GROWING MOBILITY IN INDIA: HOW SUSTAINABLE ARE THE NEW
EFFORTS?
Prof.Samir Kumar Saha1*, Prof. Joyashree Roy2, Nitesh Lakhlan3, Syed Mujibur Rahman4,
Shyamasree Dasgupta5
1
Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata (India)
Professor, Department of Economics, Jadavpur University, Kolkata (India)
3
Mechanical Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata (India)
4
Mechanical Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata (India)
5
M.Phil Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Jadavpur University,Kolkata (India)
2
Abstract:
Indian cities are experiencing fast growth in registered motorized vehicles. Booming economy,
aspirations to own a vehicle, inadequate public transport (with respect to demand, comfort or both),
government’s encouraging policies etc. are few reasons for the rapid increase in motorization. The absolute
number on road has increased from 19 million in 1990 to 68 million in 2004 and is expected to reach 295
million by 2030, overtaking that of the United States. Concern for local air pollution has been duly responded by
various stakeholders. Technological and policy response have been dominated by standard specification and
implementation through certification.
In this paper we try to present the case of Kolkata city where Euro I, II, III standards have been
implemented since 1980 to reduce emissions of local pollutants. Using empirical evidence of fuel consumption
and kilometer travelled by the public sector vehicles we have analyzed how far the goal of efficiency could be
achieved. Although in policy and legislation Green House Gas emission did not form a part we studied the
Carbon dioxide emission of the vehicles along with controlled local pollutants. Results show that unless
specifically monitored, there is no guarantee that Euro standards can reduce Green House Gas emission.
Observations also show that mere technical standard specification cannot bring in fuel economy as fuel
consumption varies with speed and congestion. Findings show that emissions from mobility sector cannot be
reduced through change of vehicle standard alone. Mobility system as a whole needs to be planned which
include vehicle standard, city planning, road space allocation, congestion management, traffic flow routing all
taken together. Partial approach may not deliver the desired outcome. Often integration is theoretically
understood but practically left to disjoint decision making and policy planning.
Key words: mobility, sustainability, transportation, Green House Gas emission and global warming
Introduction:
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the important constituents of Green House Gases (GHGs) and
its unlimited emission leads to increase the surface temperature of the earth. The earth’s climate is
rapidly changing, mainly as a result of increases in GHGs caused by human activities. According to
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that “Most of the observed increase in
global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in
anthropogenic GHG concentrations” (IPCC 2007). Climate change is now perceived as a serious
global threat and it demands an urgent and far-reaching response. The concentration of atmospheric
CO2 has increased from a pre-industrial value of about 280 parts per million (ppm) to 379 ppm in
2005 (IPCC, 2007), with projections of global concentrations rising to 550 ppm by 2050 at current
trends, or rising to 550-700 ppm by 2050, and 650- 1200 ppm by 2100, without future intervention. A
“sustainable” level of concentration is seen as around 450 ppm (or lower – some estimates are as low
as 400 ppm, or even 350 ppm – below present levels). Emissions from transport are one of the most
serious and rapidly growing problems. The transport sector is responsible for almost 25% of global
*Tel.: (033) 2414-6354 Email address: sahasamir7@yahoo.com
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CO2 emissions (IISD, 2004). Transport emissions are growing at approximately 2.1% per year
worldwide, and 3.5% per year in developing countries (IEA, 2002).Transportation is a major source
of GHG emissions which accounts for one-quarter of the world’s energy related CO2 emissions and is
expected to be the most rapidly growing source over the next 30 years.
The size of population has a major role to play in the context sustainability transition. Total
population of India has already much exceeded the figure of one billion. While the decadal growth of
the country as a whole has declined marginally from 23.9% (1981–1991) to 21.3% (1991–2001), the
pace of urbanisation in India has been increasing rapidly. The future urban population growth in India
is expected to drive increasing motorisation and have serious consequences for traffic growth, urban
road congestion and CO2 emissions as well as wider sustainability and quality of life issues. The
urban population has risen from 109 million in 1971 to 159 million in 1981, 217 million in 1991 and
285 million in 2001. The share of urban population has risen from 25.7% in 1991 to 27.8% in 2001. It
is expected that by 2031, about 40% of the total population - estimated to be 1.42 billion - will reside
in urban areas (GOI, 2001). There is skewness in the distribution of population among different urban
centres, with a high concentration of population in a few large-sized megacities, such as Mumbai with
16.4 million, Kolkata with 14.7 million and Delhi with 12.8 million inhabitants. Kolkata happens to
be the most densely populated city among megacities. As in the growth of population, Indian cities
have registered a huge growth in registered motor vehicles in the last decade. Booming economy,
aspirations to own a vehicle, inadequate public transport (with respect to demand, comfort or both),
government’s encouraging policies etc. are few reasons for the rapid increase in motorization. The
number of vehicles on road has increased from 19 million in 1990 to 68 million in 2004 and is
expected to reach 295 million by 2030, overtaking that of the United States (IEA, 2007). The total
CO2 emission load from vehicular exhausts in India has increased from 132.55 tons/day in 1951 to
7917.75 tons/day in 2002. According to The Energy Research Institute (TERI), CO2 emissions in
India have been increasing by 6% per year. India is currently the sixth largest and second fastest
growing GHG contributor to the global climate change.
Given this background it would be extremely important to ensure sustainability in the growing
transport sector. Policy driven technological upgradataion is supposed to bring forward environment
friendly sustainable vehicular system characterized by much less emission of local pollutants. Now
the question is whether this kind of technological adaptation in transport sector, designed to reduce
emission of local pollutants, would automatically lead to lowering of global pollutants like CO2? The
hypothesis of the study is that the partial approach of engineering design of the mobility sector may
lead to less emission of local pollutant but the same would not automatically take care of CO 2
emission without any complementary policy support and no holistic approach. A case study analysis
has been done to understand the validity of the hypothesis.
The Study Area:
An case study of Kolkata, which has a population of 14.7 million, has been done to analyse the above
mentioned hypothesis. Kolkata is the second largest city in India and ranks seventh in the world in
terms of population. The city also has a background of dense traffic on road. During 1982-83 the total
number of registered vehicles in Kolkata was 0.17 million which has increased to 1.164 million in
2005 and is expected to further increase to about 2.6 million by 2015. The total CO2 emission load
from vehicular exhausts in Kolkata has increased from 205.53 tons/day in 1981 to d 265.87 tons/day
in 2001. Effective and reliable transport systems are crucial for the functioning of economy. But such
systems generate significant negative externalities like emission of GHGs, local air pollution, noise
vibrations, energy consumption, and loss of open space. Thus there remains a great challenge how to
deliver the transport services while minimizing the externalities generated. Although significant
efforts have been made to control vehicular emission of local pollutants, worldwide examples show
that there is a small reduction of energy consumption and CO2 emissions in motorized modes of
transport. It is, however, proved that reducing CO2 emissions from the transport sector is much easier
than cutting those from the household sector. Moreover any new approach that involves a change in
2
vehicle technology or a shift to different mobility technologies and techniques can be implemented in
a relatively short time. Transport, therefore, is a very important element in our race toward sustainable
life on earth.
The term ‘sustainability’ has attained a prominent place in transportation policy and planning.
Sustainability can be broadly defined as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs’. In the context of transportation,
sustainability would mean developing better transportation systems, options, and expectations
consistent with the objective of securing future social and economic development within a sustainable
environment that ensures community well-being. Sustainable transport can be achieved through
measures pertaining to transportation system management, energy management, capacity management
and environmental management. Sustainable transport is also important from the perspective of
climate change, i.e. decreasing the carbon foot print /ecological foot print of transportation. Thus
above findings thrust the need for achieving sustainability in transport not just from the mobility and
safety perspective but also from the perspective of local and global warming issues. As a part of it, a
case study was conducted in the transport sector of Kolkata.
Transportation- India in general and Kolkata in particular:
Mobility verses transport defines modern civilization. Where we live and work, the structure
of our cities, the flow of global commerce—all have been shaped by transportation technologies. But
modern transportation’s reliance on fossil fuels cannot be sustained. Passenger planes, trains, and
automobiles were responsible for nearly four billion tons of carbon dioxide emissions in 2005—about
25 percent of the carbon dioxide emitted globally that year. If we continue to rely almost exclusively
on petroleum to power these vehicles, they will be responsible for 11- 18 billion tons of carbon
dioxide emissions in 2050. This is because developing nations—which are home to 82 percent of the
world’s population and will be responsible for 98 percent of population growth in coming years—are
on the verge of mass motorization.
The main transport systems in India are railways, roads, shipping and airlines. Among these,
95% of the total traffic in India is carried by railways and roads. The vast network of railways and
road connects almost all corners of the country. Until the beginning of the eighties private passenger
cars played a marginal role in India. Bicycles, buses, trucks, and motorbike-rickshaws dominated the
streets. In the mid-eighties, Suzuki started the production of its Maruti-car, followed by Honda's
motorcycle. India's annual growth rate of motorized transport (averaging about 16%) is considerably
higher than the rate of population growth (1.9%). The number of vehicles rose from 4 per 1000
inhabitants in 1971 to 32 in 1994. The expansion of the road system was not able to keep pace with
this increase. Thus, besides pollution and GHG emissions threat, the streets are strained beyond their
limits and are becoming a threat to pedestrians' safety. The automobile is pushing out bicycles and
rickshaws. During Campaign "Sunshine", 12,000 out of the 18,000 bike-rickshaw-drivers were
pushed out of Kolkata to create space for the automobile. This process is currently underway in many
big cities in Asia and Africa. Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata rank among the ten most polluted cities in
the world.
In India, over the years more and more inland freight traffic has been shifting from rail to
road. In the year 1951 about 88% of country's freight was moving on rail and 10% on roads. But the
situation has changed drastically over the last few decades and today about 60% of the freight moves
on the road and about 38% on railways. The potential of coastal and inland water transportation is yet
to be exploited in a significant way in our country. India contributes only 4.3% of the world vehicular
population. Vehicular population has increased at an annual average rate of over 12.7% during the
period 1971-1998, resulting in a higher demand for fuel and increase in passenger /freight kilometer
along with poor quality of fuel supplies cause menacing growth in vehicular pollution particularly in
the cities (Source: Pant K C; Task Force on Integrated Transport Policy, 2001). The growth of
vehicles in India, West Bengal and Kolkata from independence period to 2005 is presented in Table-1.
3
It is observed from Table 1 that the number of vehicles on roads has increased from 306
thousands in the year 1951 to 58863 thousands in the year 2002. During independence period (1951),
among 306 thousand vehicles on road two-wheeler was 8.82%, car, jeep and taxi were 51.96%, buses
were 11.11%, goods vehicles were 26.8% and others were 1.31%. After 40 years in 1991, the total
number of vehicles in India has increased to 21374 thousand of which 66.44% two wheelers, 13.82%
were car, jeep and taxi; 1.55% were buses, 6.34% were goods vehicles and rest were others. The
vehicular population has increased by 69.8 times over the period 1951-1991. In the years 2000, 2001
and
Table 1
Growth of Vehicles
India
Year
1951
1961
1971
1981
1991
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Total no of
vehicles(in
Thousands)
306
665
1865
5391
21374
33783
37231
41,369
44,875
48857
54991
58863
Year
West Bengal
Total (in No.)
Kolkata
Total (in No.)
1981
1991
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
304038
918768
1198733
1239809
1346027
1485071
1632560
1740538
1889039
2129045
2366416
2547962
2681005
172323
476745
565396
587576
616050
664046
693739
729302
762924
794806
856880
941722
1164783
Source: 1) Department of Road Transport and Highways, GOI; 2) Statistical Abstract, 2005-2006, Government of West
Bengal; 3) Statistical Handbook, West Bengal, 1999- Bureau of Applied Economics & Statistics, Government of West
Bengal
2002 the percentages of different types of vehicles have changed minutely. However the trend shows
that the number of road vehicles is expected to reach approximately 295 million by 2030, overtaking
that of the United States. Similarly in the case Kolkata the number vehicles has increased from
172323 in the year 1951 to 1164783 in the year 2005 and it is expected to reach about 2.6 million by
2015.
Transportation and climate changes:
Climate change is today accepted as the largest threat to humanity. It has brought to focus
critical questions of linkages between development and environmental sustainability.Whilst cities are
threatened by the effects of climate change, they also contribute directly to global warming. Cities
consume 80% of the world’s energy and are responsible for 75% of CO2 emissions that cause climate
change. Direct sources of GHG emissions in cities include energy generation, vehicles, industry and
the burning of fossil fuels and biomass in households. Emissions from vehicles and transport
equipments are substantial and are rising at a rate of 2.5% each year, and contribute not only to CO2
emissions, but also to local and regional pollution problems through the emission of carbon
monoxide, lead, sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides. CO2 emission quantities of world and some of
the prominent countries are given in Table-2. Globally, temperatures have already increased by 0.7
degrees Centigrade over the past century. Temperatures are expected to further increase by a
4
minimum of 1.8 degrees Centigrade to a maximum of 4 degrees Centigrade until the end of this
century depending on our ability (or inability) to check climate change by undertaking drastic
reductions in emissions of GHGs. Apart from a few positive impacts on tourism and agriculture in
northern Europe, increase in global temperatures will have detrimental effects in most parts of the
world. Changing rainfall patterns will result in intense flooding and severe droughts, melting glaciers
will aggravate the problem of freshwater shortage. The intensity and frequency of cyclones and other
storms will increase, vector-borne diseases will spread and rising sea-levels will eventually drown
coastal low-lying megacities like Mumbai and Kolkata. Developing economies located in tropical
regions will have to bear the brunt of the worst impacts of climate change; countries like India which
are on a high growth path will find their development jeopardized if global temperatures rise above 2
degrees Centigrade.
Table-2
Sl. No.
Country/
Region
CO2 (Mt)
Power
Transport
Generation
1
World
26,079
10,587
5,112
2
USA
5,769
2,403
1,759
3
Japan
1,211
454
252
4
OECD Europe
4,078
1,409
976
5
India
1,103
629
98
Source: World Energy Outlook for the year 2004, International Energy Agency
Total
Contribution
Of Transport
(%)
19.60
30.49
20.81
23.93
8.88
Strategies for sustainable mobility:
Some of the important strategies which are generally implemented and under the process of
implementation globally are discussed below.
Encouragement of Non – Motorised Transport: Although Non motorised transport is an integral
element of rural and developing urban cities in India, it is still good scope in some major cities like
Delhi, Mumbai. On the other hand, more than 50% of the city residents cannot afford any other mode
of transport unless heavily subsidised. Despite this, investment for pedestrian and cycling
infrastructure is traditionally low relative to other modes. The streets of Indian cities need to be made
more amenable, attractive and safe in design terms to encourage pedestrian and cycle use. Major
deterrents to cycling include unhealthy, unpleasant and dangerous traffic conditions, unsuitable road
design and a lack of secure cycle parking. Conditions must be improved to ensure that routes are fit
for cycling such as safe, convenient and pleasant. To encourage more walking and cycling, incentives
are required for people to modify their journey patterns and to make shorter trips by making such
facilities (shops, schools, post offices and banks) closer to where people live. Micro level policies
such as maintenance policies for walking routes, ensuring pavements are in good state of repair and
removing street clutter, obstructions, etc. are also important.
Use of alternative fuels: The technological foundation should be laid for the eventual elimination of
the effects of fossil carbon in transport fuel. This will likely require both the development of solar
energy and hydrogen energy. However, development of vehicles with solar energy as well as
hydrogen energy is still in the research stage.
Promotion of MRTS and BRTS: Public transport is a key policy package in providing an
alternative, more carbon efficient means of travel. In India, most public transport services are of poor
quality - crowded, undependable, slow and inconvenient, uncoordinated and often dangerous. In many
mega-cities, rail systems should ideally carry the bulk of the high demand for motorized trips, as mass
5
rapid transit systems (MRTS) have a capacity superior to any other urban transport system. In this
some of the major cities in India like Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, etc., have already taken the steps for
implementation of BRTS and MRTS. For example, slow shifting from conventional buses to metro
services by expanding new routes in Kolkata helps in reducing the GHG emissions as well as other
pollutants to a large extent.
High-Speed Train: There is potential for some CO2 emission reduction impacts by the substitution
of long distance travel by more fuel efficient modes. Introduction of high speed train (HST) would
definitely reduce the CO2 emission to a large extent.
Green Arteries: Recently a very encouraging policy called “green arteries” has started working in
New York City which connects almost every part of the city with sustainable subway cars/cable cars
and inter-cities with high speed trains. New technologies increase rail line capacity by 50% and lower
energy consumption by 30%. Global implementation of such new mobility systems would make our
world smaller.
Traffic Planning: The issues currently plaguing the traffic and transportation system in Kolkata are
lack of adequate road space, or of controlled rights of way, a rapidly increasing fleet of personal
vehicles partly due to the absence of a well defined public transport system, lack of parking space and
the near absence of a parking policy, lack of enforcement, and worst of all, road user indiscipline.
Therefore it is necessary to improve the traffic flow which will lead to reduction of fuel consumption
and then the emission of GHGs and other pollutants.
Pricing Regimes: Increasing the price of car-based travel in India would be difficult to implement in
social/equity terms. However this policy lever is one of the ways in which decision making can be
influenced and behaviour change achieved. Congestion charges in London and carbon tax in British
Colombia, Canada, are examples of making petrol car-based travel more unattractive. Ideally pricing
is linked to the emissions profile of the vehicle – this might include both CO2 emissions and local
pollutants. The charging could feasibly also be related to usage/occupancy. The combination of
emissions pricing and the availability of clean vehicles should provide incentives to people to switch
to cleaner vehicles and also reduce unnecessary car-based travel.
Integrated Urban Planning: Urban spatial structure, at the strategic and local scales, can be
extremely influential in determining the main characteristics of travel – the numbers of trips made,
journey lengths and mode share. Urban structure thus provides the basic rationale for travel (and
consequently CO2 emissions), alongside wider influences such as socio-economic and
attitudinal/cultural characteristics. Despite this, urban planning is often underplayed as a tool in traffic
demand management strategies. This package aims at improving the urban design such that
dependence on private vehicles is reduced. Effective land use planning helps to create mixed use
areas, better conditions for walking, cycling and public transport.
Some main measures which may be considered in the integrated urban planning are
• Strategic urban planning and design focused on reducing the need to travel;
• Public transport orientated development, high density clusters around interchange;
• Upgrading of local urban facilities, amenities and recreational areas;
• Environmental zones reserved for clean vehicles;
• Improved conditions for walking, cycling and public transport use, with integration between
modes and street.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT): e-communication now allows many
activities to be carried out electronically, potentially replacing the need for physical travel which can
reduce a substantial amount of CO2 emission. Thus the encouragement of the use of the internet and
mobile technology is necessary to help reduction in travel frequency and distance and thereby climate
impacts.
6
Low carbon technology/ Low Emission Vehicles: The reduction in emissions is a result of a radical
introduction of low carbon technologies that reduce emissions without restricting the rise in travel.
This policy package aims to substantially improve the efficiency of vehicles by reducing fuel
consumption and consequently CO2 emissions. These technologies include the following:
• Hybrid vehicle technology for cars and SUVs which can significantly lower the average
emissions profile of the car stock. Presently in the global context, a hybrid bus emits up to 26
tons less CO2 per year than a conventional bus. Hence one possibility is to give sufficient
encouragement and support for the introduction of hybrid vehicles, so that by 2030 high
proportions (around 90 %) of sales are of hybrid vehicles. These hybrid vehicles could be
powered by diesel or petrol, or even alternative fuels.
 Improved fuel economy standards
 Electric vehicles – Siemens researchers have started developing devices that will make it easy
for drivers to recharge their vehicle batteries within minutes. This will be a breakthrough in
the new technologies and will be highly beneficial for reducing CO2 emissions (as well as
local air pollutants).
 Biofuels – this scenario assumes a rising share of Biofuels in the fuel mix for all vehicles. The
blend of Biofuels in both diesel and petrol will rise gradually, reaching a level of 30% by the
year 2030. The Government of India has already introduced a programme of 5% ethanol in
petrol and this scenario assumes that the programme would be developed further. However,
there is a debate for a country like India where most of the people depend upon cultivation
that the generation of Biofuels will simply consume the cultivation land.
Intelligent transport systems: Enhancement and proper implementation of intelligent transport
systems will have impressive benefits to the sustainable mobility. Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS)
technologies have the potential to enable individual travellers, vehicle operators and governmental
authorities to make transport decisions that are better informed, more intelligent, and safer which will
indirectly help the reduction of GHG emission. Some examples include:
•
Integrated fare management
• Enhanced transit/customer relationship management
• Traffic prediction
• Improved transport and traffic management
• Traveller information and advisory services
•
Road user charging
• Variable parking pricing.
Ecological Driving and Slower Speeds: It has been demonstrated that lower speed limits, and less
lane switching, can allow traffic to flow more smoothly, thereby increasing capacity. For example, in
U.K. there has also been a clear move towards lowering speed limits in residential areas (home zones)
and in other locations (e.g. around schools), where priority has been reallocated to people. Lower
speed limits can have major safety benefits. Not only this, driving at moderate speeds (e.g. in the 30s
to 80 kph) also has substantial impacts on CO2 emissions as it avoids excessive acceleration, harsh
braking and ultimately it reduces the CO2 emissions, fuel consumption, etc. Moreover, other
measures like starting the engine without using the accelerator, changing gears at relatively low
engine revolutions, driving in the highest comfortable gear at any given speed and controlled use of
the accelerator may also be considered as cases of ecological driving.
Freight Transport: The freight sector has a major role to play in helping to reduce transport sector
CO2 emissions. There are a number of ways to reduce freight CO2 emissions – improve load factors,
reduce empty running, change mode and improve fuel efficiency.
Case Study for Public Transport Sector in Kolkata:
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1. Data for fuel consumption and km traveled from August’07 to April’08 for Non-Euro, Euro
I, Euro II, and Euro III for Kolkata State Transport Corporation (CSTC) were collected out of which
data for two of the months are given in Table-3a & 3b. CSTC is a West Bengal state government
undertaken transport corporation. It plies buses in Kolkata and nearby districts of West Bengal with
some long distance services. Total strength of CSTC is 1040 buses as on 2007 and the average age of
vehicle is 7.02 years. Using the collected data and the technique of ultimate analysis the CO2
emissions for the stated vehicle types are calculated.
Euro norms: Emission norms are requirements that set specific limits to the amount of
pollutants that can be released into the environment. Many emissions standards focus on regulating
pollutants released by automobiles (motor cars) and other powered vehicles. Frequent policy
alternatives to emissions standards are technology standards (which mandate Standards generally
regulate the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides, particulate matter (PM) or soot, carbon
monoxide (CO), or volatile hydrocarbons (see carbon dioxide equivalent).Thus the Euro norms
require manufacturers to reduce the conventional polluting emission levels in a more efficient manner
by making certain technical changes in the vehicles. The first Indian emission regulations were idle
emission limits which became effective in 1989. These idle emission regulations were soon replaced
by mass emission limits for both petrol (1991) and diesel (1992) vehicles, which were gradually
tightened during the 1990s. Since the year 2000, India started adopting European emission and fuel
regulations for four-wheeled light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles. India’s own emission regulations
still apply to two- and three-wheeled vehicles.
The specifications of Euro I, Euro II, and Euro III norms implemented by the government are
given as follows:
EURO I:
Gasoline driven vehicles
CO: 2.72 gm/km
HC+NOx: 0.97 gm/km
CO% Vol. at idles: 3
EURO II:
Gasoline driven vehicles
CO: 2.20gm/km
HC+NOx: 0.50 gm/km
EURO III:
Gasoline driven vehicles
CO: 2.30 gm/km
HC+NOx: 0.20+0.15 gm/km
CO% Vol. at idles: 3
Diesel driven vehicles
CO: 2.72 gm/km
HC+NOx: 0.97 gm/km
Particulate matter: 0.14 gm/km
Diesel driven vehicles
CO: 1.0 gm/km
HC+NOx: 0.7 gm/km
Particulate matter: 0.08 gm/km
Diesel driven vehicles
CO: 0.64-0.95gm/km
HC+NOx: 0.56-0.86 gm/km
Particulate matter: 0.05-0.10 gm/km
8
Table: 3a
Data from CSTC: (for Sept,07)
Vehicle type
No. of buses
Non-Euro
Euro I
Euro II
Euro III
298
415
335
20
Fuel consumption
(litre)
228980.33
353539.66
556128
23788.33
Kms
travelled
758958.4
1335430.3
1952340.7
73307
Kmpl
Kms
travelled
566101
1238097
2061185
91434
Kmpl
3.31
3.77
3.51
3.08
CO2 emissions
(kg/ km)
0.805
0.707
0.761
0.866
Table: 3b
Data from CSTC: (for April,08)
Vehicle type
No. of buses
Non-Euro
Euro I
Euro II
Euro III
242
415
334
19
Fuel consumption
(litre)
169315
328414
57899
29772
3.34
3.76
3.55
3.07
CO2 emissions
(kg/ km)
0.798
0.708
0.752
0.887
As technological advancement has taken place improved vehicles have been introduced in the
form of Euro I, Euro II and Euro III. From Table 3a and 3b it could be observed that fuel efficiency on
road has been declined for improved vehicles. For example in table 3b, mileage of Euro I standard in
Kolkata was found to be 3.76 Kilometer per liter which has been subsequently declined for improved
Euro II and III. So there was a worsening of fuel intensity of the vehicles. This subsequently lead to
higher CO2 emission intensity for improved vehicles: While emission of CO2 was found to be 0.708
kg per kilometer travel of Euro I vehicles, the same figure increases to 0.752 kg/km and 0.887 kg/km
for Euro II and Euro III respectively. This phenomenon could be explained by analyzing the
characteristic of the mechanical design of engines used in these vehicles. Improved vehicular
technology implies use of high power engines which could deliver efficient outcomes in terms of fuel
efficiency and emission reduction only when they are driven at a higher speed. On heavy traffic
congested roads like Kolkata, these technologically improved vehicles thus could not deliver an
efficient outcome.
Data were collected for increase in consumption of fuel with the increase of transit time and
using this data, the quantity of CO2 emission was obtained. Table 4 shows the consumption of fuel at
peak and non-peak hours for different routes:
Table – 4
Sl.
No.
Route
no.
Route
L 9A
1
Dunlop to
Ballygunge
No. of buses per day
Distance (km)
21
Fuel
Nonpeak
hours
(speed
km/hr)
20
7.3
Peak
hours
(speed
km/hr)
Average fuel
consumption
%wastage
Per trip
12
12.8
24
5.5
9
2
= 20
consumption=
Daily trips= 40
S-32
Baracpore to
Howrah
No. of buses per day
= 16
Difference= 7.3- 5.5 =1.8 litres of fuel consumed more for 1 trip
27.5
20
12
16.6
25
Daily trips= 32
Difference= 9.5 - 7.1 =2.4 litres of fuel consumed more for 1 trip
Fuel
consumption=
7.1
9.5
From the table: 4, it is observed that there is a large difference in speed during peak and nonpeak hours and there is increase in transit time which resulted in large consumption of fuel. It leads to
the increase in GHG emission. The amount of CO2 emission for the excess fuel consumed due to
more traffic during peak hours has been calculated and it has been found as 192.24 kg per day for the
route L 9A and 205.05 kg per day for the route S-32. The variation in speed can be controlled by road
widening, rerouting, restriction of auto in the main roads, etc.
3. The following data given in table: 5 show the fuel consumption and GHG emission for
different routes/places:
Table: 5
Emission Data for Public buses(Govt. & Private) for one side of a Route.( Place- Garia)
Bus
Route
Distance
Fuel
Time taken
Total
Avg.
No.
(km)
Consumption
(min)
passen Speed
(litre)
gers
(km/hr)
Nos.
45B
234/1
S-9
S-31
8B
Garia
To
Airport
gate
11
Belgharia
To
Lake
Garden
27
Jadavpur
To
Karuna
moyee
23
Jadavpur
To
Behala
rasta
9
Jadavpur
To
Howrah
16
3.5
4
4
4
8
9
8
8
7
6.5
7
7
3
3.5
3
3
7
7.5
7
8
Avg.
3.8
8.25
6.87
3.12
7.37
Nos.
45
50
50
60
130
150
140
130
60
70
70
60
35
45
40
45
60
50
50
60
Emission
(gm/km)
Avg.
50
13
919.25
70
12
1225.7
60
21
794.2
50
13
922
60
17
813.08
51
137.5
65
41
56
10
From table: 5, it is found that lower average speed of vehicles due to traffic congestion
increases emission from the vehicles. The only way to increase the average speed is through
improvement of traffic flow. This can be done by better signaling at the crossings and fixing the
number of vehicles for a particular route.
Comparison of fuel consumption, kmpl and earning for four existing CSTC buses and four
low floor buses are given below .This study is done to show the importance of low floor buses over
existing CSTC buses. Further, using this data, the CO2 emission from the low floor buses and existing
CSTC buses has been calculated.
Table: 6 (Existing CSTC buses)
Sl.no
1
2
3
4
Km
5183.9
4974.1
5578.2
6185.5
Feb’08
HSD (litres)
1758
1650
1734
1832
Kmpl
2.94
3.01
3.21
3.37
Earning
845208.15
2336425.75
3140725.60
2035430.20
Kmpl
3.21
3.33
2.65
1.41
Earning
794454.55
8584977.90
988112.25
724226.40
Table: 7 (Low floor buses)
Sl.no
1
2
3
4
Km
5612.9
4747.9
4406.5
227.6
Feb’08
HSD (litres)
1744
1424
1658
161
From tables: 6 and 7, it is observed that ticket sale per bus in low floor buses is more than
existing CSTC buses but the kmpl of the former is very low as compared to the latter. Although the
average mileage of the existing buses and low floor buses are almost equal the emission per passenger
is lower in the case of low floor buses because of their larger capacities. Hence low floor buses are
more efficient in reducing GHG emission than existing buses. Therefore, slow phasing out of existing
buses and subsequent replacement by low floor buses is necessary.
5. Data collected for route remapping to reduce emissions for a specific route is shown in
table: 8: The route IC21 is taken which travels from Dakhinneswar to Garia. It covers a distance of
29.25 km and consumes 9 litres of fuel. Whereas proposed new route via Karunamoyee covers a
distance of 38 km and consumes 12 litres of fuel. Instead of providing a new route, the existing route
may be divided into two shifts as morning shift and evening shift as per the passenger load available
which saves 3 litres per trip as shown below.
Table: 8
Bus No.
Route
Existing Route
Via
Distance
IC21A
Dakhineswar to
Ultadanga, EM Bypass
29.25
Fuel
consumption
9
11
Garia
Proposed route
IC21A
Dakhineswar to
Garia
Ultadanga,Karunamoyee,
EM Bypass
38
12
Table: 8 shows that buses running without or with minimum passengers leads to higher
emission per passenger. In order to reduce it, the route is to be divided into two shifts according to
passenger load as shown above. This will not only decrease GHG emission per passenger but also
increase revenues for the bus operators.
6. Load factor study of buses by taking different categories at different locations using “visual
occupation study”: the methodology used by Logitrans (2003) is shown in table: 9:
.
Table: 9
Time: 10 am to 6 pm
Bus No.
80A
Route
Load Factor Study Chart
No. of
vehicles
17
A
B
Place: Tollygunge
C
D
E
F
Garia to
Dharamtala
41
Lalka to
17
Tsow
40B
Thakurpur
27
To
Baguihati
205A
Garia to
6
Dharmtala
S-7
Garia to
6
Howrah
208
Babughat
10
to High
court
41B
BBD bag
12
to
Dalhugao
C-8
Tollygunge 11
To
Niccopark
228
Maharpur
6
to
Babughat
C-14
Modma to
7
Tollygunge
218
Dhakuria to 5
Howrah
37/1
SaltLake to 5
Tollygunge
135
Bigata to
5
Howrah
A: nearly empty; B: some seated passengers; C: all passengers seated;
D: some passengers standing; E: bus in full; F: overloaded
12
Table: 9 shows that at off-peak hours maximum buses run empty as there is no coordinated
scheduling of bus services and thereby increases GHG emission per passenger. This implies
staggering of office hours can help congestions thereby carbon emission reduction. It also shows the
requirement of ‘centralized bus fleet control’ which allows for a coordinated scheduling of bus
services that dynamically adjusts bus frequency with demand to result in fewer buses scheduled in
off-peak hours. Thus load factor of buses is optimized leading to lower GHG emissions per passenger
and higher revenues.
Conclusions:
Case study in Kolkata shows that mere change in technical standard specifications neither
solves the problem of GHG emissions nor the fuel consumption. It clearly highlights the fact that any
technological upgradation backed by the policy requirement to reduce the emission of local pollutants
cannot by itself take care of the emission of global pollutants such as CO2. Any attempt to reduce the
emission of GHGs from mobility sector needs to be backed by specific policy design. The
technological upgradation needs to be backed by proper design of route, infrastructural and transport
management. Otherwise, clearly, even improved technologies like higher Euro standard vehicles are
introduces them would fail to bring the most efficient outcome. They are found to be effective in
reduction of local pollutants but only at the cost of increasing emission of CO2 per kilometer as the
other parameters were not taken care of. There are many research issues that need to be addressed in
order to make these efforts successful in achieving sustainability in transportation for Indian cities. It
can be concluded that it is necessary to quantify state-wise emissions from the Indian road transport
sector which would be useful in the design and implementation of appropriate technologies and
policies for GHG mitigation, thereby leading to an efficient and sustainable transportation network.
This kind of a partial approach towards technological upgradation would never lead to a sustainable
transport sector, what is needed is an holistic approach in policy design incorporating technological,
infrastructural, managerial, environmental: both local and global issues.
References:
Jana, B., Roy, P., Majumder, M. & Mazumdar, A. (2008). A Review on GHG Emission as CO2
equivalent from Transport System in view of Advanced Vehicular Technology and Improved Fuel
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Lakhlan, N.K. (2008). A study of carbon emission in transport sector in Kolkata: Methodologies for
carbon emission reduction and CDM possibilities. Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of
Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
Björn Stigson, President, WBCSD, Mobility 2030: Meeting the challenges to sustainability.
Cazorla, Marina and M Toman (2000): ‘International Equity and Climate Change Policy’, Climate
Issues Brief No 27, Washington DC: Resources for the Future.
Agarwal, A., and S. Narain. 1991. Global Warming in an Unequal World: A Case of Environmental
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Hoel, Michael. 1992. International Environment Conventions: The Case of Uniform Reductions
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Sustainable mobility, The Magazine for Research and Innovation, (2010), Siemens
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