Compound nouns and their plurals
The tendency is to:
- put a plural ending on the second noun in the “noun + noun“ combinations:
boyfriends, flower shops, matchboxes, etc.
-
put a plural ending on the first noun: onlookers, passers-by, fathers-in-law,
editors-in-chief, attorneys general, notaries public, in-laws
-
put a plural ending on the last word when no noun is present: breakdowns,
forget-me-nots, lay-offs, good-for-nothings, grown-ups
NOTE!
man student – men students
woman doctor – women doctors but lady friend – lady friends
VI. Foreign plurals
There is general tendency to make all nouns conform to the regular rules for the pronunciation and
spelling of English plurals. The more commonly a noun is used the more likely this is to happen.
Some native speakers avoid foreign plurals in everyday speech and use them only in scientific and
technical context.
nouns of foreign origins with anglicised plurals, e.g.
album / albums, apparatus / apparatuses, genius / geniuses
nouns with both foreign and anglicised plurals, e.g.
cactus / cacti / cactuses
terminus / termini / terminuses
fungus / fungi /funguses
focus / foci / focuses
formula / formulae / formulas
antenna / antennae / antennas
memorandum / memoranda / memorandums
curriculum / curricula / curriculums
NOTE!
index / indexes =
abecední seznamy, ukazatelé
index / indices =
(mat.) exponenty
appendix / appendixes =
slepá střeva
appendix / appendices =
dodatky
The plural form bases
- 1 sg. base / pl. bases [beisiz]
NOTE!
- 2 sg. basis / pl. bases [beisi:z]
nouns with foreign plurals only, e.g.
analysis / analyses
crisis / crises
hypothesis / hypotheses
axis / axes
radius/radii
nucleus / nuclei
bacillus / bacilli
stimulus / stimuli
alumnus / alumni
NOTE!
Media + sg. or pl. verb is used to refer to the press, TV, etc.;
data is used with sg. or pl. verb;
15
alumna / alumnae
criterion / criteria
spectrum / spectra
stratum / strata
Ex 8 Put into the plural
spectrum
a series
hypothesis
focus
memorandum
micron
basis
vertex
radius
equilibrium
terminus
analysis
formula
stratum
axis
symposium
criterion
minimum
crisis
electron
phenomenon
genus
Ex 9 Rewrite the sentences, making the words in brackets plural.
1. The Leader of the Opposition recalled the (crisis) of the past year.
2. The ships were unloading their (cargo) on to (wharf).
3. Many people think that (parent-in-law) are potentially a nuisance.
4. Poisonous (gas) were being discharged from the exhaust pipes of the (bus).
5. He arranged that his books should contain detailed (index).
6. The eyes are sometimes (index) of character.
7. Shakespearian (hero) are generally the victims of circumstances.
8. (A mouse) can sometimes take the cheese without being caught in the (mousetrap).
9. Highly-coloured (fungus) were growing near the (base) of the tree.
10. He wished to place certain (memorandum) before the committee.
11. He agreed that these were strange (phenomenon).
12. We cannot proceed on such unlikely (hypothesis).
13. (A serviceman) found guilty of desertion of duty are tried by (court-martial).
14. The new (syllabus) will be drawn up according to different (criterion).
15. Television and newspapers are the mass (medium) of advertising.
16. The (thief) broke into the shop without attracting the attention of (passer-by).
17. Piano (solo) will be played by John Smith.
18. The police called for (eyewitness) to come forward and give (evidence).
19. The accused men had carefully prepared what appeared to be good (alibi).
16
DETERMINERS
Introduction
Determiners indicate the type of reference a noun phrase has; for example whether the determiner is
definite or indefinite (the, a), possessive (my, her, etc.), demonstrative (this, those, etc.).
Demonstratives also indicate number or quantity (some, many, twenty, etc.).
Determiners come first in the noun phrase, before other elements such as adjectives and noun
modifiers. They include words like a, each, his, my several, some, the, those, which and numerals
such as one, two, first.
For example:
This is a complete mess.
Where are my glasses?
Each time I‟ve tried to sell the house I‟ve had no buyers.
I‟m his best friend.
I‟ve had several blood tests.
Here is a list of the determiners that we will deal with:
a / an
(a) few, fewer, fewest
such (anaphoric)
all
half
the
another
(a) little, less, least
this, that, these, those
any (strong form)
many, more, most
what (interrogative)
both
my, your, his, Jim‟s, etc.
what, such (exclamative)
each
no
which
either, neither
one (numeral), two, three, etc.
whose
enough
several
zero determiner
every
some
Determiners may occasionally be premodified or postmodified:
Almost all libraries have got quite a lot of information on those sorts of things.
Many more professional couples are opting for larger families.
All but one of the 16 stock markets continued to recover this week.
More than one determiner may occur in the noun phrase:
I do all the housework, I look after my two children at the same time, and I‟m studying.
17
(i.e. no determiner)
When more than one determiner can be used together, there is a fixed order in which they occur:
The order of determiners
quantifier
all
article / demonstrative / possessive
my
all
numeral
head
five
cousins
three
pages
both
your
nieces
half
a
litre
my
first
exam
those
two
girls
All, both and half can come before articles, demonstratives and possessives, but quantifiers such as
any, few, many, more, some, etc. and numerals cannot. Where these quantities and numerals do
occur first, „of‟‟ must be used.
„Can I borrow more of those disks?‟ and not
„I‟ve achieved some of my ambitions‟. and not
„Can I borrow more those disks?‟
„I‟ve achieved some my ambitions‟.
Two of his children are getting married around the same time. and not „ Two his...’
18
The Article
How much do articles matter?
The correct use of the articles (a/an, the, and the so called „zero‟ article) is one of the most difficult
points in English grammar. Fortunately, most article mistakes do not matter too much. Even if we
leave all the articles out of a sentence, it is usually possible to understand it.
Please can you lend me pound of butter till end of week ?
However, it is better to use the articles correctly if possible.
1
The indefinite article (a/an) can be used with countable nouns (C) in
the singular (sg) = sgC
A

We use „a/an‟ to introduce a person or thing for the first time:
I watched a car as it came up our road. The car stopped outside our house and a man
got out. The man was carrying a case in his hand. With the case in his hand, the man
looked like a salesman.

We often use a/an after „there is‟:
There is a book on the table ( => There are O books on the table)
There is a garden behind the house. (=> There are O gardens behind the houses)
B

„a/an‟ is used with names of professions
He is an actor.
She‟ll be a dancer.
He became a doctor.
She was elected a member of the committee.
My friend, an engineer ...
D.H. Lawrence, an author from Nottingham, wrote a book called “Sons and Lovers”.
C

„a/an‟ is usually used if the sgC noun is preceded by an adjective
It was a clear, cold, winter day.
It was a terrible earthquake.
19
„a/an‟ is sometimes used even with uncountable nouns (e.g. education, traffic,
importance, knowledge, resistance, etc):
The play was a great success.
Have a good time.
She has an extensive knowledge of property prices in this area.
The decision to build a bridge later took on an unexpected strategic importance.
D

„a/an‟ is used before a sgC noun which is used as an example of a class of things:
A car must be insured. => All cars / any car
A child needs love => All children / any child
It‟s not easy for a woman to do such a job. => any woman
Under those circumstances a man would be embarrassed, but not John. => any man
E

„a/an‟ is used when counting or measuring time, distance, weight, etc.
for a day or two
in a word
a fifty-mile drive
a fifteen-kilo piglet
a hundred and twenty / one hundred and twenty
Rome was not built in a day / in one day
Sometimes there is a difference in meaning. Compare:
A pencil is no good, you need a pen.
One pencil is no good, you need more.
__________________________________ __________________________________

in number and quantity expressions:
$3 a meter / a kilo
50 km an hour
four times a day / once a month / twice a week
a quarter of an hour
a day or so (= about a day)
20

in expressions with „half‟
half an hour, half a kilo
Compare:
an hour and a half
a half-portion
a kilo and a half or one kilo and a half
! a half bottle
! half a bottle
F

„a‟ can be used before Mr / Mrs / Miss + surname:
a Mr Smith
„a Mr / Mrs / Miss Smith‟ means „a man/woman
a Mrs Smith
called Smith‟ and implies that s/he is a stranger to
the speaker
a Miss Smith

when speaking about the name of a product or a work of art:
a Skoda
a Rembrandt
a Mercedes
a Goya
a Peugeot
a Renault
A Philco
G

„a/an‟ can be used before „few‟ and „little‟
a few = a small number, or what the
a little = a small amount, or what the
speaker considers a small
speaker considers a small
number
amount
Few and little can be used without article but then have an almost negative meaning, and can
usually be replaced by hardly any:
We had little time for amusement
implies that we were always busy.
Few people know this implies that „this‟ is almost unknown.
I

„a/an‟ is used in exclamations
Such a long queue!
BUT
Such O long queues!
What a pretty girl!
BUT
What O pretty girls!
! What O
terrible weather !
! What O
beautiful nature !
21
J

„a/an‟ is used after certain verbs, e.g. „to have‟, to give‟, „to make‟, „to be‟, etc
to have a rest
to make a meal
to have a smoke
to make an attempt
to have a drink
to make an effort
to have a swim
to make a mistake
to give a smile
to make an arrangement
to give a lift
to make a difference
to give out a cry
to make a journey

in a number of fixed expressions
to be at a loss
on an average
to be in a hurry
to have a headache
to have a cold
at an early age
to keep an eye on
in a loud voice
it‟s a pity
up to a point
to have an opportunity
as a result of
as a matter of fact
22
Ex 1 Insert a/an if necessary.
1
My neighbour is …… photographer; let‟s ask him for …… advice about ..…… colour films.
2
We had …… fish and …… chips for …… lunch.
That doesn‟t sound …… very interesting lunch.
3
I had …… very bad night; I didn‟t sleep …… wink.
4
He is …… vegetarian; you won‟t get …… meat at his house. He‟ll give you …… nut
cutlet.
Last time I had …… nut cutlet I had …… indigestion.
5
…… travel agent would give you …… information about …… hotels.
6
We‟d better go by …… taxi – if we can get …… taxi at such …… hour as 2 am.
7
…… person who suffers from …… claustrophobia has …… dread of being confined in
…… small space, and would always prefer …… stairs to …… lift.
8
Do you take …… sugar in …… coffee?
I used to, but now I‟m on …… diet. I‟m trying to lose …… weight.
9
…… man suffering from …… shock should not be given anything to drink.
10
You‟ll get ……shock if you touch …… live wire with that screwdriver. Why don‟t you
get …… screwdriver with ……insulated handle ?
11
It costs fifty-five and …… half pence and I‟ve only got …… fifty pence.
You can pay by …… cheque here.
But can I write …… cheque for …… fifty-five and …… half pence ?
12
I‟m not … wage-earner; I‟m …… self-employed man. I have …… business of my own.
Then you‟re not …… worker; you‟re …… capitalist!
13
……Mr Smith is …… old customer and …… honest man.
Why do you say that ? Has he been accused of …… dishonesty?
14
When he was charged with …… murder, he said he had …… alibi.
15
…… friend of mine is expecting …… baby; if it‟s …… girl she‟s going to be called
Etheldreda.
What …… name to give …… girl!
23
16
I have …… hour and …… half for lunch.
I only have …… half …… hour – barely …… time for …… smoke and …… cup of coffee.
17
I hope you have …… lovely time and …… good weather.
18
He looked at me with …… horror when I explained that I was …… double agent.
19
I wouldn‟t climb …… mountain for $1,000. I have …… horror of …… heights.
20
I have …… headache and …… sore throat. I think I‟ve got …… cold.
I think you‟re getting …… flu.
21
…… Mr Jones called while you were out (neither of us knows this man). He wants to
make …… complaint about …… article in the paper. He was in …… very bad temper.
22
If you go by …… train you can have quite …… comfortable journey but make sure you
get …… express, not …… train that stops at all the stations.
23
…… few people know (hardly anyone knows) that there is …… secret passage from this
house to …… old smugglers‟ cave on the cliffs.
24
I‟m having …… few friends in to …… coffee tomorrow evening. Would you like to come?
I‟d love to, but I‟m afraid I‟m going to …… concert.
25
It‟s …… time you had …… holiday. You haven‟t had …… day off for …… month.
26
He broke …… leg in …… skiing accident. It‟s still in …… plaster.
27
I want …… assistant with … knowledge of French and …… experience of …… office routine.
28
I see that your house is built of …… wood. Are you insured against …… fire ?
29
The escaping prisoner camped in …… wood but he didn‟t light …… fire because ……
smoke rising from the wood might attract …… attention.
30
I had …… amazing experience last night. I saw …… dinosaur eating …… meat pie in
…… London park.
You mean you had …… nightmare. Anyway, …… dinosaurs didn‟t eat …… meat.
31
I‟ll pay you …… thousand …… year. It‟s not …… enormous salary but after all you
are …… completely unskilled man.
32
If you kept …… graph you could see at …… glance whether you were making …….
profit or …… loss
24
33
…… little (hardly anything) is known about the effect of the drug; yet …… chemist
will sell it to you without …… prescription.
34
I have …… little money left; let‟s have …… dinner in …… restaurant.
35
Would it be …… trouble to you to buy me …… newspaper on your way home?
36
…… man is …… reasoning animal.
2
The definite article (the) has the same form for both sg. and pl. countable
and uncountable nouns. It is pronounced:
[ ð] before a consonant, e.g. the young man who ..., the woman who ..
[ ði:] before a vowel, e.g. the hour that ....
A
„the‟ is used before a noun which has become definite as a result of being mentioned a
second time:
His car struck a tree; you can still see the mark on the tree.
„the‟ is sometimes used even if the person or thing hasn‟t been mentioned before, if the
person or thing we mean can be understood from what has been said before:
We had a good time on holiday. The hotel (= the hotel we stayed in) was comfortable,
and the beach (= the beach we went to) was only ten minutes away.
B
„the‟ is used before a noun which is preceded by a superlative or first, second, etc.
the first edition
the best day
the last week
the worst news
„the‟ is used before a noun which is made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause
the girl in blue
the place where I met him
the man with the banner
the boy that I met
The book you lent me is very interesting.
I will always remember the days spent there.
„the‟ is used before a noun which is followed by the infinitive:
the will to win
the need to help
25
„the‟ is used before a noun which by reason of locality can represent only one particular
thing:
the cinema, the theatre, the supermarket, the bank, the butcher‟s, etc.
Ann is in the garden. (= the garden of this house)
Please pass the wine. (= the wine on the table)
Shut the door. (= the door of the room)
We‟re spending the weekend in the country/in the mountains/at the seaside
the postman (= the one who comes to me)
the car (= our car)
the newspaper (= the one we read)
„the‟ is often used with nouns before a phrase beginning of ... . The ´ of ...´ phrase
connects the noun to particular thing or person:
Pictures can help students learn the meaning of new words.
The disease could have killed off half of the population of the country.
He was woken up by the sound of gunfire.
Compare these sentences with:
Each new word has a different meaning.
The country has a rapidly expanding population.
He suddenly heard a sound like a gunshot.
Some nouns are commonly used in the ´ the...of...´ to refer to a particular place, time,
etc., including back, beginning, bottom, end, middle, side, top:
In the middle of his speech he started to cough uncontrollably.
C
´the´ is used when we know that there is only one of a particular thing. E.g :
the sun, the world, the North Pole, the jet age, the international market, the arms trade,
the equator, the solar system, etc.
The same applies to the following things when we refer to them in a general way:
the weather, the climate, the human race, the atmosphere, the sea, the public, the sky,
the environment, the ground, the wind, the future, the past, etc.
But, if we want to describe a particular instance of these, we use ´a/an´ :
She could hear the wind whistling through the trees outside.
There‟s a cold wind blowing from the north.
What are your plans for the future?
She dreamt of a future when she could spend more time painting.
26
D
´the´+ sgC noun can represent a class of animals, things or people:
The whale is in danger of extinction. OR Whales are in danger .....
Nowadays, photocopiers are found in both the office and the home. OR ... offices and homes
The customer has the right to know where products are made. OR Customers have ....
Compare the use of ´a/an´ and ´the´ in these sentences:
talking about a general class
talking about an unspecified example
The novel is the most popular form of fiction Reading a novel is a good way to relax.
writing (or Novels are ...)
´the´ + adjective represents a class of persons:
the blind, the deaf, the disabled, the healthy/the sick, the unemployed, the rich/the poor, the
old /the young, the living/the dead, etc.
the English, the Spanish, the Welsh, the Japanese, the Swiss, the Chinese, the Burmese, etc.
´the´ + plural surname is used to mean “the .... family“:
the Smiths = Mr and Mrs Smith (and children)
´the´ + sgC noun + clause/phrase can be used to distinguish one person from another of the
same name:
We have two Mr Smiths. Which do you want? - I want the Mr Smith who signed this letter.
´the´ is usually used with parts of body:
He led her by the hand.
I patted him on the shoulder.
He was hit on the head.
The brick hit John in the face.
´the´ is usually used before musical instruments:
play the violin / the guitar / the piano, etc.
BUT
to play O football, O ice-hockey, O cricket. etc.
E
´the´ + sgC noun in apposition:
Leo Tolstoy, the great Russian writer ....
D.H. Lawrence, the author of “Sons and Lovers“, died in 1930.
27
F
´the´ + names of cardinal points:
„the‟ is not used before east / west etc. + noun, eg
Yucatan is in O North America.
But we use „the‟ if east / west etc. is followed by ‘of’ or used alone as a noun, eg:
the west of Spain
The south is warmer than the north.
The North Pole
Compare:
I am going to the south (noun)
I am going O south (adverb)
To the north of the town there is a lake (noun)
O North of the town there is a lake. (adverb)
G
´the´ is often used before certain places names - see the table below
„Zero‟ article or ´the´ with place names
Most place names are used with zero article, but there is some variation; in particular, ´the´ is used
when a C noun like one of the following appears in the title: bay, canal, channel, gulf, kingdom,
ocean, republic, river, sea, strait, union. ´the´ is often omitted on maps.
zero
the
Continents
Africa, Asia, Europe
Geographical areas
Central Asia, Inner London,
the Arctic, the Balkans, the Equator,
Lower Egypt, Outer Mongolia,
the Middle East, the North Pole, the
Upper Austria
West
Historical references Ancient Greece, Medieval
the Dark Ages, the Renaissance, the
Europe, Roman Britain,
Stone Age
pre-war/post-war Germany,
Lakes
Lake Constance, Lake Erie,
Lake Geneva
Oceans/seas/rivers
the Pacific (Ocean), the Caspian (Sea)
the Nile/the River Nile, the Suez Canal
the Mississippi (River)
continued
28
Mountains
Everest, Mont Blanc
the Jungfrau, the Matterhorn
Mountain ranges
Islands
the Alps, the Himalayas
Christmas Island, Easter Island
the Isle of Capri, the Isle of Man
Groups of islands
the Azores, the Bahamas
Deserts
the Gobi (Desert), the Kalahari (Desert)
the Sahara (Desert)
Countries
Most countries:
Unions, republics, states, kingdoms
Finland, Germany, Turkey, etc
the UK, the U.S.A., the U.S.S.R.
the Czech Republic
A few countries:
the Argentina, the Netherlands,
the Philippines, (the) Sudan,
States/counties
Most states/counties:
Bavaria, Ohio, Surrey
Cities
the Vatican
Most cities:
Denver, London, Lyon
The City (of London), The Hague
Universities
Cambridge University
the University of Cambridge
Streets
Most streets:
London Road,
Madison Avenue, Oxford
Street, Piccadilly Circus
the High Street, the Strand, the Drive
Note: the London road (= the road that
leads to London
Parks
Central Park, Hyde Park
Buildings
Buckingham Palace,
Westminster Abbey
the British Museum, the Library of
Congress
London Bridge
The Golden Gate Bridge
Other locations
Bridges
Cinemas
The Odeon
Places
Death Valley
The Everglades
Shops
Marks and Spencer,
Selfridges
The Scotch House
Stations
Victoria Station,
Waterloo (Station)
29
Ex 2 Insert ´the´ if necessary.
1 ...... youngest boy has just started going to ...... school, ...... eldest boy is at ...... college.
2 She lives on ...... top floor of an old house. When ...... wind blows, all ...... windows rattle.
3 ...... darkness doesn‟t worry ...... cats. ...... cats can see in ...... dark.
4 ...... modern boys usually say that they want to be ...... spacemen, but ...... most of them
will probably end up in ...... less dramatic jobs.
5 Do you know ...... time ?
Yes, ...... clock in ...... hall has just struck nine.
Then it isn‟t ...... time to go yet.
6 He was sent to ...... prison for ...... six months for ...... shop-lifting. When ...... six months
are over he‟ll be released. ...... difficulty then will be to find ...... work.
Do you go to ...... prison to visit him?
7 I went to ...... school to talk to ...... headmistress. I persuaded her to let Ann give up ......
gymnastics and take ...... ballet lessons instead.
...... ballet isn‟t much use for ...... girls, it is much better to be able to play ...... piano.
8 I am on ...... night duty. When you go to ...... bed, I go to ...... work.
9 Peter´s at ...... office but you could get him on ...... phone. There‟s a telephone box just
round ...... corner and here‟s his mobile phone number.
10 He got ...... bronchitis and was taken to ...... hospital. I expect they‟ll send him home at
...... end of ...... week.
Have you rung ...... hospital to ask how he is ?
11 Ann‟s habit of riding a motorcycle up and down ...... road early in ...... morning annoyed.
...... neighbours and in ...... end they took her to ...... court
12 He first went to ...... sea in a Swedish ship, so as well as learning ...... navigation he had
to learn ...... Swedish.
13 ...... family hotels are ...... hotels which welcome ...... parents and ...... children.
14 On ...... Sundays my father stays in ...... bed till ten o‟clock, reading ...... Sunday papers.
Then he gets up, puts on ...... old clothes, has ...... breakfast and starts ...... work in ...... garden.
My mother goes to ...... church in ...... morning, and in ...... afternoon goes to visit ...... friends.
Like many women, she loves ...... parties and ...... gossip.
My parents have ...... cold meat and ..... salad for ..... supper, ..... winter and ...... summer.
During ...... meal my father gives my mother ...... instructions about ...... garden and she
tells him ...... village gossip.
15 We have a very good train service from here to ...... city centre and ...... most people go
to ...... work by train. You can go by ...... bus too, of course, but you can‟t get a season
ticket on ...... bus.
30
16 ...... dead no longer need ...... help. We must concern ourselves with ...... living. We must
build ...... houses and ...... schools and ...... playgrounds.
17 I´d like to see ...... Mr Smith, please.
Do you mean ...... Mr Smith who works in ...... box office or ...... other Mr Smith?
18 Did you come by air?
No, I came by ...... sea. I had a lovely voyage on ...... Queen Elizabeth II.
19 ...... most of ...... stories that people tell about ...... Irish aren‟t true.
20 ...... married couples with ...... children often rent ...... cottages by ...... seaside for ......
summer holidays. ...... men hire boats and go for ...... trips along ...... coast; ...... children
spend ...... day on ...... beach and ...... poor mothers spend ...... most of ...... time doing
...... cooking and cleaning.
21 It‟s usually safe to walk on ...... sand , but here, when ...... tide is coming in, ...... sand
becomes dangerously soft. ...... people have been swallowed up by it.
22 When ...... Titanic was crossing ...... Atlantic, she struck an iceberg which tore a huge
hole in her bow. ...... captain ordered ...... crew to help ...... passengers into ...... boats.
23 Everywhere ...... man has cut down ...... forests in order to cultivate ...... ground, or to use
...... wood as ...... fuel or as ...... building material.
But ...... interference with ...... nature often brings ..... disaster. ..... tree-felling sometimes
turns ...... fertile land into a dustbowl.
24 Our air hostess said, „ ........ rack is only for ....... light articles. ....... heavy things such as
....... bottles must be put on ....... floor.
25 ....... windows are supposed to let in ....... light; but ....... windows of this house are so small
that we have to have ....... electric light on all ....... time.
26 There‟ll always be a conflict between ....... old and ....... young. ....... young people want .....
change but ....... old people want ....... things to stay ....... same.
27 ....... power tends to corrupt and ....... absolute power corrupts absolutely.
28 You can fool some of ....... people all ...... time, and all ....... people some of ...... time; but
you cannot fool all ...... people all ....... time.
31
3
The zero article (0) is used:
A

before uncountable nouns, ie the nouns that are not used with a/an or in the plural; some
of these nouns are countable in many other languages.
Here is a list of nouns like that:
accommodation
employment
luck
produce
advice
equipment
machinery
progress
applause
evidence
money
research
assistance
fun
mud
rubbish
baggage / luggage
furniture
music
safety
camping
harm
news
scenery
cash
health
nonsense
shopping
chaos
homework
parking
sightseeing
clothing
housing
pay
sunshine
conduct
housework
permission
reansport
courage
information
photography
underwear
cutlery
jewellery
poetry
violence
dancing
leisure
pollution
weather
dirt
litter
publicity
work
BUT

Sometimes a noun is used uncountably when we are talking about the whole substance or
idea, but countably when we are talking about:
a) recognized containers for things. Compare:
I prefer O tea to O coffee. and
I‟d like a tea and three coffees, please. (= cups)
b) a type, brand or make of thing. Compare:
There‟s O cheese in the fridge. and There were dozens of cheeses to choose from. (kinds)
c) a particular example of a physical or concrete thing. Compare:
She has O blond hair.
and There‟s a hair in my soup!
d) a particular instance of a substance or an idea. Compare:
The statue was made of O stone. and
I had a stone in my shoe.
She was always good at O sport. and
Football is mainly a winter sport in Britain.
32
There are many nouns like this, e.g.:
abuse
conversation
improvement
sound
(dis)agreement
coffee
pain
space
beer
difficulty
noise
stone
business
dislike
rain
success
cake
fear
shampoo
toothpaste
chicken
fruit
snow
water

Some nouns that are usually used uncountably can be used countably, but only in the
singular, e.g. education, importance, knowledge, resistance, traffic:
She has an extensive knowledge of property prices in this area.
The decision to build the bridge later took on an unexpected strategic importance.
Ex 1 Choose two of the words below as the most likely ways of completing each sentence.
For one answer you will need to make the word plural, and for the other you will
need to make no change.
accommodation
house
luggage
sunshine
bag
jewellery
painting
tool
equipment
job
shower
work
1
On the weather forecast they said there would be ............................ this afternoon.
2
The waiting room was so full of people and their ............................., there was nowhere to sit.
3
Repairing car engines is easy if you‟ve got the right ................................... .
4
In Stockholm at the moment there‟s a fascinating exhibition of .......................... from the
19th century Sweden.
5
Both my brothers are looking for ........................... .
6
The price of ............................... has increased by 12% this year alone.
Ex 2 Choose from the words below to complete each sentence. Decide if the word should
be countable or uncountable. If the word is countable, add a/an or make it plural
(= zero article) as appropriate.
chicken
dislike
improvement
language
life
1 Mary used to keep ....................... in her garden until they started to get out.
2 A score of 40% may not be very good but it‟s certainly .................. on her last mark.
3 After so many previous .................., it was inevitable that one of his films would be
unpopular.
4 .................. is too short to worry about keeping your house spotlessly clean.
5 I‟ve had ..................... of green vegetables ever since I was a child.
6 Our students study both ..................... and literature in their English degree.
33
success
Ex 3 Choose from the words below to complete each pair of sentences. Use the same
word in a) and b). Decide if the word should be countable or uncountable. If the
word is countable, add a/an at an appropriate point in the sentence or make it
plural (= zero article)
damage
1
education
traffic
paper
resistance
speech
a I had to go through a very strict and traditional education.
b ..................... has been hit once again in the government‟s spending cuts.
2
a ..................... was building up on the motorway as the fog got thicker.
b Since the war, illegal ..................... in weapons has grown.
3
a Outnumbered by at least three to one. he knew that ........................... was useless.
b After a while we seemed to build up ............................ to mosquitoes.
4
a The judge awarded Mr Sinclair ....................... of nearly $50,000.
b The accident caused some ............................ to my car but it wasn‟t worth getting it
repaired.
5
a Muriel gave ...................... at the conference on the psychological effects of divorce.
b The use of recycled ....................... is saving thousands of trees from being cut down
each year.
6
a It is said to be ....................... that distinguishes us from the other animals.
b We had to listen to some long and boring ....................... after the meal.
B

zero article is used in generalisations with plural or uncountable nouns:
Before you put them on, always check your shoes for O spiders.
I‟m studying O geography at university.
I can smell O smoke!
Remember: when we use the with a plural or uncountable noun, we are talking about specific
things or people.
The books you ordered have arrived.
All the information you asked for is in this file of papers.
34
Compare these pairs of sentences:

Flowers really brighten up a room (= flowers in general)
The flowers you bought me are lovely. (= a particular flowers)

Industry is using computers more and more. (= industry in general)
The tourism industry is booming in Malaysia. (= a particular industry)

Children should be given a sense of how business works. (= business in general)
The aerospace business actually lost $6 billion this year. (= a particular business)

She‟s an expert on Swedish geology. (= among other Swedish things)
She‟s an expert on the geology of Sweden (= specifically of Sweden)
Ex 1 Complete these sentences using one of these words. Use the where necessary.
Use the same word in both a) and b) in each pair.
advise
coffee
food
French
history
magazines
1 a ................. all over the world have published photos of the royal baby.
b Emily left ..................... we asked for on the table.
2 a ..................... played a very important part in his life.
b I thought .................... used in the film was the best part.
3 a I‟ve forgotten most of ......................... I learnt at school.
b I‟m learning ...................... at night school.
4 a I‟ll always be grateful for .......................... he gave me.
b I asked my father for .......................... about the problem.
5 a Put ............................ you bought straight into the fridge.
b .......................... at that new Indonesian restaurant was excellent.
6 a I never did enjoy studying ................................... .
b I‟m reading a book about ................... of the New Zealand Maori.
7 a The world price of ............................ has reached a record height.
b ............................ we got last week from the Brazilian cafe was excellent.
8 a In my opinion, ...................... deserve to be better paid.
b .........................need to have enormous patience.
35
music
teachers
C

„zero‟ article with nouns like „school, hospital etc.‟
Study these examples:

They say he‟ll stay in O hospital for six

weeks.

Sue‟s at O university studying French.
Tom‟s mother goes to the hospital to see
him very day.

Frank works as a security guard at
a university.

O School should be a place where

children are taught to enjoy learning.

She usually stays in O bed till late at the
They‟re building a school at the end
of our street.

weekend.
Have you seen my socks? – You left
them on the bed.
We use zero article when we talk about institutions such as hospital, university, prison, bed,
school, college, or church being used for their initial purposes: medical treatment in hospital,
studying in university, and so on. We use articles when we talk about them as particular places or
buildings.
Ex 1 Write the where necessary in these sentences. If the sentence is already correct, put a tick.
1 Can I drive you to ....... university?
2 When I‟m in London, I always go to ....... theatre.
3 Margaret believes that all children should go to ....... church every Sunday.
4 In Sweden, children start ....... school when they are six or seven.
5 Jim‟s been in ....... hospital for six weeks now.
6 He lives near ....... church on the hill.
7 She‟s going to ....... university to do French.
8 Even her most dedicated fans wouldn‟t call her new play a great work of ....... theatre.
10 Have you heard ....... hospital is going to close?
11 It‟s time the children went to ....... bed.
12 He‟s been in and out of ....... prison since he left ....... school.
36
D

„zero‟ article is usually used before the names of particular people:
President Clinton is to give a statement later today.
The name of Nelson Mandela is known all over the world.

zero‟ article with titles is used:
a) if the title is followed by a proper name:
President Lincoln, Professor Smith
Captain / Colonel / Major Rogers
Lord Byron
Queen Elizabeth
Sir John Falstaff / Sir John (but not Sir John )
Chancellor Kohl
Father Brown (Roman Catholic priest)
relations: Uncle Charlie / Aunt Alice (first names only)
b) if the title is in apposition:
Mr Smith, O Chairman of the Committee
c) if the title is preceded by verbs like e.g.: elect, become, appoint, be, etc.
Wilson was elected O President of the U.S.A.
He became O Commander-in-Chief.
He is O Prime Minister.
or after e.g.: the title of ... , the post of ...., the rank of ... etc.
He gained the rank of O Colonel.
He holds the title of O Champion of the world.
E

We often use zero article with the names of holidays, special tiems of the year, or with the
names of months and days of the week:
Easter
Ramadan
New Year‟s Day
September
Monday
But compare:
I‟ll see you on Saturday.
We met on Saturday.
They arrived on a Saturday as
far as I can remember.
They arrived on the Saturday
after my birthday party.
= next / last Saturday
= we are only interested in the
day of the week, not which
particular Saturday.
= a particular Saturday,
specifying which one
37

With winter, summer, spring, autumn and New Year (meaning the holiday period), we can
often use either the‟ or zero article.
In (the) summer I try to spend as much time in the garden as I can.
In Scotland, they really know how to celebrate (the) New Year.

We use „the‟ when it is understood which summer, spring, etc. we mean:
When did you meet Beth? – In the summer. (= last summer)
When are you going to university? – In the autumn. (= next autumn)
I first went skiing in the spring of 1992.

We say „in the New Year‟ to mean at or near the beginning of next year:
I‟ll see you in the New Year.

When we want to describe the feature of a particular holiday, season, etc., we use „a/an‟:
That was a winter I‟ll never forget.
Ex 1 Put a/an, the or zero article (O), whichever is most likely, in the spaces in these
sentences. In some cases, you can use either the or zero article (write the / O).
1 a She starts work on ....... Monday next week.
b I last saw her in town earlier in the year. I‟m sure it was ........ Monday, because that‟s
when I go shopping, but I can‟t remember the exact date.
c They phoned on ........ Monday before the accident.
2 a I remember when Frank was last here. It was ........ Christmas I got my new bike.
b It was ........ Christmas to remember.
c We‟re returning after ........ Christmas.
3 a The race is always held in ........ June.
b We last saw Dave ........ June your mother was staying with us.
c Even though it was March, the weather reminded us of ........ hot June day.
4 a With the wedding and the new job, it was ........ summer she would always remember,
b There was a long drought in South Africa in ........ summer of 1993.
c I‟m hoping to visit Italy in ........ summer.
5 a We had a really good time over ........ New Year.
b Have ........ happy New Year.
c I‟ll contact you in ........ New Year.
38
F

zero article in certain phrases:
a) zero article for transport:
by air
by car
by sea
by train
BUT
by bus
by coach
by plane
by land
on foot
b) zero article for „pairs‟ joined by „and‟ :
day and night
brother and sister
sun and moon
father and son
young and old
day by day
husband and wife
light and dark
pen and ink
arm in arm
from top to bottom
step by step
hand in hand
come to light
on land and sea
day after day
make friends
inch by inch
face to face
keep in mind
c) zero article in fixed phrases:
Articles: Revision 1
1 There was ...... knock on ..... door. I opened it and found ..... small dark man in ...... check
overcoat and ...... soft hat. He said he was ...... employee of ...... gas-company and had
come to read ...... meter. But I had ...... suspicion that he wasn‟t speaking ...... truth since
..... meter readers usually wear ..... peaked caps. However, I took him to ..... meter, which
is in ...... dark corner under ...... stairs (,,,,,, meters are usually in ...... dark corners under
...... stairs). I asked if he had ...... torch; he said he disliked torches and always read ......
meters by ...... light of ....... match. I remarked that if there was ...... leak in ...... gas pipe
there might be ...... explosion while he was reading ...... meter. He said, ´As ...... matter of
...... fact, there was ...... explosion in ...... last house I visited; and Mr Smith, ...... owner
of ...... house, was burnt in ...... face as he was holding ...... lighted match at ...... time of
...... explosion.´ To prevent ...... possible repetition of this accident, I lent him ...... torch.
He switched on ...... torch, read ...... meter and wrote ...... reading down on ...... back of
...... envelope. I said in ...... surprise that ...... meter readers usually put ....... readings
down in ...... book. He said that he had had ...... book but that he it had been burnt in ......
fire in ...... Mr Smith‟s house. By this time I had come to ...... conclusion that he wasn‟t
...... genuine meter reader; and ...... moment he left ...... house I rang ....... police.
39
2 Are John and Mary cousins?
No, they aren‟t cousins; they are ...... brother and ...... sister.
3 ...... fog was so thick that we couldn‟t see ...... side of ...... road. We followed ...... car in
front of us and hoped that we were going ...... right way.
4 I can‟t remember ...... exact date of ...... storm, but I know it was ...... Sunday because
everybody was at ...... church. On ...... Monday ...... post didn‟t come because ...... roads were
blocked by ...... fallen trees.
5 Peter thinks that this is quite ...... cheap restaurant.
6 There‟s been ...... murder here.
Where‟s ...... body?
There isn‟t ...... body.
Then how do you know there‟s been ...... murder?
7 Number ...... hundred and two, ...... house next door to us, is for sale. It‟s quite ...... nice.
house with ...... big rooms. ...... back windows look out on ...... park I don‟t know what
...... price ...... owners are asking. But Dry and Rot are ...... agents. You could give them
...... ring and make them ...... offer.
8 ...... postman‟s little boy says he‟d rather be ...... dentist than ...... doctor, because dentists
don‟t get called out at night.
9 Just as ...... air hostess (there was only one on the plane) was handing me ...... cup of
coffee, ...... plane gave ...... lurch and ...... coffee went all over ...... person on ...... other
side of ....... gangway.
10 There was ...... collision between ...... car and ...... cyclist at ....... crossroads near ...... my
house early in ...... morning. ...... cyclist was taken to ...... hospital with ......
concussion. ...... driver of ...... car was treated for ...... shock. ...... witnesses say that ...... car
was going at ...... seventy miles ..... hour.
11 Professor Jones, ...... man who discovered ...... new drug that everyone is talking about,
refused to give ...... press conference. Peter Piper, ...... student in ...... professor‟s college,.
asked him why he refused to talk to ...... press.
12 We‟re going to ...... tea with ...... Smiths today, aren‟t we? Shall we take ...... car?
We can go by ...... car if you wash ...... car first. We can‟t go to ...... Mrs Smith‟s in ......
car all covered with ...... mud.
13 He was taken ...... prisoner early in ...... war and spent ...... next two years in ...... prisonof-war camp in ...... south.
40
14 It is ...... pleasure to do ...... business with such ...... efficient organisation.
15 ...... day after ...... day passed without ....... news, so we began to lose ...... hope.
16 Would you like to hear ..... story about ....... Englishman, ..... Irishman and ..... Scotsman?
No, I‟ve heard ....... stories about ...... Englishmen, ..... Irishmen and ..... Scotsmen before
and they are all the same.
But mine isn‟t ….. typical story. In my story ....... Scotsman is generous, .......... Irishman is
logical, and ….. Englishman is romantic.
Oh, if it‟s a fantastic story, I‟ll listen with pleasure.
17 My aunt lived on ...... ground floor of ...... old house on ....... river Elbe. She was very
much afraid of ...... burglars and always locked up ...... house very carefully before she
went to ...... bed. She also took ...... precaution of looking under ....... bed to see if ......
burglar was hiding there.
´Modern burglars don‟t hide under ...... beds´, said her daughter ´I‟ll go on looking just
...... same´, said my aunt. One morning she rang her daughter in ........ triumph. „I found .......
burglar under ....... bed ....... last night, „ she said., „ and he was quite ....... young man.
18 ...... apples are sold by ....... pound. These are forty pence ....... pound.
19 It was ..... windy morning but they hired ..... boat and went for ..... sail along ..... coast.
In ....... afternoon ....... wind increased and they soon found themselves in ....... difficulties.
41
Articles: Revision 2 A, an, the or – (nothing)
1 ...... diplomat is ...... person who can tell you to go to ...... hell in such ...... way that you
actually look forward to ...... trip.Caskie Stinnett
2 ...... dog is ...... only thing on ...... earth that loves you more than you love yourself.
Josh Billings
Russell Baker
3 ...... Americans like ...... fat books and ...... thin women.
4 ...... accountant is ...... man who is hired to explain that you didn‟t make ...... money you did.
Anonymous
5 ...... actor‟s ...... guy who, if you ain‟t talking about him, ain‟t listening.
Attributed to Marlon Brando
6 ...... optimist is someone who thinks ...... future is uncertain.
Anonymous
7 ...... death is ...... nature‟s way of telling you to slow down.
Anonymous
8 ...... diplomacy is ...... art of saying „nice doggie!‟ until you can find ...... stone. Wynn Catlin
Anonymous
9 ...... equality is ...... lie - ...... women are better.
10 ...... birds do it; ...... bees do it; even ...... educated fleas do it. Let‟s do it. Let‟s fall in ......
Anonymous
love.
11 I always pass on ...... good advice. It is ...... only thing to do with it. It is never any use to
oneself.Oscar Wilde
Oscar Wilde
12 I love ...... acting. It is so much more real than ...... life.
13 Never put anything on ...... paper, my boy, and never trust ...... man with ...... small black
moustache.P. G. Wodehouse
14 Nothing‟s illegal if ...... hundred businessmen decide to do it, and that‟s true anywhere
in ...... world.Andrew Young
15 Remember that as ...... teenager you are at ...... last stage in your life when you will be happy
Fran Lebowitz
to hear ...... phone is for you.
Anonymous
16 Save ...... water, shower with ...... friend.
17 When I was ...... boy of fourteen, my father was so ignorant I could hardly stand to have
...... old man around. But when I got to be twenty-one, I was astonished at how much
Mark Twain
he had learned in seven years.
18 Writing about ...... art is like dancing about ...... architecture.
KEY
1
2
3
4
5
a; a; -; a; the
a; the;- ; -; an; a; the
an; a
6
7
8
9
10
an; the
-; -; the; a
-; a; -; -; -; -
11
12
13
14
15
42
-; the
-; a; a
a; the
a; the; the
16
17
18
-; a
a; the
-; -
FAMOUS PEOPLE
1 Albert Einstein was ______ famous scientist
a / an / the / X (no article)
2 He was born in ______ Germany in 1879.
a / an / the / X
3 He won ______ Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.
a / an / the / X
4 Einstein left his country and lived in ______ until he died in 1955. a / an / the / X
5 He is known for his theory of ______ relativity.
a / an / the / X
6 Roentgen was ______ German physicist who discovered X-rays,
a / an / the / X
revolutionizing medical diagnosis.
7 Roentgen won ______ 1895 Nobel Prize.
a / an / the / X
8 Nelson Mandela was born in ______ South Africa.
a / an / the / X
9 He was ______ first President elected in South Africa after
a / an / the / X
______ apartheid was revoked.
a / an / the / X
10 He was imprisoned for ______ nearly 30 years for his anti-
a / an / the / X
apartheid activities.
11 Mother Theresa was ______ Roman catholic nun.
a / an / the / X
12 She became famous for her hard work with ______ poor.
a / an / the / X
13 She was ______ founder of ______ order of nuns called the
a ... an / a ... X / the ... X /
Missionaries of Charity.
the ... an
14 She lived in ______ Calcutta, India.
a / an / the / X
15 Mother Theresa received ______ her Nobel Prize in 1979.
a / an / the / X
KEY
1
2
3
4
5
a
X
the
the
X
6
7
8
9
10
a
the
X
the, X
X
11
12
13
14
15
43
a
the
the, an
X
X