Framework Programme 6
European Network of Excellence
ECCO
Ecosystems, biogeochemical Cycles, and global Change
in the anthropocene Ocean
Joint Programme of Activities
Draft
Coordinators : Louis Legendre (LOV, Villefranche-sur-mer, France),
and Paul Tréguer (IUEM, Brest, France)
23 April 2002
NofE : Joint Programme of Activities
ECCO will focus on new approaches of the feedbacks between global change
(i.e. climate change + coastal change) and marine ecosystems, as quantified by the
modifications of the cycles of biogenic elements (carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus,
silicon, iron, etc..) both in the oceanic and coastal domains (Figure 1). Marine ecosystems
herein mean planktonic ecosystems for the oceanic domain, as well as pelagic and benthic for
the coastal domain.
So ECCO will address two major issues:
-Issue 1: what are the feedbacks and interactions between marine ecosystems and
climate?
-Issue 2: how these cycles are changing due to anthropogenic effects?
Figure 1. ECCO: feedbacks and interactions between marine ecosystems and global change, as
quantified by the modifications of key biogeochemical cycles.
Component A : jointly executed research
…« activities conducted jointly by several or all participants, targeted towards
the long-term multidisciplinary objectives and emerging activities ».
Issues 1 and 2 will be first addressed through jointly executed multidisciplinary multiyear
programmes :
A-1-To better understand and predict the feedbacks and interactions between open
ocean ecosystems, biogeochemistry and global change:
A-1-1-the molecular biology approach (coordinator : Fréderic Partensky, OSU,
Roscoff, France)
A-1-2-the twilight zone approach : coupling/decoupling of biogeochemical cycles
between the surface and subsurface ocean : TO COME
A-1-3-the iron fertilisation approach : testing the biogeochemical option for carbon
sequestration in the ocean (coordinators : Victor Smetacek, AWI, Bremerhaven, Germany,
and Stéphane Blain, IUEM, Brest, France)
A-1-4-the interactive approach between modellers and experimentalists (coordinator :
Christiane Lancelot, ULB, Brussels, Belgium)
A2-To better understand and predict the feedbacks and interactions between coastal
ecosystems, biogeochemistry and global change :
A-2-1- the coupled pelagos-benthos approach (coordinator : Jack Middleburg,
NIOO,Yerseke, Netherlands) :
A-2-2-the interactions between biota and trace organic and inorganic contaminents
(coordinator : Joel Knoery, IFREMER/DEL, Nantes, France) :
A3-To better constrain the ocean paleoproductivity reconstructions : the multi-proxy
approach (Coordinator : Rajah Granesham, U. of Edinburgh, UK) :
A-1-To better understand and predict the feedbacks and interactions
between open ocean ecosystems, biogeochemistry and global change
A-1-1-The molecular biology approach (coordinator : Fréderic Partensky, OSU,
Roscoff, France)
The general objective of this programme is to better understand and quantify the role of microorganisms
which carry out most of the elemental cycling at the sea. Although the different microorganisms composing the
microbial community differ dramatically in their role in and contributions to biogeochemical cycling, traditional
methods for studying them do not allow the study of individual organisms or taxonomic groups. Recent
developments in molecular biology have, however, opened new possibilities in this respect. The newly
developed capacities for DNA sequencing of uncultured organisms, as well as the availability of full genomes
from ecologically relevant organisms, which should soon be completed by transcriptome and proteome studies,
all provide exciting new approaches to quantifying the ocean biota’s role in global biogeochemical cycling.
Already, the use of simple molecular techniques has led to significant advances in the characterization
of the dominant prokaryotic groups in different biogeochemical provinces. For example, the demonstration that
diazotrophic unicellular cyanobacteria are fairly abundant and active in oligotrophic waters (Zehr et al., 2001)
might, upon further study, result in a paradigm shift regarding marine nitrogen fixation. Likewise, the discovery
of ubiquitous phototrophic anoxygenic bacteria (Kolber et al., 2000; Béjà et al., 2002) and bacteriorhodopsin
(Béjà et al., 2000) in surface waters of oceans indicate that some new links between carbon and light utilization
may need to be studied as part of the marine carbon cycle. The identification and enumeration of organisms that
carry out key biogeochemical functions are critical to elaborating global elemental cycles. The knowledge of
how abiotic and biotic factors regulate the distribution and activity of microorganisms is vital to the development
of predictive climate-ocean linked biogeochemical models.
Molecular techniques also allow the scientist to approach biogeochemical cycling at the level of
function (i.e. the processes of interest) rather than at the more traditional trophic levels or size fractions. Thus, a
main focus of this programme will be to examine the biodiversity of marine microorganisms in terms of
ecosystem function, i.e. the role played by these organisms in geochemical cycling 1
European added value:
The potential advantages of working at a European rather than national level in the development and
application of molecular techniques to the study of marine biogeochemistry are several:


Coordination of effort in the identification and design of probes for taxonomic groups, functional groups,
functional genes or physiological status.
Promotion of interdisciplinary research by using complementary approaches to the study of a specific
biogeochemical pathway with molecular techniques and, for example, stable isotopes or biophysical
methods.
 Economic: Because of the high costs of molecular techniques and oceanographic field work, it is
important to coordinate sample collection, coverage of cruises, and promote sharing of DNA samples,
environmental libraries, probe and data banks.
 Technology transfer: Although the use of molecular methods in ecological and biogeochemical field
studies is still relatively rare, an increasing number of marine scientists are using molecular techniques
in their work. Coordination and exchanges between the individuals who are developing the relevant
methods and those who do not yet apply molecular techniques where appropriate will promote
development and transfer of standardized methods. Exchange of Masters and PhD students between the
groups participating in the proposed consortium will be an important mechanism for transfer of knowhow between different laboratories and countries.
. “Microorganism” is, here, defined as any organism that cannot be seen with the naked eye. This will
therefore include Archaea, bacteria and eukaryotes.
1 1
A-1-2-the twilight zone approach : coupling/decoupling of biogeochemical cycles
between the surface and subsurface ocean : TO COME
Process studies :
A-1-3-The iron fertilisation approach : testing the biogeochemical option for carbon
sequestration in the ocean (coordinators : Victor Smetacek, AWI, Bremerhaven,
Germany, and Stéphane Blain, IUEM, Brest, France) :
The general objective of this programme is to evaluate in a manner compatible with environmental and
ethical concerns , the feasibility, sustainability and impacts of carbon sequestration option using iron fertilisation
of the surface ocean (cf. ESF marine board : “towards a European marine research area”, dec 2000, page 31).
Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have fluctuated between 180 and 280 ppm in recurring
patterns covarying with air temperature over the 4 glacial-interglacial cycles of the past 400,000 years. The
sources and sinks and the nature of the dynamic balance maintaining a given CO2 concentration over prolonged
periods are open questions that pose a great challenge to integrated earth system science. Recent advances in
knowledge have identified the biosphere as a major player in the climate system and demonstrated coupling
mechanisms between terrestrial and ocean regions that are both potential sinks and sources of as well as checks
and balances on atmospheric CO2 concentrations. A complex array of physical, chemical and biological
processes appear to be involved that need to be elucidated at specific levels but within the context set by the
global system (Falkowski et al. 2000). Since the beginning of the industrial era, considerable amount of CO 2 has
been released in the atmosphere due to human activities. A part has been stored in ocean and terrestrial
biosphere. However the increase of CO 2 concentrations in the atmosphere is still large enough to induce a global
climate change, which will have large consequences for the environment and populations.
Facing the international effort for CO2 emission controls, ocean carbon sequestration is currently being
examining by a number of countries and private companies as a valuable alternative. Three options are
investigated for mitigating this atmospheric CO2 increase: (1) direct injection of CO2 into the deep ocean, (2)
production of calcium hydrogenocarbonate and dilution in the ocean., and (3) iron fertilisation of the surface
ocean. Chemistry and oceanic circulation are the main processes involved in the two first approaches which
mimic the physical pump of CO2 or the abiotic carbonate weathering and dissolution. In that sense, the efficiency
of these options is not directly related to biogeochemical processes (However both approaches will have
unknown impacts on the biogeochemical cycles in the ocean. For example deep disposal of CO 2 will change the
pH of seawater and also affect the seafloor organisms living in a relative invariant environment.
Hydrogenocarbonate dilution will alter the alkalinity of the ocean). In contrast, biogeochemistry is the corner
stone of the surface ocean fertilisation because this option proposed to store carbon in the deep ocean using a
stimulation of the efficiency of the oceanic biological pump of CO 2. Large-scale, artificial iron fertilisation of
the oceans and the Southern Ocean in particular is currently being considered as a means for sequestration of
anthropogenic carbon.
The societal relevance and urgency of a critical evaluation of this option in the global change context
cannot be overstated today. Although most scientists are apprehensive about the consequences of such geoengineering efforts (Chisholm et al. 2001) sound scientific data on the feasibility and risks are needed as the
basis for political decisions. The European nations must keep a sound expertise on this subject, to contribute and
have influence upon the international debate with other industrial nations (USA-Canada, Japan).
Biogeochemistry of the Southern Ocean: large gaps in our knowledge: the biological carbon pump in today´s
Southern ocean is operating below the rate set by upwelling of new nitrate or phosphate because a substantial
amount of these nutrients subduct unused in HNLC areas. If all the nitrate were converted to organic matter
before subduction, about a third of the glacial-interglacial deficit might be accounted for (Falkowski et al. 1998).
It is now well established that the phytoplankton of the concentric zones of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current
are deficient in iron and that addition of this element significantly increases their growth rate. Information from
ice cores and sediments indicate massive dust-mediated iron input to the Southern Ocean during glacial periods
(Petit et al. 1999) and there is evidence that production levels were indeed higher (Kumar et al. 1993). Hence
there is no doubt that the Southern Ocean represents a significant potential sink for CO 2 in the past, hence also
future ocean.
The role of potential sink for CO2 of the southern ocean is the base of the biogeochemical carbon
sequestration option. However the prediction of the efficiency and impact of large scale fertilisation of the
southern ocean is still largely uncertain because of large gaps and discrepancies in our current understanding of
biogeochemistry in this ocean. for example, discrepancies between global estimation of carbon export derived
from satellite data and inverse modelling, discrepancies between the global biogeochemical oceanic models
when predicting the response of the southern ocean to the global climate change. This is mainly due to under
sampling in space and time (see gaps in interpolation pCO2 Takahashi’s map in the Southern Ocean) and to
incomplete knowledge of individual biogeochemical processes and complex interplay between all of them.
Europe will be impacted by the Southern Ocean fertilisation: in addition to global carbon cycle, other
biogeochemical cycles will be impacted by iron fertilisation. For example it has been pointed out that emissions
of other climate reactive gas (DMS or NO2) may be enhanced following fertilisation, with unknown effects on
climate at global and regional scale. The fertilisation will not only impact the biogeochemistry of the Southern
Ocean. Successful fertilisation will consume most of the major nutrients in the southern ocean. Consequently
primary production will decrease in other region of the ocean and will impact oceanic resources, with important
implications for society.
This programme comprises coordinated implementation plans (2003-2006) linked to SOLAS, for
studying and modelling the impacts of (1) artificial iron fertilisation experiments in the Atlantic sector (V.
Smetacek, AWI, coordinator), and of (2) natural iron fertilisation occurring in the wake of the Crozet islands
(Raymond Pollard, SOC, coordinator), and in the Kerguelean Plateau area (Stéphane Blain, IUEM, coordinator).
European added value:
A already long history of successful European cooperation in the Antarctic Ocean (cf. EPOS, CARUSO,
EISENEX, …), as well as access to basis of European nations in the Atlantic and in the Indian sectors of the
Southern Ocean will facilitate :
-shared expertise of top-level scientists to study and model the cycles of C, N, Si, and Fe,
-shared participation in multiship cruises (Polarstern, Discovery, Marion-Dufresne, others).
A-1-4-The interactive approach between modellers and experimentalists (coordinator :
Christiane Lancelot, ULB, Brussels, Belgium)
The general objective of this programme is to overcome the difficulties that limit progresses in
biogeochemical models of the global ocean for better simulating and predicting the feedbacks and interactions
between marine ecosystems and global change.
Biogeochemical models are evolving conceptual tools integrating the current knowledge of ecosystem
functioning. For this reason they are powerful tools for basic research pointing new research requirements as
derived from both comparison between model results and observations and model sensitivity analyses. When
validated these models can be used to better understand the dynamics of the ecosystem and the related
biogeochemical cycles and their response to climatic and human variability. Beside, validated models can be
used as prediction tool for guiding environmental management.
Biogeochemical models describe C cycling and associated biogenic elements through aggregated
chemical and biological compartments (state variables) of the marine ecosystem that evolve in a physical
environment. The state variables are defined on a functional basis. Nowadays ocean biogeochemical models are
numerous and cover a variety of spatial and trophic complexities. The trophic resolution needed to properly
simulate the functioning of marine ecosystems is still lively debated among the community of modellers with
biologists in favour of complex ecological model (20-40 biological state variables) embedded in a simple OD/1D
frame and physicist advocating for a simple tractable 3D representation (3-12 state variables) often expressed in
nitrogen or phosphorus units. Simple ecological model benefit from analysis of the complex one. Process
parameterisation of the latter can be derived from process-level studies under laboratory-controlled conditions
and calibration can be conducted through application where relevant time-series are available. Such approach is
currently developed in several biogeochemical models managed by members of the NofE. In these models five
phytoplankton functional groups (pico/nanophytoplankton, diatoms, coccolithophores, Phaeocystis colonies, N2fixing) have been recognised as important for describing carbon and associated biogenic elements (N, P, Si, Fe)
cycling in the upper ocean. We can already identify the following key elements limiting progress in
biogeochemical modelling:
-Skill at defining properly plankton functional groups (how many key plankton species?; how many
bacteria consortia?)
-Skill at conceptualising key processes at a mechanistic level and their reliable parameterisation
-Skill at reproducing ocean physics (representation of small scale mixing)
-Ability to validate model behaviour throughout model-data comparison.
To improve the models this programme will organise interactions between modellers and
experimentalists (Figure 1, see below). This include process studies during field studies , mesocosms and batch
culture experiments (also see A-1-1 and A-1-3), access to time-series (also see Component B), etc…
European added value
-Conceptual approach and cross combination of expertise in ecophysiology and modeling,
- Identification of new research requirement,
- Improved design of monitoring strategies,
- Mathematical tool for guiding environmental management,
- Training of students in both field and laboratory experimentation and modeling. Too often modelers
have no idea of what system they are modeling.
Figure 1-Interactions between modellers and experimentalists in marine biogeochemistry
Laboratory
studies
Conceptual
modules
mesocosms
Calibration
& optimization
var
Time-series
Physical
model
Ecological
model
3D-Ocean biogeochemical model
Monitoring stations
re
‘proxies’Reconstruction
export production
Remote sensing
Laboratory
studies
A2-To better understand and predict the feedbacks and interactions
between coastal ecosystems, biogeochemistry and global change
A-2-1-The coupled pelagos-benthos approach (coordinator : Jack Middleburg,
NIOO,Yerseke, Netherlands) :
Coastal aspects of the feedbacks and interactions between marine ecosystems and global change
Despite its relatively modest surface area, the coastal zone plays a considerable role in the biogeochemical
cycles because it:
-receives massive inputs of terrestrial organic matter and nutrient through run-off and groundwater
discharge
-exchanges large amounts of matter and energy with the open ocean. For instance, the coastal zone is an
important site of excess DOC production, which is subsequently exported to the open ocean, where it then
provides an important organic matter subsidy fueling oceanic food webs
-constitutes one of the most geochemically and biologically active areas of the biosphere. For example, it
accounts for 14-30% of the oceanic primary production, 80% of organic matter burial, 90% of sedimentary
mineralization, 75-90% of the oceanic sink of suspended river load and ca. 50% of the deposition of calcium
carbonate. Many coastal deposits are being remobilized repetitively at various time-scales (daily, seasonal,
annual or millennial) and in that way exchange material across time-scales.
The coastal zone is exploited extensively and most vulnerable to human impact and global change:
-it represents 90% of the world fish catch and its overall economic value has been recently estimated as
43% of the value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital.
-it is also the area of greatest human impact on the marine environment since approximately 37% of the
human population presently live within 100 km of the coastline and the anthropogenic pressure is increasing
steadily.
-it is perhaps the fastest changing biome in the biosphere, with these changes (sea level rise, urbanization,
eutrophication, habitat destruction, etc.) having important consequences for the biogeochemical functioning of
the biosphere
The coastal zone has many unique features that are not present in the open ocean. This requires a revision
of concepts and approaches that have developed in the open ocean.
-Benthic primary producers including seagrass meadows, macroalgal beds and microalgae dispersed on the
seabed inhabit the coastal zone. Benthic primary production may rival pelagic primary production in the coastal
zone and constitute a major food source for heterotrophic including harvested resources. The benthic primary
production is not included in most published global marine carbon budgets.
-Carbonate production in the open ocean is considerably dominated by pelagic organisms, many of which
are autotrophs. Conversely, carbonate production is primarily benthic in coastal environments and heterotrophs,
some of them grown for human consumption, play a role significantly larger than in the open ocean.
-In the open ocean there is more-or-less a one-way interaction between benthic and pelagic systems since
benthic systems can only influence the pelagic on the time scale of bottom-water renewal (>100 yr.). However,
in shallow, well-mixed waters there is intense and direct two-way interaction between the two systems and we
are only beginning to evaluate the consequences for their mutual functioning.
European added values:
1-The need for an integrative approach to study the biogeochemical consequences of tight, two-way benthicpelagic coupling in shallow waters.
In shallow shelf environments the sediments are an important site for biogeochemical processes,
production as well as regeneration and transformation processes. The relative importance of pelagic versus
benthic biogeochemical pathways depends on water depth, the hydrodynamics, the structure of the pelagic and
benthic ecosystems and life cycle patterns of the organisms involved. Sediment is important for the
mineralization of organic matter and the recycling of nutrients and contaminants. The timing, amount and
freshness of the organic matter delivered to the sediment have important consequences for the structure of
benthic communities and the biogeochemistry of the sediment. This, in turn, affects the timing and magnitude of
sediment nutrient flux and oxygen demand. Benthic recycling of nutrients often causes a delay relative to pelagic
recycling of nutrients and as such may lead to attenuated, but prolonged blooms. European biogeochemists
should join efforts to better understand and model the drastic change in time scale from the meteorological
forcing (hourly resolution) via the daily scale response in pelagic processes and stocks (primary production,
chlorophyll a) to the monthly to yearly scale sediment response. This requires novel approaches in sampling and
measuring strategies as well as coupled biogeochemical models for the pelagic and benthic domains. The
significance of benthic processes for coastal ocean biogeochemistry is clearly reflected in water-column pCO2
values and thus CO2 exchange across the sea-air interface: partial pressures of carbon dioxide increase upon
shallowing of coastal systems.
The presence of a benthic compartment also implies that some algal loss terms have to be included in
order to understand algal dynamics and its biogeochemical consequences. Many coastal systems comprise sandy
sediments that are permeable to flow with the consequence that they act as filter beds for (algae in) the
watercolumn. Also benthic suspension feeders have high clearance rates and they function the whole year
(unlike micro and mesozooplankton that need to build up biomass in response to food availability). The relative
importance of and mechanisms governing these algal loss terms relative to the ones studied by pelagic scientists
(lysis, zooplankton grazing, etc) is not well known. A combined enterprise of pelagic and benthic biogeochemist
will be required.
There is considerable debate whether the coastal ocean is autotrophic or heterotrophic and related to
this, whether the coastal ocean is a source or sink of atmospheric carbon dioxide. A European Network for
Marine Biogeochemistry could provide the vehicle for focused research to address this question and in particular
could initiate and support studies on the processes governing the metabolic balance of the coastal ocean and how
it will change due to human impact and global change. While there is almost universal agreement that inner
estuaries are heterotrophic systems that emit large quantities of climate active gases, the metabolic status of other
systems remains to be investigated, on the longer term as well as on the short term. Relationships between the
metabolic states and environmental parameters such water depth, water residence time and nutrient loading have
to be elucidated.
Human have and will continue to affect the functioning of coastal ecosystem and consequent
biogeochemical cycles. Illustrative examples of direct and indirect human influences on coastal biogeochemistry
include eutrophication, the introduction of exotic species and harvesting of shellfish. A primary focus of coastal
science during the past 3 decades has been the question: How does anthropogenic nutrient enrichment cause
change in the structure or function of coastal ecosystems? Most studies have been limited to changing nutrient
input as a signal, and responses to that signal as increased phytoplankton biomass and primary production,
decomposition of phytoplankton-derived organic matter, and enhanced depletion of oxygen from bottom waters.
However there are many more compelling questions to be answered and the ENEMB would contribute to this.
How do system-specific attributes constrain or amplify the responses of coastal ecosystems to nutrient
enrichment? How does nutrient enrichment interact with other stressors (toxic contaminants, fishing harvest,
aquaculture, nonindigenous species, habitat loss, climate change, hydrologic manipulations) to change coastal
ecosystems? How does human-induced change in the coastal zone impact the Earth system as habitat for
humanity and other species? How can a deeper scientific understanding of the coastal eutrophication problem be
applied to develop tools for building strategies at ecosystem restoration or rehabilitation?
Although the organic and inorganic carbon cycles contribute about equally to the global coastal carbon
cycle, almost all studies of temperate coastal systems are restricted to the organic carbon cycle. Benthic
carbonate production by heterotrophs has received little attention, though it can be dominant in coastal
environments showing high biomass of calcified organisms (coral reefs, molluscs, tubicolous polychaetes,
barnacles, echinoderms). Carbonate production causes a release of carbon dioxide. Human directly interfere with
this part of the coastal carbon cycle through shellfish harvesting and introduction of exotic calcifying species.
There is a clear need to revisit carbon budgets in the European coastal zone (bays and estuaries), taking benthic
carbonate production into account. The large databases available in Europe for coastal systems and shellfish
stocks in particular provide the opportunity to estimate coastal carbonate production at the continental scale.
2-The need for a concerted effort in sedimentary biogeochemistry
Marine surface sediments are where the biosphere and the geosphere meet and where the approaches of
bioscientists and geoscientists are confronted. They cover the transition in time scale from rapid biological (< 10
years) to slow geological processes (>1000 years) and as such determine the response of the ocean and system
Earth to perturbations at intermediate time scales. Geoscientists traditionally focus on the role of surface
sediments in moderating fluxes: e.g. they study sediment-water exchange of matter and modification of
deposited material before burial (i.e. early diagenetic alteration of the sedimentary record). Bioscientists focus on
the diversity, density and biomass of organisms living in surface sediments (benthic ecology) and have made
significant progress in elucidating the factors structuring benthic communities.
The organic matter arriving at the sediment surface drives early diagenetic reactions and constitutes the
main supply for heterotrophic bacteria and fauna. Biogeochemists are mainly interested in the quantification of
transfer from organic to inorganic pools (organic matter mineralisation), while ecologists focus on the
conversion of carbon from one pool to another pool (the food web) with respiratory losses being used for closure
of the balance. Both approaches have evident shortcomings that surface when they are confronted: e.g. the
neglect of animal respiration and carbon assimilation by biogeochemists and the neglect of differences in
sedimentary carbon availability, composition and degradability by ecologists. The ENEMB provides a unique
opportunity to reconcile the biogeochemical and ecological approaches to carbon processing in sediments
through the combination of expertise, technologies and approaches. For instance, organic geochemists could
provide a detailed characterisation of sedimentary organic matter so that ecologist will learn more about the food
availability and nutritional value to benthic organisms. The structure of benthic food webs differs among
environments and this does affect the carbon processing efficiency and kinetics. This link between benthic
biodiversity (in terms of microbial diversity and ecological diversity) and biogeochemical fluxes has yet to be
explored.
Ninety-percent of European Union countries have coastline, and the majority of this coastline consists
of a sandy land-ocean boundary. Nevertheless, almost all our knowledge on sediment biogeochemistry is based
on the study of muddy coastal and deep-sea sediments. These sandy, coastal sediments produce the most
productive fishing grounds, are sources for a variety of raw materials (oil, gas, water, and minerals), form
recreational beaches, and thus, include socio-economically-important regions. Recent publications revealed that
the contribution of permeable sands in the coastal cycles of matter may be vastly underestimated. Organic-poor
shelf sands may be as active as muddy sediments, fluxes of oxygen and nutrients can reach similar magnitudes,
but high pore-water transport rates in these permeable sediments limit depletion of oxygen and accumulation of
solutes in the pore water. The organic matter and nutrient pools in near-shore sands are rather low, which led to
the erroneous impression among scientists and coastal managers that these sediments are biogeochemically
inactive. This misconception may be the reason why a) research efforts addressing permeable sands were
relatively small, b) investigation methods and techniques are not well developed and c) quantitative data on the
functioning of this ecosystem are very limited (Boudreau et al., 2001). The oceanographic community has
recently realized this lack of knowledge and the Scientific Committee on Ocean Research (SCOR) has installed a
working group devoted to "Transport and reaction in permeable sediments" (www.scor-wg114.de)
SCOR has also recently installed a working group on the "Magnitude of submarine groundwater
discharge and its influence on coastal oceanographic processes" (www.jhu.edu/~scor/wg112.htm). Hydraulic
gradients cause submarine groundwater seepage in the coastal zone, and it has been proposed that in some case
this seepage may have an important impact on the biogeochemistry and biology in the coastal zone. The flux of
groundwater now is recognized as an important pathway for material from the land to the ocean. The chemical
reactions occurring when groundwater flows through the sediment increase its concentration of solutes, and the
release of this water from the sediment, thus, can be a significant source of nutrients, trace metals, CO2 etc.
Europe is heavily populated and its agricultural activities are very intensive with the result that the nitrogen
loading of ground waters is very high. The fate of this agricultural derived nitrogen groundwater input into
marine systems is not known and requires co-operation among marine biogeochemists and hydrologists.
Another area of coastal biogeochemistry urging European wide co-operation concerns the assessment of pore
water release from cold seeps on its consequences for biogeochemical processes in the coastal zone. At
subduction zones the oceanic crust pushes the continental crust downward thereby continuously compressing and
dewatering sediments. The resulting pore water flux releases large amounts of dissolved substances to the
overlying water. Although the cold seeps may play an important role in the oceanic cycles of matter their
contribution to the biogeochemical cycles of matter is not understood.
3-The need for a NofE that includes the coastal zone and in particular benthic-pelagic coupling and sedimentary
biogeochemistry
To be effective, these problems need to be addressed simultaneously on a European level. The impact of
the joint effort will be greater than the sum of impacts of uncoordinated, temporally scattered national projects
and maximize the thrust for a European-wide research on coastal biogeochemistry. A wide array of
investigations ranging from biogeochemical analyses and molecular biological testing to hydrodynamical
measurements has to be engaged. This can only be accomplished by the interdisciplinary combination of
complementary expertise and resources available Europe-wide in different organizations and the establishment
of a critical mass in human and financial terms. National institutions have accumulated a wealth of historical
information on the composition and biogeochemical processes in the coastal zone. Bringing together this
knowledge and the expertise available at these institutions will have a multiplicative effect and facilitate an indepth assessment of the processes governing biogeochemistry of coastal systems.
The main reason for a co-ordinated European approach of these topics was formulated by the EU
Commission's Demonstration Programme on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). Coastal zones
are home to a large percentage of European citizens and the location of many endangered habitats. At the same
time coastal zones are seriously affected by habitat destruction, water contamination and resource depletion.
According to the ICSM investigations, the inter-related biological, physical and human problems that presently
threaten the European coastal zones can be traced to a lack of knowledge, inappropriate and uncoordinated laws,
a failure to involve stakeholders, and a lack of co-ordination. (Proposal for a European Parliament and Council
Recommendation concerning the implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe COM
(2000)). A prerequisite for the protection of an environment is a thorough mechanistic understanding of its
functioning, the factors affecting the ecosystem and how it is linked to the adjacent environments. A European
Network of Excellence in Marine Biogeochemistry would be a powerful tool to improve co-ordination in
research and the exchange of information.
4-The need for a NofE that promotes a better integration of the modelling and observational/experimental
community (also see A-1-2) :
The art of biogeochemical modeling is to reach the optimal balance between model complexity and
feasibility and between detail and perfection in physics on the one and biocomplexity on the other hand. Early
integrative model attempts such as European Regional Seas Ecosystem Models (ERSEM) resulted in too
much complexity in biology at the expense of physical reality, model validation with real data and its explorative
nature. Ocean Biology General Circulation Models (OBGCM) are at the other extreme with biology sometimes
being limited to P*Redfield to arrive at the production or consumption of carbon and oxygen. There is no a
priori, or evident, optimal balance between physical and biological complexity. It depends on the time and
spatial scale at hand, the (observational and experimental) data available and the objectives being addressed.
What is required to further the field however, is a generation of biogeochemists understanding the ins and outs of
modeling as well as experiments/observations. Terms like nudging and nesting are among the vocabulary of
biogeochemical modelers, but the majority of observational scientist do not appreciate or understand these terms.
Similarly, quite some modelers have no idea, feeling or appreciation for the biocomplexity of the real world.
There is clearly EU added value in training future generation of biogeochemists and transferring knowledge and
technology among partners and countries.
Reference
Boudreau, B. P., Huettel, M., Froster, S., Jahnke, R. A., McLachlan, A., Middelburg, J. J., Nielsen, P., Sansone,
F., Taghon, G., Van Raaphorst, W., Webster, I., Weslawski, J. M., Wiberg, P. & Sundby, B. (2001)
Permeable marine sediments: overturning an old paradigm. EOS, 82, 133-136.
A-2-2-The interactions between biota and trace organic and inorganic contaminents
(coordinator : Joel Knoery, IFREMER/DEL, Nantes, France) :
This programme deals with metals and compounds whose cycles in the marine environment are
anthropogenically impacted (“contaminants”). While their impact is stronger closer to the source, i.e., in coastal
waters, it is essential to examine and understand the biogeochemistry of these elements and compounds at
concentrations as close as possible to their background or natural levels. Indeed, it is their behaviour at “natural”
levels which determines their ultimate fate. Hence, contaminant biogeochemistry is concerned with processes
occurring in the marine environment in a natural state and uses scientific approaches, tools and paradigms
identical to that of carbon and nutrients biogeochemistry.
Numerous metals are oligo-elements which have an essential part in the regulation of all marine
ecosystems, themselves having a strong effect on global processes like climate regulation. Key steps in the
biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur are catalysed by metalloenzymes that
depend on the intracellular concentrations of certain trace metals. For an example and particularly for primary
production, metal concentration ranges for optimal growth are relatively narrow, and deleterious effects can be
observed at low or high concentrations. This has been recognised in the late 80’s for iron in pelagic
environments; similarly nowadays the effects of zinc availability on phytoplankton assemblages are under
increasingly close scrutiny. The influence of eutrophication and high phytoplankton biomass on biogeochemical
cycles of persistent synthetic organic compounds (e.g., chlorinated hydrocarbons like PCB) matter for their
diffusive air-water exchange, water column vertical fluxes, accumulation and sequestration by sediments. These
key processes control the dynamic fates, phytoplankton concentrations and food web distribution of these
persistent compounds. On the other hand the interactions of some biocides compounds (such as herbicides) can
also impact plankton speciation by favouring the growth of even slightly more resistant species and thus trigger
changes in food web structures. Furthermore, other metals and compounds with no known biological activity
can also have deleterious or toxic effects upon ecosystems. At one extreme and of immediate concern for
humans is the possibility of bioconcentration, bioaccumulation and even bioamplification within the food webs.
Hence, it is necessary to fully appraise the baseline and dystrophic statuses of metals and man-made
compounds which affect marine ecosystems, notably phytoplankton. Our approach parallels that of marine
biogeochemistry and aims at understanding the sources, fates and impacts of these compounds, in order to obtain
fluxes and mass balances at different time scales, to examine their transfers and behaviour between
biogeochemical reservoirs. In addition, within a given reservoir, accurate understanding of the speciation is
essential. In many cases for metals, it is the free ion which interacts with the biota. Free ion levels depend
notably on the extent of chelation, adsorption, and redox state of the metal. In turn, the biota exudes more
soluble for instance hydroxylated compounds or elements which chelate, adsorb, oxidise/reduce ions. The
neutral hydrophobic organic compounds interact and tend to partition into living or detritic organic matter
reservoirs. Their bioavailability is largely controlled by their hydrophobic interactions and lipophilic properties.
Biota and “contaminant” cycling are thus linked together, which should appear in the comprehensive modelling
of ecosystems (phytoplankton). In addition, the appraisal of the status and trends of “contaminants” will provide
an additional perspective along which to examine changes in phytoplankton assemblages observed in the coastal
environment.
The previous paragraph shows that biota and trace contaminants are tightly related. Anthropogenic
perturbations on trace contaminant cycles accompany perturbations in nutrient cycling. Important excesses in
nutrient fluxes brought into an ecosystem, observed more easily in semi-enclosed seas, direct links to climatic
factors are established. For an example, denitrification in eutrophied areas has a bearing on the emission of
radiatively important trace gases like nitrous oxide. Similarly, changes in plankton assemblages mediated by
anthropogenic impact can enhance the emission of sulfur gases, also radiatively important.
Implementation :
As mentioned above, the scientific approach that will be used duplicates the one proven marine
biogeochemistry. Mass balance is a tool of biogeochemistry used to model processes affecting individual
compounds. This approach needs to be applied at different scales (temporal and spatial) in order to examine
transfers between geochemical compartments and their mediators (can we describe the role of biota, of other
hydrological parameters like stratification, air/sea exchange, ?…).
Research themes which could be undertaken include:
- examination of the influence of a shift in the pycnocline, of the redox-cline in selected environments
with respect to release of redox-sensitive materials (of great pertinence in the Baltic sea)
- metals and their speciation with respect to primary productivity, carbon cycling;
- persistent organic compounds and their speciation with respect to primary productivity, carbon
cycling, air/water exchange, vertical fluxes;
- examination of the influence of growth rates dilution and seasonality in bioaccumulation of persistent
organic compounds;
- mercury as a pervasive contaminant in marshy coastal environments
- process study of Iberian Pyrite Belt estuaries and the input of metals in coastal ocean, follow up into
the NE Atlantic ocean and Mediterranean Sea;
- influence of sediment/water interface, organic matter preservation in eutrophic, mesotrophic and
oligotrophic, environments on organic contaminants accumulation and sequestration by sediments - degradation
of synthetic organic compounds under different hydrochemical regimes (water/sediments, oxic/anoxic,
meridional (warm)/northern (cold)…);
- examine the potential links between historical records of “contaminants” in marine waters and
phytoplankton assemblages,
- baseline description on chemical contamination of coastal waters (organics, metals+speciation,
“emerging substances”.
European added value
This activity programme aims at developing collaboration between partners in order to express synergy
and key in with the other units within the network. Laboratories concerned in biogeochemistry of
“contaminants” in Europe could greatly benefit from pooling their resources and addressing common research
projects.
Participation to this programme encourages collaboration and dissemination of scientific and technical
excellence in marine biogeochemistry of trace “contaminants”. Beyond the practice of marine biogeochemistry,
laboratories in newly (nearly) associated states will be rapidly brought up to speed on critical aspects of the
discipline. The existence of biogeochemistry of “contaminants” also signals that NofE is considering water
quality issues which are relatively high on the social demand priority list. The integration of laboratories
already working together in member and soon-to-be member states is a small step toward political integration.
A3-To better constrain the ocean paleoproductivity reconstructions : the
multi-proxy approach
(Coordinator : Rajah Granesham, U. of Edinburgh, UK) :
1. Rationale: marine sediments are archives of the past functioning of ocean-climate system in relation to
changes in the biogeochemical state of the ocean. Deciphering these records can provide unique perspectives on
the function of the earth's biogeochemical systems that modern process studies are unlikely to provide. Examples
include: (1) functioning of earth systems in changing time domains under differing boundary conditions ;
(2)Detection of the sensitivity of system components to climate change; (3) Time-scale of responses to forcing
functions ; (4) Cause and effect through lead-lags in system processes
Thus, reconstructing the past biogeochemical states of the ocean is fundamental in answering one of the key
question in predicting the extent and nature of future global change, namely, "What is the precise nature of the
ocean's role in controlling climate change?" (Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC).
Potentially, pre-instrumental ocean properties can be reconstructed from naturally-occurring biological,
geochemical and sedimentological indicators preserved in sea floor deposits (collectively known as proxies).
Available information shows that significant changes did occur in the biogeochemical state of the ocean on
century to millennial time scales. Sedimentary archives record past changes in productivity, nutrient cycles and
inventories, sediment redox, terrestrial inputs, surface and deep ocean circulation, sea surface temperatures, wind
patterns and sedimentary remains of plankton assemblages. Quantifying and clarifying these changes are
necessary to achieve a holistic understanding of the factors controlling global climate and essential to predict the
impact of future changes in the earth’s environment due to impact of anthropogenic green house gases.
However, progress towards developing a coherent scenario that could explain past changes in the
biogeochemical states of the ocean has been hindered by uncertainties in the interpretation of existing proxies. In
addition, current studies highlight the importance of biogeochemical processes for which no proxies exist. Thus,
it is imperative that future efforts focus on developing new proxies for key biogeochemical and ecological
functions identified through modern studies while refining the calibration of existing ones.
2. Objectives:
The goals of the working group within the NofE encompass the objectives outlined in the summary of the PaleoJGOFS Joint Task Team (PJTT) meeting in Hamburg 13/14 June 2000.
(1) To target planned biogeochemical and ecosystem studies in providing new insights in interpreting
sedimentary records of past functioning of ocean biogeochemical systems.
(2) In turn, the accurate and more robust interpretation of sedimentary records will extend the temporal baseline
of biogeochemical time series observations to better gauge anthropogenic perturbations against natural
variability.
(3) To construct paleoceanographic time-series for ecosystem responses and biogeochemical processes
operating in time scale longer than ocean mixing.
(4) To promote synergy between modern processes studies and paleo-proxy development and calibration
(5) To develop through paleo-records the frame work of testing hypotheses derived from modern process
studies by documenting how these processes responded under different boundary conditions.
3. Work Plan:
3.1 Refining and developing paleoceanograhic proxies
A wide range of sedimentary proxies (geochemical and micropaleontological) has been proposed to
reconstruct past changes in key oceanic processes. These include proxies
- for physical properties of surface and deep water (temp., salinity, density)
e.g. δ18O, Mg/Ca in calcite, UK37, microfossil assemblages.
- for nutrient concentration and utilisation
e.g. δ 13C, Cd/Ca, Ba/Ca in foraminifera; δ30Si in diatoms, δ15N
- for export production (quantity and quality)
e.g. Corg, opal, P, carbonate, Ba, and biomarkers accumulation rates/Th-normalised rain rates;
radionuclide/elemental scavenged ratios; authigenic metals concentration, microfossil assemblages.
- for deep water circulation and carbonate parameters
e.g. δ13C, δ14C, Cd/Ca, Ba/Ca in benthic foraminifera; B isotopes radionuclide/elemental scavenged
ratios, sediment redox proxies (U, Mo etc.)
The interpretation of most of these proxies is still associated with large uncertainties and the limits of their
applicability must be more rigorously evaluated. At present, the relationships between proxies and ocean
properties are usually derived statistically. The danger with these empirical relationships is that they maybe valid
only within the restricted parameter space of their calibration. Unequivocal interpretation of a proxy record
requires a mechanistic understanding of the processes that control its formation and its preservation in the fossil
archives. This can only be achieved by integrating process studies, field data bases and modelling, an approach
that needs to be applied to a wide and growing range of proxies including siliceous, calcareous and organic
microfossils, biomarkers, isotopes and geochemical markers. In addition, the importance of key oceanic
processes are continuing to be highlighted. Currently, reliable proxies are lacking for some these processes, e.g.
nitrogen fixation, changes in plankton communities, atmospheric input of iron, inputs from terrestrial sources
and the shelves, and changes in components of the higher food chain. New proxies need to be developed to
reconstruct the historical changes of these key processes in relation climate change. Biomarkers and molecular
genetic are two new tools that are particularly promising for identifying changes in the biological components,
which warrant further development.
3.2 Understanding the role of ocean biogeoechemistry cycles in global environmental change
The air-sea exchanges of CO2 and the associated greenhouse warming is dictated by the carbonate chemistry
of the surface ocean, which is itself controlled by the solubility (temperature), biological (organic carbon) and
alkalinity pumps. In turn, the efficiency of these pumps changes in response to climate forcing. The challenge
lies in detecting and quantifying the key pathways and processes leading to CO2 sequestration via alkalinity,
solubility and biological pump, or outgassing at the ocean basin scale. The long-term carbon budget (i.e. on a
millennial time scale is dominated by cross thermocline transport, remineralisation and burial processes.
Uncertainties exist concerning the impact of anthropogenic CO 2 on 1) calcification and the alkalinity pump and
on 2) phytoplankton assemblages and export from the euphotic zone into deeper, sub-thermocline waters, and on
3) the effect of ocean warming and insolation on degassing of methane from margin sediments and CO 2 during
upwelling, and on (4) the effects of indirect feedbacks from of nutrient cycles through alterations in the redox
state of the ocean, and on 5) the cross shelf and land to sea fluxes of carbon and associated elements (Framework
for Future Research, IGBP/SCOR).
-
Potential research topics for the future include:
The role of ecosystem shifts (siliceous, calcareous and other non-skeletal primary production) in
influencing surface water pCO2 and the efficiency of carbon transfer to the deep ocean.
The overall stability and variability of marine ecosystems in response to climatic changes.
The influence of physical forcing (including atmospheric forcing) on primary production and crossthermocline nutrient transport on time scales exceeding those of direct observation.
The role of atmospheric inputs, such as iron and other trace elements acting as micronutrients, on time
scales consistent with variation in continental aridity and insolation-induced meteorological forcing.
The effect of terrestrial inputs (mineral loads...) on vertical transport efficiency.
The effect of the hydrological water balance (E-P) and terrestrial run-off in driving oceanic ecosystem
changes affecting export flux of carbon and other biolimiting elements.
The response of major oceanic biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen and phosphorus, (eg. nitrogen fixation and
denitrification) to climatic perturbations.
The impact of changes in sea ice cover on oceanic gas exchange and productivity
The impact of sea level changes on land to ocean carbon fluxes and cross shelf carbon fluxes
The impact of ocean warming on the redox state of sub-thermocline waters and margin sediments
European Added Value: TO COME
References
1) Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC)) http://ioc.unesco.org/goos/GOOS_str_pl.htm#def).
2) Summary of the first Paleo-JGOFS Joint Task Team (PJTT) of the IGBP core projects PAGES-IMAGES
and JGOFS, Hamburg, 13/14 June 2000.
Framework for Future Research on Biological and Chemical Aspects of Global Change in the Ocean,
IGBP/(SCOR, UNESCO, January, 2002)
Component B : integrating activities
…« aimed at bringing about the restructuring and reshaping of how the participants carry out
research on the topic considered directly targeted at the creation of a strong and lasting
integration of the activities of the network members »
Beyond specific programmes that directly address the two major issues of the NofE
(see Component A), the members of ECCO decide to strenghten complementary between the
research units that compose the NofE and to benefit of mutual specialisation.
The integrating programme of the JPA comprises :
1-The organisation of an European contribution to the Global Observing Systems
2-The share of infrastructures
3-The creation of a Doctoral School on Marine Biogeochemistry
4-The organisation of staff mobility and exchanges
B-1-Organising a European contribution to Global Observing Systems
(GOS)
« The world ocean plays a major role in a large number of processes occurring at the surface of the
earth. It influences the human environment and in turn is impacted by human pressure. However, despite more
than a century of detailed scientific study, there exists as yet no internationally coordinated system to observe
the ocean continuously and systematically on a global scale, to define the common elements of regional marine
environmental problems or to provide data and products on which collective national response can be built, and
on which the traditional and new marine-related industries can be advanced responsibly and cost-effectively ».
Recognizing these needs the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
called in 1992 for the creation of a global system of ocean observations to enable effective and sustainable
management and development of seas and oceans, and prediction of future change . Access to such a system will
enable us to answer one of the fundamental questions of the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change
(IPCC), namely: what is the precise nature of the ocean's role in controlling climate change? ” (GOOS:
http://ioc.unesco.org/goos/GOOS_str_pl.htm#def )
B-1-1-Biogeochemical GOS measurements from platforms (coordinator : Doug Wallace,
IFM, Bremen, Germany ) :
This part of the proposal discusses prospects and opportunities for biogeochemical measurements on
global scales. As such, the strategies, platforms and techniques discussed are restricted to those that provide
geographically-widespread information covering at least three dimensions: (i.e. at least three of latitude,
longitude, depth, time). Fixed-point time-series sites which cover two dimensions (depth, time) are discussed in
part B-1-2 and B-1-3. Sensor development, which is a critical component of the development of Global
Observing Systems is covered by B-1-4.
Needs and Status.
In the context of global environmental change there is a steadily increasing need to observe our global
environment for both its physical climate system but also, increasingly, for parameters relating to biodiversity
and biogeochemistry (e.g. the carbon cycle). Motivations for such observations are emerging from concern over
climate change but also as a result of international agreements concerning controlling future atmospheric CO 2
levels (Kyoto), ozone levels (Montreal and subsequent protocols) and biodiversity.
Observations of the ocean or over the oceans are central to most such international agreements. For
example:
 the ocean plays a major role for the fate of anthropogenic CO2 emissions to the atmosphere,
 the biodiversity of the oceans is threatened as a result of pollution, climate change, fishing pressure, changes
in surface water pH resulting from increased pCO2, etc.
 measurements of properties within the marine atmosphere are important for issues relating to tropospheric
and stratospheric ozone
 the ocean is a major component of the physical climate system.
There is great progress being made in establishing a global observing system suited to examining the role of
the ocean in the climate system. The soon-to-be-realised combination of real-time observing systems based on
autonomous profiling floats that measure temperature and salinity (ARGO), when combined with satellite
altimetry and other satellite observations in the context of global data assimilation models, represents a quantum
leap in our ability to observe the ocean. Unfortunately our ability to observe the biological and biogeochemical
state of the ocean lags very far behind. This means that major political and legal issues of great consequence for
mankind are being addressed in the absence of meaningful observations to assess the global effectiveness of any
remediative measures proposed.
The problem is partly one of history and culture of the respective scientific communities, but also
fundamentally a technological problem. There is a long history of global-scale observation of the physical state
of the atmosphere and, at least, the upper ocean, associated with the need to make weather forecasts and also the
special needs of the military. A need to extend this to biological and chemical properties has only recently (and
rapidly) emerged in the context of human-induced global environmental change. The technological problem is
related to this: sensors and techniques designed to measure oceanic physical properties (including salinity) have
a long history of development. The development of chemical and biological measurements lags behind partly
because of this history. However the range and variety of parameters that could be measured is orders of
magnitudes greater (many different species, many different chemicals) and many key measurements are too
complex to allow in-situ measurement.
How should we move forward in this area?


We take as given that:
there is a rapidly emerging need to measure chemical and biological parameters in the ocean on the global
scale (as stressed in countless planning documents).
the rate of sensor and technology development in this area is disappointingly slow (despite the urging of
many planning documents).
Satellite missions are an exception: our ability to monitor biomass in ocean surface waters has rapidly
improved over the past 20 years, and new sensor packages capable of measuring a variety of trace gases
(including CO2 ) in the marine atmosphere are now emerging. However in-situ measurement of biogeochemical
properties from autonomous platforms is still not straightforward: even for such very basic properties as
dissolved oxygen and nutrients. The deployment of a suite of chemical and biological sensors on platforms such
as the ARGO floats, though highly desirable, appears some way off. However there is certainly a subset of
measurements that are practically feasible from unattended platforms (see below). Realistically, many other
critical biological and chemical parameters (e.g. measurements of stable isotope distributions) will probably
never be measurable from such platforms.
Planning documents constantly stress the need to develop new sensors for biological and chemical
properties. Significant progress can be made in sensor development as discussed in WG7. However it should
also not be forgotten that chemical oceanographers have dreamt for decades of micro-gas-chromatographs that
can be deployed on CTDs. Marine molecular biologists may now dream of in-situ DNA-extraction and PCR
systems! Dreaming is good, however one should not pretend that such developments will be easy, or cheap, or
that the resulting sensors will be suitable for deployment at the scales already being put into practice for physical
observing systems. Once again: many important biogeochemical quantities simply will probably never be
measurable with in-situ sensors. Consideration of alternatives to autonomous platforms will be important when
planning global-scale biogeochemical observing systems.
Global Observing System Variables
Biogeochemical variables important for addressing marine biogeochemistry can be prioritised according
to their impact; their ease of measurement; adaptability to different platforms; their cost; the time required for
sampling and analysis; and whether they can be monitored in discrete or continuous mode. Only potentially
“operational” measurements are considered: this means measurements that can be implemented widely, using
standardised techniques operated automatically or by technicians and/or trained volunteers rather than by
specialist scientists. Some of these variables, and the scientific themes they address, are listed in Table 5.1.
Remote sensing of ocean colour from satellites is one of the highest priorities for all three themes
considered. Measurement of near-surface pCO2 is one of the highest priorities for carbon cycle studies, and
estimates of the plankton populations by Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) is a high priority for studies of
biodiversity and ecosystem function.
All biogeochemical measurements must be placed in their physical context. Hence all biogeochemical
measurements should be accompanied by measurements of conductivity, temperature and depth (CTD). Optical
measurements are a high priority in general, for both carbon cycle and primary production studies.
Elements of observational schemes in support of the carbon cycle and primary production themes are
ready for implementation at the operational level. But there are emerging techniques that appear to be extremely
promising for expanding the range of measurements at the operational level. These include laser imaging
techniques, automated flow-cytometers that can be operated from stand-alone buoys (cytobuoys), and fastrepetition-rate fluorometers (FRRF) that can be used to derive information on photosynthetic rates.
Table 1. Recommended Variables and Measurements (adapted and altered from POGO, 2001)
Priority
Global Change &
Primary Production
Biodiversity &
Carbon Cycle
& Remineralisation
Ecosystem Function
Highest
Ocean Colour
Chlorophyll (in situ)
PCO2 and/or pH
O2
CTD
Beam attenuation
Ocean Colour
Chlorophyll
CTD
Nutrients
Light
Ocean Colour
CPR
CTD
Chlorophyll (lab)
3-channel light
Nutrients
ADCP
Solid CaCO3
Alkalinity and/or DIC
ADCP
DANN Probes
High
Global Observing System Platforms:
Table 2. Characteristics of different observation platforms (from POGO, 2001)
Satellite
Mooring
VOS
Spatial coverage
Global. Surface Limited.
Regional-global.
ocean
Vertical coverage
Surface only
Depth profiles.
Surface few metres
only
Temporal
Daily(?) constant High
frequency/ Low-frequency/
coverage
constant/(hourly)
constant/monthly
Sources of data Clouds,
fog, Location-specific
limited to shipping
biases
coastal
routes
Data accuracy
Low.
Requires Medium. Drift and High to medium.
ground truth
fouling
are
problems.
Platform cost
High
Medium
Low
Cost
per Very low
medium
Low
observation
Variety
of Low
Medium
High
measurements
possible
Research Vessel
Regional.
Depth profiles.
Low
Frequency/Intermittent
Summer bias; location
specific
High
High
Very high
High
Moorings
Moorings, despite their obvious importance, are excluded from this discussion as they do not usually provide 3D coverage (cf. introduction). See B1-2 and B-1-3.
Satellites
Remote sensing of ocean colour provides the only window into the marine ecosystem at synoptic scales and must
therefore be at the center of any attempts to study ocean biogeochemistry at the global scale. A recent POGO
Workshop addressed the current status and needs in this area. Recommendations with respect to ocean-colour
data are paraphrased below.
Recommendations:
 There is a need for operational ocean-colour data (quickly/freely available).
 The operational data stream must complement research developments in ocean colour. The full
potential of ocean colour is yet to be realised and the launch of experimental satellites designed to push
the applications further must continue, in parallel with the operational stream.






The development of algorithms for interpretation of ocean-colour data in coastal waters must be
encouraged.
Regional differences in performance of algorithms may be related to phytoplankton community
structure and hence to biodiversity. In situ observations that can help understand these regional
differences and their link to biodiversity are to be encouraged.
The applications of ocean-colour data can be improved, enhanced and extended, when the satellite data
can be complemented by data for calibration and validation. Hence there is a natural synergy between
within-ocean and space-based observing systems.
The retrieval of other variables in addition to chlorophyll-a is to be encouraged.
The concept of biogeographical provinces can be used as a template on which to base regional studies.
Ocean-colour data provide information only on the near-surface waters of the ocean. Extrapolating the
information to derive what happens deeper in the water column must rely heavily on both
complementary in situ observations and on modelling.
The International Ocean Color Coordinating Group (IOCCG) is an international body that attempts to coordinate research and applications of ocean-colour data. The ENEMB should work closely with this group.
Autonomous Floats and Drifters (adapted from POGO, 2001)
In the past 5 years there have been efforts to develop and deploy instrumented autonomous floats and
drifters suitable for marine biogeochemistry. A notable European development in this regard is the CARIOCA
drifter system pioneered by Liliane Merlivat and co-workers. This drifting buoy was developed with the goal of
estimating air-sea fluxes of CO2. It can be equipped to measure pCO2, pH, salinity, temperature, fluoroescence,
wind-speed, air pressure and air temperature. Data are transmitted to shore in real-time via satellite. To-date this
system is restricted to near-surface sampling however. Increasingly there is potential to deploy sophisticated
optical instruments on floats and drifters. Such sensors can provide important biological information including
estimates of chlorophyll, particulate organic carbon, light and photosynthetic yields. Oxygen sensors with low
power and duration of months are feasible now, but have had questionable accuracy. Longer duration oxygen
sensors with higher stability may be available soon. With the benefit of such developments, low-cost
autonomous systems can be envisioned as an essential complement to surface-observing satellite ocean color
sensors whose data is limited by cloud cover. Of particular importance will be development of the ability to
collect vertical profiles of biogeochemical properties using the new generations of profiling floats.
There have been several successful projects that demonstrate the feasibility and scientific value of
integrating optical sensors onto profiling floats. Recently, for example, a 3-wavelength irradiance sensor was
incorporated onto a SOLO (Sounding Oceanographic Lagrangian Observer) system to estimate the spectral
diffuse attenuation coefficient (K) (Greg Mitchell, personal communication). Transmissometers have also been
deployed on floats providing estimates of particulate carbon.
The most significant global impact of these new technologies will be achieved through integration of systems to
estimate light, oxygen, pH, chlorophyll, photosynthetic quantum yields, particulate carbon (inorganic and
organic), and the physical-chemical structure of the ocean. Sensors for salinity and temperature are already
operational. Optical sensors for determining irradiance, solar-stimulated fluorescence, beam attenuation and
backscatter can all be deployed at relatively low cost. However, there remain issues with respect to the longterm performance of the sensors due to potential bio-fouling or calibration drift.
Recommendations:
 At this time, of all potential biogeochemical measurements, dissolved oxygen and optical properties appear
to be the most feasible and should be given high priority.
 The biogeochemical community should move quickly to specify low-cost systems with proven feasibility
and build upon the plans to deploy floats within the context of larger basin-scale experiments such as the
Argo plan for the north Atlantic. Consideration should be given to specifying a minimum optical
augmentation of Argo floats that will be deployed in the 2-5 year time frame. Such augmentation must not
compromise the mission of the floats that are modified.
 Europe should take a lead in developing and deploying the first generation of experimental BiogeochemicalArgo floats. These should be designed to sample over depth ranges and time intervals of relevance to
biogeochemical processes, be developed and deployed, to test their viability and utility, as a complement to
the existing physical Argo programme.
Volunteer Observing Ships
Observations of the surface ocean from space have revolutionized biological oceanography. Oceancolour satellites give an unprecedented global view of the variability (space and time) of biological production in
the oceans. The potential is developing for satellite-colour retrievals to extend further towards characterisation of
key functional groups (e.g. Coccolithophores, N-fixers, etc).
Such observations have some obvious limitations and requirements, however, including lack of data in
highly-productive, cloud (or fog) -covered areas (e.g., productive fronts), problems of ground truthing, detection
limit problems (especially with respect to functional group separation) etc.
The ocean climate and meteorological community has the benefit of extensive climatologies of sea-surface
temperature, air-sea fluxes, winds, waves etc. based on data collected from volunteer observing ships which
traverse wide regions of the ocean surface year round. Volunteer observing ships therefore represent an
alternative means of sampling large regions of the ocean surface year round. In Table 2 we compare 4 available
sampling platforms. It is clear that VOS offer several advantages.
Despite their extensive use by the climate community, long-term use of VOS by the biological and
chemical oceanographic community has been limited largely to the CPR Survey of Sir Alistair Hardy
Foundation. In recent years, an extensive VOS measurement programme for surface pCO 2 and related properties
has been established by Japanese investigators in co-operation with US and Canadian groups. More recently, a
major North Atlantic biogeochemical VOS programme has been initiated within Europe (the CAVASSOO
project). Also under development within Europe, but with a more coastal orientation including an emphasis on
monitoring and pollution issues, is the Ferry-Box program.
Advantages of VOS: Major advantages of VOS for biogeochemical measurements include:
A. Extensive geographical coverage of surface waters can be obtained with daily (coastal) to monthly
(ocean basin) frequency. This coverage is compatible with remote sensing, and is unaffected by fog,
cloud cover, etc. Hence VOS offer excellent possibilities for ground truthing of satellite sensors (e.g.
by data assimilation), as well as tools to assess sampling bias in satellite observations.
B. Sophisticated measurement technologies can be deployed. Issues such as power requirements,
instrument size, fouling, etc. are less demanding problems for VOS than for unattended, mooring-based
instrumentation. Many of the analytical technologies regularly used on specialized research vessels
could be adapted for use on VOS.
C. The possibility exists to send scientific personnel on vessels to perform more complex measurements.
Limitations of VOS: VOS operations have several logistical limitations. These include:

Shipping companies receive no benefit for accommodating science operations, which depend purely on
good will. Personal relations with the officers and crew are critically important for maintaining longterm data collection. The company or captain can terminate operations at any time, for any reason.

Commercial vessels are presently not designed for science operation. As a result, installation of
equipment or sampling of waters requires an often difficult, sub-optimal and costly retrofit.

Commercial vessels are regularly sold, decommissioned, or re-routed. Long-term data collection in a
region may require frequent de-installation and re-installation of equipment.
Recommendations:
 To maximize the use of commercial vessels, custom VOS packages of standard size, a common suite of
basic measurements (e.g. temperature and salinity) and with standardized physical and data connections
should be developed.
 Scientists interested in VOS operations must co-ordinate across disciplines and carefully regulate their
contacts with shipping companies. Un-coordinated requests and demands from diverse scientific groups to
the shipping industry will put long-term cooperation at risk for the entire community. The IOC/SCOR


Ocean CO2 Advisory Panel is at the moment collecting information on existing and planned VOS
observations.
The oceanographic community within Europe should initiate a dialogue with the shipping industry with the
goal of building basic science capability into the design of the next generation of commercial ships. A
standardised “science compartment” with provision for clean seawater intakes, and through-the-hull sensors
should be proposed for future vessels.
Contacts to date have suggested that provision of some financial incentive would greatly increase the
likelihood of long-term co-operation between scientists and the shipping industry. Such incentive could be
in two forms:
Tax incentives for companies that support science.
Partial salary payments for crew members that maintain science operations during transit.
Reference:
POGO (2001) Biological observations of the Global Ocean: Requirements and How to Meet Them. Report of a
Workshop
held
at
Dartington,
Devon,
England,
28
–
30
June
2001.
See:
http://www.oceanpartners.org/documents/Dartingt.pdf
B-1-2-Oceanic time-series (coordinator : Richard Lampitt, SOC, Southampton, UK)
One of the major problems facing the oceanographic community is to reduce uncertainties about the
natural variability in the oceans both in the spatial and temporal sense. Unless this variability is appropriately
observed and parameterised, the new generation of coupled physical-biogeochemical models will be unable to
describe adequately the oceanic system and hence its role in climate change. The past decade has seen rapid
developments in observing systems, sensors, electronic communication and numerical modelling but as yet only
a small number of regions in the oceanic domain contain multidisciplinary time series stations. Within the
European arena, three oceanic sites are of special significance in that they are subject to only limited advective
influence and hence provide insights into truly oceanic processes (see figure 1). They are situated in contrasting
environments and have a track record of observations over many years. There is nevertheless considerable scope
to enhance the quality of observations (frequency, breadth of variables), the interpretation of the data and the
integration of these data with other observations such as from satellites, drifters, ships of opportunity and
research cruises. Most importantly are the enormous developments that would be possible if these endeavours
were integrated into a European framework and one that particularly focusses on the biogeochemical processes
reflected in the observations.
Time series eulerian observations can not be considered in isolation from the other approaches mentioned
above but provide crucial insights into temporal variability of biogeochemical properties and processes
throughout the water column. They are required for three puroposes:
1: To observe and record temporal changes
2: To develop an understanding of the causes of such variability
3: To drive biogeochemical models using techniques of data assimilation and reanalysis thus facilitating
prediction of future change.
Figure 1. Locations of the three oceanic time series sites under consideration by ECCO
PAP (Porcupine Abyssal Plain)
Location: 49oN 16.5oW
This site is about 200Km from the continental slope and 400Km from the nearest land; the Southwest
corner of Ireland. It appears to satisfy many of the conditions required for observations of the oceanic system
lying as it does well away from regions where physical gradients are strong and is in the middle of one of the
biogeochemical provinces (NADR)(Sensu Longhurst 1998). There is no evidence of significant advective supply
of material from the continental slopes or from fluvial or aeolian sources. The seabed is very flat over large areas
(4800m depth), thus simplifying studies of the benthic or near bottom environment. In the mesopelagic and
bathypelagic zones, currents are in general northerly and of low velocity (<15cm/s). The depth of winter mixing
is large and variable (300-800m) and this facilitates research into the effects of the most important driving force
on upper ocean biogeochemistry: nutrient supply. There is a substantial data base from previous programs on
which to build: It is about 350Km to the northeast of the site of the JGOFS North Atlantic Bloom Experiment in
1989 (see Deep Sea Research volume 40 1-2) and was the focus of the EU BENGAL program from 1998-2001
(See Progress in Oceanography volume 50 1-4).
Status.
PAP is at the northern boundary of the current
French POMME program
http://www.cnrs.fr/cw/fr/pres/Pomme/ . Ships of opportunity contribute significantly with frequent transects by
the Continuous Plankton Recorder http://www.npm.ac.uk/sahfos/sahfos.html since 1949 and currently PCO2
transects under the EU program CAVASOO http://envsol.env.uea.ac.uk/temp/tracer/e072/ . It is a focus of the
SOC Deacon Divison core research program BICEP http://www.soc.soton.ac.uk/GDD/NEWCORE/index.html
which draws the link between upper ocean processes and the deep ocean benthic biology and biogeochemistry.
The seabed community experienced a major regime shift in the mid 1990's and the reasons for this are a curent
focus. It is likely that this change was related to changes in upper ocean biogeochemistry that altered the nature
of the sedimenting material.
The PAP site is one of the three sites chosen by the EU Program ANIMATE to be heavily instrumented
during 2002 so as to provide real time data on a variety of upper ocean properties. In addition to data collected
by the ANIMATE moorings and ships of opportunity, research cruises are currently carried out at least once per
year.
Meteorology
An array of met buoys provide real time data to the East of the site (around the UK) and the hope is to provide an
additional instrumented buoy at the PAP site.
Physical oceanography
From September 2002, the ANIMATE program will provide CTD data continuously at 10 depths from the
surface to 120m. In situ ADCP’s will describe the current profile over the top 300m. Current meters at fixed
depths below this will continue to characterise the lower water column. Full water column CTD data will
continue to be obtained during cruises to the site.
Biogeochemistry
From September 2002, the ANIMATE program will provide continuous measurements of Nutrients,
fluorescence, PCO2 and backscatter at 15m depth. Downward particle flux measurements will continue to be
made at depths of 1000, 3000 and 4700m (100mab).
Benthic studies
Yearly sampling of the sediment biological community continues with a special focus on the reasons for the
regime shift in the 1990’s.
Data availability and key contact persons: ANIMATE activities at PAP are the responsibility of
R.Lampitt@soc.soton.ac.uk while the benthic program is run by D.Billett@soc.soton.ac.uk both at Southampton
Oceanography Centre, UK. Data are either published (see above) or will be on the ANIMATE web site by.
Ocean Weather Station Mike
Location: 66° N 02°E
The longest existing time series observation program from the deep ocean is the one currently being
carried out at OWS Mike. Daily oceanographic measurements have been made at this location in the deep
Norwegian Sea since 1 October 1948. The station is situated above the eastern margin of the Norwegian Sea
deep basin where a branch of the Atlantic current enters. The location is strategic both for studying the Atlantic
inflow and the Norwegian Sea Deep Water. The station is operated by The Norwegian Meteorological Institute
(DNMI) and the hydrographic programme is carried out by Geophysical Institute, the University of Bergen.
Status
• Platform The work is carried out from the M/S ”Polarfront” owned and managed by Misje Offshore through a
contract with the Norwegian Meteorological Institute (DNMI), Oslo, Norway. The oceanographic sampling is
financied by the participating institutions.
• Physical Oceanography ( Scientist in charge: Svein Østerhus and Knut Barthel, Geophysical Institute,
University of Bergen, Norway)
Sampling has been carried out since 1948 with a complete profile down to 200 meters at least once a week .
Parameters include temperature ( reversing thermometers), salinity ( measured ashore) and dissolved oxygen (
measured onboard by Winkler method) at standard ICES depths.
• Chemical Oceanography Only occasionally work has been carried out.
• Biological Oceanography ( Scientist in charge: Francisco Rey, Institute of Marine Research (IMR), Bergen,
Norway)
Weekly sampling (Nansen bottles) started in 1990 and includes nutrients ( nitrite, nitrate, phosphate and silicate)
at all depths down to 2000, phytoplankton pigments (chlorophyll a and phaeopigments) down to 200 meters and
samples for phytoplankton species composition at 10, 20, 30 and 50 meters. In addition daily measurements of
Secchi depth at local noon.
Occasionally detailed work including zooplankton has been carried out during the spring season in connection
with specific projects.
• Meterology (DNMI) Standard meteorological work since the 1930´s every 3 hours.
Plans for the future
The ”Polarfront” contract with DNMI is renegiotated every five years and at the present it will continue until
2005.
The sampling program will continue with some modifications from February 2002. These includes:
• A better coordination of the sampling strategy for the different activities.
• The use of a MicroCat mini-CTD to replace the hydrographic sampling. The bottles will be used mainly for
chemical and biological oceanography sampling.
• Inorganic carbon sampling down to 1000 meters once a month and to 2000 meters four times a year (Scientist
in charge: Ingunn Skjelvan, Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen, Norway)
• The possibility of starting routine sampling for zooplankton is being evaluated at IMR.
Most of the oceanographic work is now being coordinated through the new established Bjerknes Collaboration
for Climate Research of which the University of Bergen and IMR together with the Nansen Center for Remote
Sensing and Climate are equal partners.
Data availability and key contact persons: Site managed by Francisco Rey
Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway francisco.rey@imr.no with data available or referenced on
http://www.gfi.uib.no/forskning/mike/oceanweather/index.html
DYFAMED
Dynamique des Flux Atmosphériques en Mediterranée
Location: 4325’N, 752’E
Site description: The primary station is located in the northwestern sector of the Mediterranean Sea (Ligurian
Sea) approximately 45 km south of Cape Ferrat, France, in 2,350 m of water. This region is free from coastal
zone fluxes but receive a significant atmospheric input from the deserts of north Africa and from the
industrialized countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. These atmospheric fluxes are measured at nearby
Cape Ferrat.
Status: Field sampling began in 1986, with a sediment trap mooring and atmospheric deposition survey that
were enhanced with the ship-based biogeochemistry measurement program in 1991. All three components have
continued to the present.
Objectives: (1) to study variations of hydrography and biogeochemistry at the seasonal and interannual scale,
(2) to investigate the ecosystem response to atmospheric deposition events and to long-term
environmental/climate forcing, (3) to investigate and understand the ecological effects of meteorological forcing,
especially the transition in community structure from spring mesotrophy to summer oligotrophy and (4) to
estimate the air-to-sea exchange of carbon dioxide.
Sampling frequency and methods: Approximately monthly field observations are conducted using the French
R/V Tethys II which is operated by the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) Institut National
des Sciences de l’Univers (INSU) and home-ported in Marseilles, France. The interdisciplinary station work
includes physical, chemical and biological observations and rate measurements. Since March 1999, a
meteorological buoy was deployed on the site with plans to add in water optical and biogeochemical sensors in
the near future.
Variables :
- Hydrology : monthly profiles 0-2000m C T D O2 Fluorescence (since 91)
- Water column biogeochemistry : monthly profiles 24 depth 0-2000m (since 91) ; O2 Winkler,
Nutrients (nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, silicates), chlorophyll a (HPLC), CHN (99-), COD (91-93;
98-), pCO2, TCO2, Alakalinity.
Primary Production : (14C incorporation, Let Go) since 1993.
Zooplankton biomass (net tows, 0-200m) : since 2001
Bacterial biomass (cytometry)
Particulate fluxes : since 86 (86-91 ; 93-95, 97-) ; sediment traps (200 and 1000m); mass, C, N.
Atmospheric deposition, since 86, total : Na Al, Zn ; rains : pH.
Meteorological data (“ Côte d’Azur buoy ”) since March 99 (wind speed and direction, water and
air temperature ; atmospheric pressure)
Data are acquired using the JGOFS protocols.
Numerous ancillary projects have been developed at the DYFAMED site.
-
Logistical management and funding sources: DYFAMED is maintained by scientists from the Laboratoire
d’Oceanographie de Villefranche and AIEA Marine Environmental Laboratory in Monaco. Funding is provided
by INSU/CNRS.
Data availability and key contact persons: Most DYFAMED data sets can be obtained at: http://www.obsvlfr.fr/jgofs2/sodyf/home.htm. Principal investigator J. C. Marty (marty@obs-vlfr.fr), Laboratoire
d’Océanographie de Villefranche, Université P. et M. Curie – CNRS – INSU, Observatoire Océanologique de
Villefranche-sur-Mer, France.
Key References:
Deep Sea Research II special issue (2002), 49 (12) in press.
B-1-3-Coastal time-series (coodinator : Joel Knoery)
Value of Time Series:
They provide for a unique perspective on other measurements and complements them (eg, satellitebased data acquisition). Long time series can be used for assessment, monitoring, model validation, and in "third
party" applications. Examples of time series of value in assessments would be simple, representative indicators
of the state of the marine environment, of sustainable development, of sea level rise, of fish stocks, of climate
change, and of environmental impact. Time series for monitoring are limited in the scope of their sampling, and
exploit naturally integrated signals to provide a basis for decisions (thresholds, critical values). Long time series
can be used to test models, theories, and hypotheses. They can be assimilated into models or withheld from
models as a validation tool. A baseline system of long time series would provide the foundation for processes
studies of particular elements of the climate system. When compared to open ocean time series data, the impact
near our shores, of large scale processes (El Niño, NAO, etc.). Most importantly, time series also can provide
for an appreciation of the temporal evolution of the environment they sample, and highlight the variability.
Sampling design is of utmost importance:
A system may be designed to identify a pattern or the cause of variability. The approach of taking many
observations to reduce error will help only if errors are random; bias and alias errors must therefore be a concern
for a sampling system. Four to six samples per cycle of variability is considered a minimum to adequately
describe it. When several variability time scales are superimposed, the sampling frequency needed to describe it
increases. Educated guesses in order to sample at identical points in the different cycles reduces accordingly the
required frequency (decrease bias). As such, the sampling needs to be weighed against the information content
obtained from the data. ENEMB needs to rely on existing time series (but can provide “muscle” to help
establish new ones or to prevent closings) and thus has little bearing on the programmes. However, this needs to
be kept in mind when using data fro a different purpose than the one it has been collected for.
Requirements for existing stations:
Examples of resources needed:
The cost of maintaining sites is significant. In most cases the scientific and perhaps societal benefit must
be directly weighed against the cost of collecting the data, itself clearly related to logistics. The greater the
benefit from a data set (hence the emphasis on impacts, wide data availability, multi-purpose, etc.), the better the
chance of justifying the cost.
Coastal stations: For extended networks, local operators and subcontractors are usually employed. A framework
to ensure data quality is required. The question of an internationally recognised framework is an issue to be
addressed for harmonisation and data pooling. For single observation points, a university or institute sometimes
assumes the responsibility for sampling, analysis. Data storage/access is either “on site”, or banked together
with similar data collected along the seashore. A good example for this is the SOMLIT network (France). It is
designed to acquire and make available to the community high quality (validated, calibrated) data on over 13
biogeochemical parameters.
Staff and ships: Although this concerns mostly open ocean stations, the numbers involved are given for scale.
More than 20 scientists and technicians are involved in the BATS operation, not all of them full time. (18
cruises/yr, measurements of temperature, salinity, oxygen, fluorescence and light attenuation; discrete samples of
salinity, oxygen, total CO2, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, silicate and of other bio-geochemical parameters such as
POC and pigments are collected. Rates of primary production, bacteria growth and pesticide fluxes are measured
as well, additional experiments conducted by other personnels, eg Bermuda testbed mooring). It should be noted
that the operation on fixed-scheduled time series requires a sound source of trained, dedicated personnel.
What makes a good time series?:
Length of record, (several cycles needed to determine frequency of variability), frequency of record (4
to 6 data per cycle needed) and continuity (no data gaps)
Quality of data and metadata (descriptors)
Data availability to the community
Relevance (now or in the forseeable future). This is increasingly important as needed resources grow
(eg, operational oceanography)
Forseeable availability of proxies. We are now appreciating that for many problems there are several
methods for getting at the same signal. For some time series it is conceivable that a proxy might be found in
other data sets, thus lessening the importance of continuity. The costlier the data set, the more important this
factor. National "musselwatch" programmes are an example because they build a time series of a proxies for
water quality
Most importantly, the value of a time series increases much faster than the number of observations
taken: the synergy between the data sets is real and very strong. Multidisciplinarity should be significantly
encouraged.
What other benefits (scientific, societal ) can be expected from time series?
It has been shown that time series stations exhibit a synergistic effect. They attract additional subprojects that benefit from the well-sampled environment and its known temporal variability. The repeated
occupation of biogeochemical time series sites in the last decade raises exciting questions about the different
ways that this system can behave, and the extent to which quantitative relations between the system variables
previously thought to be robust (e.g., Redfield ratios) can vary with geographical location and time period. At
present these time series efforts are intensive of human effort, but unattended biogeochemical sensor
development is occurring rapidly and will decrease the costs involved.
New and unexpected discoveries (deep ocean variability, ENSO/NAO signals observed in the mixed
layer depth, Redfield ratios variable in time and space, Impact of NAO on the coastal environment (increased
run-off, increased land-ocean contaminant fluxes, potential impacts on the faunistic assemblages….)
European added value of time series
Time series represent repetitive work, and needs data of uncompromised, consistent quality. Time
series are a lot of work, which should therefore be carried out as efficiently as possible. Indeed, material
constrains (availability of staff, facilities) are the most limiting factor. These conditions represent a strong
incentive to design very well the framework of activities to be carried out because it will be used repeatedly.
Such framework can be used for different purposes.
1)To train students to carry out marine research, to make them have "taste" marine science:
Proposition : take advantage of the repeated operations to set up a training program which will train students,
and at the same time accomplish the time series work needed. It could work this way: undergraduates could join
research projects at member institutions each summer. This would allows students placed in groups of 5 or so at
one site to experience first-hand how basic research is carried out, and to contribute consequentially and
meaningfully to the programme. Students from throughout Europe work in the research programs of the host
institution. Each student is assigned to a specific research project, where he/she works closely with the faculty,
post-docs, and graduate students. In addition, interaction between faculty and students is facilitated. Also,
students get a "taste" of what research is, students meet their counterparts from other European countries,
research is carried out. The greater the outreach, the likelier graduate recruitment will increase.
Transnational studentships will enhance mixing and promote understanding between nations, on the timescales
of 1/2 generation.
2) To network scientists and staff in the laboratories
For time series work there is an absolute requirement for dedicated, qualified, permanent staff to produce high
quality measurements. Methodological cross-fertilisation between laboratories is crucial in ensuring data
consistency and coherence. It has been shown above that metadata is just about as important than data itself.
Proposition: Use the NofE to help identify relevant European time series existing or extinct, assess the efforts
required to globalise this heterogeneous dataset. Similar endeavours have already been undertaken for open
ocean data (Data archaelogy programmes financed by the EU.). This would necessarily entail
Proposition: Use the NofE to help staff (not necessarily solely research scientists) to gain experience with the
data acquisition methods used at other laboratories which would be host. Organise the cruises to be
multinational, as well as the analyses in laboratory, the training non-nationals, etc… This will ensure "ground
level" flow of information, of training and help network institutions from the bottom up (rather than top down).
Need for intercalibrations of methods (sampling, measurement, data management, data publication) for a sub set
of the coastal sites already being monitored. It is essential to make the times series compatible/coherent
(frequency, methodologies) to make them comparable.
Data collection at (a) time series site(s) , through permanently earmarked resources (how, from which
programme in the EU?), materialises ties between laboratories and maintains a permanent, continuous
link/bond between their staff across borders. Hence, because of the type of work at the highest standards of
quality being carried out, time series can be the crux of integration of the laboratories and staff involved.
3) benefits for EU to fund time series through NofE
 Global data set more important/useful than the sum of its parts since the value of a time series increases
much faster than the number of observations taken. Pluridisciplinary research should be significantly
encouraged…
 Links to already established national sampling/monitoring programmes (which ones would be relevant to
ECCO)….
 Links to established or planned international programmes
 Legacy for the future?
Data collection conducted at a time series site resembles/ (even models?) the structure of ECCO:
Core measurements (permanent), additional parameters (partners) that can be added as need arises. .Sampling
regime (geometry of network) evolves with the needs and findings.
B-1-4- The development and deployment of new sensor systems for marine
biogeochemical studies
Why sensor systems are important ?
Our ability to fully follow and understand many aspects of the biogeochemistry of the marine system is
currently limited by our old data gathering techniques that are unable to obtain enough data on appropriate
temporal and spatial scales. This problem is particularly acute in e.g. coastal, estuarine and surface ocean
environments where space and time scales are short. The lack of data and resulting process understanding has
important implications in studies on climate change, water quality, and developing predictive models based on
this higher quality data. For example, understanding the evolution of the climate of our planet, which strongly
depends on the ocean and its interactions with the atmosphere and the continental biosphere, requires long term
monitoring of both the coastal and open ocean. There is thus an increasing international awareness of the
importance and need for development and deployment of new sensor systems in marine studies (Varney, 2000),
as has been noted in programmes such as EUROGOOS, SOLAS, CLIVAR and the North American DEOS
(dynamics of earth and ocean systems). This need for in situ sensors extends to the sediment-water interface that
frequently displays large concentration gradients on very small spatial scale (millimetres in the coastal ocean).
Problems related to decompression and other sampling artefacts for sediments, which appear to be present for
almost all elements, can be overcome by using in situ measurement systems.
Building autonomous oceanic observatories, however, remains a significant scientific challenge for the
21st century, as such in situ instrumentation, must be autonomous, reliable, precise, of miniature size, able to
operate on the long term (> 3 months of deployment) and at pressure (down to 5000 m) with low energy
consumption. Across Europe there is a group of labs that has been working on sensor systems and their
deployment, and whilst the technology is maturing rapidly, at the moment interaction between these groups is
limited. As described below, this NoE has the potential to significantly boost the development and use of sensors
and platforms across Europe.
Generic types of sensor technology, and their deployment
A sensor in the current context may be regarded as one (or combination) of a range instruments capable
of being used in situ for detection of important biogeochemical components in the surrounding water. The large
range of existing sensor type extends from solid state and electrochemical devices to miniature fluid flow
analysers with optical detection. There is also a wide range of ways to deploy these analysers in marine systems,
allowing use over short to long timescales. Approaches range from use on benthic landers, to applications on
autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) and ROVs. This range of sensor types and deployment is summarised
in Figure 1.
Existing capabilities and future potential
The in situ collection of data at adequate time and space-scale resolution requires that a set of criteria
must be met by the instrument. Specifically in situ instrumentation should be autonomous, reliable, precise, of
miniature size, able to operate on the long term (> 3 months deployment) and at pressure (down to 5000 m), not
be compromised by bio-fouling, and to have low energy consumption. The detailed figures of merit for a
particular application (lifetime, precision, detection limit, response time, reproducibility, concentration ranges)
will of course be defined by the scientific objectives of the study. At the current state of development of the
field, some sensor systems have already been used to great effect (e.g. near-shore buoy based sensors). However,
for other applications (e.g. long-term deployment of chemical instrumentation on oceanic buoy systems such as
the TAO/TRITON array, and ARGO floats) no appropriate chemical sensor technology was available at their
inception.
Illustrative examples using existing technologies
1) Instrumented buoy systems as a part of the MAREL (Automated Measurement Network For The Coastal
Environment) programme (http://www.ifremer.fr/mareliroise/):
2) Benthic landers In situ sensors are now used to measure oxygen, pH, resistively, N2O, H2S, Fe, Mn, in
sediments from the deep-sea or the coastal environment, and their use has been extended to measuring
exchange fluxes at the sediment-water interface.
3) Ferry box technology. Here a suite of sensors are deployed on ferry vessels following regular paths at a
high frequency. This approach has developed in parallel in a variety of European countries, and the
integration of this effort should be greatly helped by a recently funded EU programme. The science
objective is to understand algal bloom dynamics relative to physical and chemical conditions in the water.
See: http://www.soc.soton.ac.uk/GDD/Sonus/concept.htm
Examples of Future Developments
Generic problems associated with development of in situ marine analysers and platforms are sensitivity,
selectivity, power requirements, and bio-fouling. These points will be incorporated in the new developments
listed below that are planned or are being done in European laboratories:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) Recent work has shown the power of coupling AUVs to chemical
sensors to obtain quasi synoptic information of e.g. manganese and oxygen. (see
http://www.sams.ac.uk/dml/projects/autosub/index.htm). A much broader range of sensors can be applied in
this way.
vertical profilers (either Eulerian YOYO types or Lagrangian PROVOR types) fitted with a range of
sensors
Remotely operated vehicles. Chemical measurements at hydrothermal systems have already been made
using ROV technology, but there is scope to increase the range of parameters studied and environments to
be examnined ( e.g. cold seeps with methane sensors)
Development of MEMS (micro electro mechanical system) technologies for micro analytical systems
Expendable sensors- use of the XBT concept with expendable chemical sensors on board,
Sea floor sediment measurements using a "mobile lander". The natural heterogeneity of sediment systems
makes it difficult to obtain enough data for effective mass balance calculations and the study of temporal
variation (seasonality) using conventional landers. In situ measurement instruments mounted on a mobile
seafloor vehicle can overcome this difficulty by making measurements at different space scales and allowing
effective averaging of data.
Coupled atmosphere-ocean systems e.g. Aéroclipper where a low altitude balloon tracks winds whilst being
connected to the sea surface where an instrument package collects water data. (see
http://www.cnes.fr/espace_pro/cnesmag/mag10/actu.pdf)
Seafloor Benthic Observatories- the concept of large scale instrumented segments of the seafloor has been
pioneered
in
the
USA
(see
for
example,
http://www.ocean.washington.edu/neptune/pub/white_paper/intro3.html). The scientific rationale includes
new understandings of the operation of shelf and upwelling systems as well as previously impossible
insights into plate interior and subduction zone systems.
Although some advances have been and are being made, building autonomous oceanic observatories still
remains a significant scientific challenge for the 21st century. The present activities in Europe in sensor and
platform development are spread across a range of laboratories with generally little interaction between the
separate groups, and their linkage through a network has many advantages.
Scientific objectives
The role of sensor systems is to provide sufficient information temporally and spatially to improve
understanding of fundamental and key biogeochemical processes in marine systems. The applications are
extremely wide, and many of the other working groups of the NoE have science objectives that will directly
benefit from the instrument developments discussed here. A short list of examples of scientific objectives where
these sensor systems will play a key role are given below.
1) The use of coastal buoy systems to observe and understand long term fluctuations and disturbance of coastal
ecosystems, to follow the impact of forcing functions such as the NAO, and to investigate response of the of
systems to climate change
2) To understand the biogeochemical fate of organic and inorganic carbon in marine sediments, an essential
pathway for the carbon cycle at medium to long time scales (use of benthic landers for information
unobtainable through other routes).
3) To carry out studies on nutrient cycling in coastal systems, the fluxes and conversion between forms of
nutrients, and obtaining long term detailed data sets. In combination with light and other forcing functions
these data will allow better modelling and prediction of biomass formation and potential eutrophication
events
4) To study surface ocean nutrient dynamics (nitrate, phosphate and silicon) in relation to global carbon
fixation and sequestration through the carbon pump with climate implications.
5) The better understanding of the interaction between the range of physical chemical and biological processes
influencing the operation of coastal and shelf sea systems. Such studies will involve large groups from a
wide range of disciplines in ocean observatory studies such as BDEOS (British Dynamic Earth and Ocean
Study. The development of sensors is essential to this type of ocean observatory system, which, as indicated
by the USA and other international initiatives, is perceived as a major step towards our improved
understanding of marine systems.
Interactions between groups in the NofE:
There are a variety of routes through which the members of the NoE will interact:
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Developing common protocols for e.g. power supply, data transfer, to allow more effective integration and
transfer of this type of technology across Europe
Combining sensors from different laboratories on a common platform e.g. a buoy system or ferry box
package.
Sharing resources in development of sensor systems e.g. Light wave-guide technology, MEMS,
electrochemical approaches, chemi-luminescence, gas samplers etc.
Sharing of test facilities (e.g. SOC instrumented pontoon)
Sharing of answers to problems, as appropriate (ideas on power management, bio-fouling)
Access (negotiated) to ocean engineering and instrumentation knowledge and facilities e.g. SOC test system,
IUEM/IFREMER buoy etc
Inter-calibrations, uniformity of data generated across Europe
Move towards a co-ordinated pan-European data collection system for biogeochemical data
Exchange of students, engineers and researchers lies at the heart of these activities
Maintain and develop links with groups in the USA, and other leaders in the field across the world.
European Added Values
Currently sensor developments across Europe operate in an isolated way with only limited collaboration
through a few European funded projects, and between individuals. The resources requested here have potential
to make a real impact, as indicated above in the development of
1) collaborative and coherent Europe-wide marine environmental measurement systems producing quality
controlled and truly comparable data
2) effective interaction between researchers at the forefront of the science thus reducing unnecessary
duplication of effort in developing new sensors
3) the Europe-wide dissemination of ideas and products to industry and commerce, (although there are
problems for European scientists in finding companies in the marine field who are of an adequate size and
reliable)
4) research groups seeking funding for large scale projects where individual laboratories will not have the
resources individually. Examples are development of a mobile lander vehicle for benthic studies, and
initiating European benthic observatories.
Reference
Varney, M. S., Ed. (2000). Chemical sensors in oceanography. Ocean Science and Technology. Amsterdam,
Gordon and Breach. 333pp.
B-2-Shared infrasfructures
B-2-1-World Data Center for Marine Environment (coordinator : Nicolas
Dittert, IUEM, Brest in connection with Michael Diepenbroek, Marum-Bremen,
and Hannes Grobe, AWI, Bremerhaven, Germany).
General Background
A key component for successful research activities in a network is an efficient information
infrastructure. At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, a
major resolution was passed to focus on reversing the impacts caused by environmental deterioration. The
Agenda 21 resolution establishes measures to address pollution, depletion of fish stocks, and management of
toxic wastes to name only a few. The importance of the availability of geographic information in a common
infrastructure to support decision-making and management of these growing national, regional, and global issues
was cited as critical at the 1992 Rio Summit, and by a special session of the United Nations General Assembly
assembled in 1997 to appraise the implementation of the Agenda 21.
Geographic information is vital to make sound decisions at the local, regional, and global levels.
Business development, flood mitigation, environmental restoration, and disaster recovery are just a few
examples of areas in which decision-makers are benefiting from geographic information, together with the
associated infrastructures that support information discovery, access, and use of this information in the decisionmaking process.
In regions characterised by an availability of geographic information, in combination with the power of
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), decision support tools, data bases, the World Wide Web and their
associated interoperability, the way better-resourced communities address critical issues of social,
environmental, and economic importance is changing rapidly. However, even in the new era of networked
computers, the social habits of the past continue to prohibit users from finding and using critical geographic
information. This can lead to either the abandoning of a proposed project or to unnecessary - and expensive recapture of existing geographic information.
Only through an information infrastructure based on common conventions and technical agreements
will it be easily possible to discover, acquire, exploit and share data vital to research and decision processes. The
use of common conventions and technical agreements also makes sound economic sense by limiting the cost
involved in the integration of information from various sources, as well as eliminating the need for parallel and
costly development of tools for discovering, exchanging and exploiting spatial data.
Essential components in the present scientific information infrastructure are the World Data Centers
(WDC) that all operate under the auspices of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) for the
benefit of the international scientific community and that provide a mechanism for international exchange of data
in all disciplines related to the Earth, its environment, and the Sun.
Description WDC-MARE and PANGAEA
The World Data Center for Marine Environmental Sciences (WDC-MARE, http://www.pangaea.de) is
aimed at collecting, scrutinising, and disseminating data related to global change in the fields of environmental
oceanography, marine geology, paleoceanography, and marine biology. WDC-MARE uses the scientific
information system PANGAEA (Network for Geosciences and Environmental Data) as its operating platform.
Essential services supplied by WDC-MARE / PANGAEA are project data management, data
publication, and the distribution of visualisation and analysis software (freeware products). Among the recent
data management projects are the final global data synthesis for the Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) and
the International Marine Global Change Study (IMAGES). Together with the WDC for Paleoclimatology,
Boulder, WDC-MARE forms the essential backbone within the IGBP/PAGES Data System (Eakin, 2002).
Organisation of data management includes quality control and publication of data and the dissemination of
metadata according to international standards. Data managers are responsible for acquisition and maintenance of
data. The data model used reflects the information processing steps in the Earth Science fields and can handle
any related analytical data. A relational database management system (RDBMS) is used for information storage.
Users access data from the database via web-based clients, including a simple search engine (PangaVista) and a
data-mining tool (ART). With its comprehensive graphical user interfaces and the built in functionality for
import, export, and maintenance of information PANGAEA is a highly efficient system for scientific data
management and data publication.
WDC-MARE / PANGAEA is operated as a permanent facility by the Centre for Marine Environmental
Sciences at the Bremen University (MARUM) and the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research
(AWI) in Bremerhaven, Germany.
Contribution of WDC-MARE / PANGAEA to ENEMB
If the Network of Excellence is designed to strengthen scientific and technological excellence by
networking together at European level, one of its integral parts will be the development of a common
information infrastructure in general and a common data infrastructure in particular that both meet exactly the
competence and competitive edge of WDC-MARE / PANGAEA.
WDC-MARE / PANGAEA promotes and fosters connections between major European and international
data centers through a common infrastructure based on international standards (e.g. the IGBP/PAGES data
system).
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WDC-MARE / PANGAEA supplies long term archiving and publication of data (e.g., Synthesis books).
In all fields of experimentalist science, as expressed by the 9 areas of convergence, WDC-MARE /
PANGAEA has the know-how in data management (cf. 3 List of projects).
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Even more important, WDC-MARE / PANGAEA has the expertise in homogenising and standardising data
formats (e.g., between modellers and experimentalists; calibration of proxies).
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In the scientific field of Marine Biogeochemistry, WDC-MARE / PANGAEA has a strong backbone of
analytical data and related meta-information with respect to the water column, sediment ant the sediment-water
interface; oceanic and coastal domains; short and long time aspects; single scientist data sets to international data
collections.
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WDC-MARE / PANGAEA has the skill in developing working contexts on a network basis (e.g., initiation
of automated station lists; generating of solutions to data management problems; training units on data
management).
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WDC-MARE / PANGAEA has the knowledge and facilities for professional project related information
management (e.g., “pooling” of project related data, document exchange, mailing lists, web sites).
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Due to its organisation of data flow and its modern technical architecture, PANGAEA is in the leading front
of presently available scientific information systems.
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WDC-MARE / PANGAEA is accessible online by any browser software of any computer system at any
point of the Earth (http://www.pangaea.de/ ).
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List of projects managed by WDC-MARE / PANGAEA: available at http://www.pangaea.de/Projects/
List of selected publications
Diepenbroek, M; Grobe, H; Reinke, M; Schlitzer, R; Sieger, R (1999) Data management of proxy parameters
with PANGAEA. In: Fischer, G, Wefer, G, (eds.), Use of Proxies in Paleoceanography - Examples from the
South Atlantic, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg: 715-727.
Dittert, N; Diepenbroek, M; Grobe, H (2001) Scientific data must be made available to all. Nature 414 (6862):
393.
Diepenbroek, M; Grobe, H; Reinke, M; Schindler, U; Schlitzer, R; Sieger, R; Wefer, G (2001) PANGAEA - an
Information System for Environmental Sciences. Computer & Geosciences, in press.
Dittert, N; Corrin, L; Diepenbroek, M; Grobe, H; Heinze, C; Ragueneau, O (2002) Managing (pale-)
oceanographic data sets using the PANGAEA information system: The SINOPS example. Computer &
Geosciences, in press.
Eakin, CM, Diepenbroek, M, Hoepffner, M (2002) The PAGES Data System, in: Alverson, Bradley, Pedersen
(eds): Paleoclimate, global change and the future, Springer Verlag, in press.
B-2-2: Other insfrastructures: TO COME
Including: A culture platform.
Laboratory culture experiments with planktic foraminifera have been and still are (in concert with
numerical modelling) the most appropriate way to develop empirical proxie relationships and to investigating the
mechanisms controlling primary relationships. However, culture experiments require not only special equipment
but also detailed expertise in collecting and handling foraminifera. As a consequence there is at present only one
research group in the position to carry out such experiments under controlled conditions. Many colleagues have
expressed interest to use this facility and expertise to investigate their own culture related questions.
In the framework of the NpfE we propose to establish a culture platform (i.e set up the laboratory for culturing
purposes in a field station) where European scientists can carry out their experiments under experienced
guidance. Because planktonic foraminifera cannot be grown in continuous cultures the field station should have
easy access to an open ocean environment for daily collection of fresh organisms.
B-3-Creating a Doctoral School for Marine Biogeochemistry
(coordinator : Dieter Wolf-Gladrow, AWI, Bremerhaven, Germany) :
Abstract : this European Doctoral School will organise specific courses at the Ph.D level
dealing with the interrelations and feedbacks between marine ecosystems and climate change.
This includes distance-learning teachings/exchanges between the members of ECCO as well
as « summer » courses for PhD students.
Motivation:
As one important contribution to the European Network of Excellence a programme for PhD students
will be established in order to provide a special curriculum in all sciences relevant for marine biogeochemistry,
e.g. biology, chemistry, geology, physics, mathematics. Marine biogeochemistry is considered a part of the earth
system as a whole and thus it will be referred to exchanges between the ocean and other earth system
components such as atmosphere or land biosphere. The idea is to provide a series of both introductory and
advanced courses given by European experts in their field. Many global change related issues cannot be
comprehensively addressed by single disciplines, including for example questions on the fate of anthropogenic
CO2, on iron fertilization of the ocean and CO2 disposal as a possible mitigation strategy against further increase
of atmospheric CO2 and on pollution in populated coastal areas. Introductory courses may help students to find
their way in ?terra interdisciplinaria? and to stimulate exchange between different sciences.
Potential topics for advanced courses include integrative topics like global cycles of elements such as C,
N, P, Si, O, S and Fe and air-sea gas exchange, in connection with physical and ecosystem modeling; and
applied topics like large scale fertilization experiments, time series analysis, data assimilation, paleo proxies and
continental margin processes.
PhD programmes:
Currently the PhD programmes in Europe differ from country to country. Whereas, for example, in
Germany PhD students should finish their thesis within three years and courses are taken only voluntarily,
French and Dutch students work three and four years, respectively, for their thesis but have to complete an
obligatory course programme. The proposed programme for PhD students in the framework of ENEMB is not
meant to substitute national or local programmes. The European courses will be included into these existing
programmes. The courses can be attended by students from all member states and associated members of the
European Union. We would like to invite students from other European countries as well. The courses should
also be open for a limited number of people from outside Europe.
The programme comprises the following goals:
* To establish a qualified study beyond the level of Master of Science degree (or the nearest national
equivalence).
* To prevent narrow specialisation through a broad teaching program.
* To define international research goals within a framework of European
co-operation.
* To stimulate contacts between researchers and students of different origin (country as well as
formations).
The practical application of European co-operation is expected to result in significantly better chances
for joint activities in marine research as well as in industry and economy, especially in the light of the increased
focus towards European unity. It is believed that this program will reinforce the spirit of European co-operation
by stimulating an extended foreign residence for doctoral students. The programme will facilitate the access of
students to post-doctoral positions in partner labs. Finally, it should also prepare harmonizing the doctoral
teaching programmes in marine biogeochemistry at the European level in a future European educational space.
Funding:
We request funding mainly for travelling of speakers and students and a small amount for the local
organizing committee. Money should be allocated for student exchange between countries of up to 6 months for
10 to 20 students. This will favour co-operation between partner labs and diffusion of recent progress amongst
the NofE community.
Language:
All courses will be given in English.
On-going experiences :
-NEBROC (NEtherlands BRemen OCeanography), a Dutch-German cooperation in oceano-graphy
between the Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ) and several partners located in the state of Bremen,
has several years of experience with their European Graduate College in Marine Sciences (ECOLMAS). Several
courses per year with 25 students from the Netherlands, Germany and other European countries have been given
(see Appendix I).
-DEA Européen de Modélisation en Environnement. Jacques Nihoul (U. of Liège, Belgium) is the pilot
of this European Graduate Level Course (Universities : Liège, Brest, Paris 6, Corte, Baleares, Barcelona, Lisbon,
Canaria)
-SOLAS Summer School : contact person : Corinne Le Quéré : lequere@bgc-jena.mpg.de
B-4-Organising staff mobility and exchanges of personnels : TO COME
Component C : activities designed to spread excellence
..« contribution to the widespread dissemination of expertise and knowledge acquired, including towards the
public,…and networking and training activities ».
C-1-Training of researchers :
TO COME (especially from outside the NofE, link with the European Doctoral School)
C-2-Public outreach:
A joint venture between the NofE and a
Network of aquariums/museums
acknowledged as scientific and culturel centers will be established.
Objective : To use the most modern pathways of science for disseminating science to
large public.
Network of aquariums: Antwerpen (B), Barcelona (S), Brest (F), Esberg (D), Genova
(I), Kiel (G), Monaco/Paris (Mc, F), Plymouth (GB), Rotterdam (NL), Tromsö (N).
Pilots: Eric Hussenot (Oceanopolis Brest-France), in connection with the Musée
Océanographique de Monaco.