CONCERN WORLDWIDE
(LOGO)
ARID AND SEMI ARID LANDS (ASALS) WATER SECTOR
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS IN MARSABIT COUNTY, KENYA.
By Alois Muthini David (Lead),
Assisted by Prof. Munguti Katui Katua (Associate)
February 2013
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special acknowledgements go to Simon Rukwaro for his input in field coordination and
sanitation aspects of the study, Upande Limited for support in digital mapping, Victor Odero of
Concern Worldwide for his backstopping support, and the staff of Water and Livelihoods
Network for their various inputs.
ii
FOREWORD
The Arid and Semi Arid Lands (ASALs) make up more than 40% of the earth’s surface and are
home to 35% of its population1. In Kenya, the ASALs occupy 89% of the country and are home
to about 14 million people and approximately 70% of the national livestock herd. The defining
feature of the ASALs is their aridity. Annual rainfall in arid areas ranges between 150mm and
550mm per year, and in semi-arid areas between 550mm and 850mm per year. Temperatures in
arid areas are high throughout the year, with high rates of evapo-transpiration. The primary
policy challenge is how to ensure food and nutrition security in a sustainable manner in
environments that are prone to drought, where people’s access to and control over critical
livelihood resources such as land is insecure, and where unpredictability is set to increase as
climate change takes hold. Turkana, Marsabit and Mandera are the three places with the highest
levels of poverty in the country2.
Population density ranges from 1 or 2 people per km2 in parts of Turkana and Marsabit to 358
people per km2 in parts of Kilifi3. Population growth rates in the ASALs are generally higher
than in other parts of the country. This is partly the result of in-migration, and partly because
fertility rates are falling faster elsewhere in Kenya.
ASALs however, have great potential, with several factors which make the region strategic.
Some of these factors are strategic location, making it well positioned to tap surplus capital from
the gulf, one of the fastest developing areas in the world. It is also the bridgehead to a regional
economy both as a market and access way for materials. Another factor is Tourism, with ASALs
home to more than 90% of wild game that sustains the tourist industry, and containing most of
the protected areas such as game reserves and national parks. ASALs have huge potential for
natural wealth, including the enormous potential in renewable energy, as well as other sources of
wealth like gravel, sand, soda ash, gum, resins, gemstones, medicinal plants, and now, oil and
gas. Significant amounts of seasonal water run-off are currently lost but could be harnessed for
domestic and productive use. ASALs have huge potential for irrigated agriculture and dryland
farming, and host about 70% of national livestock of an estimated worth of 70 billion. As
populations increase, urbanize and become richer, they demand more meat and other livestock
products. Kenya is a meat-deficit country4.
This study sought to analyze the water sector set-up in ASALs using the case of Marsabit
County, since water will be one of the major drivers to unlock the potential in ASALs. ASALs
have huge potential in livestock production and farming that can be unlocked through adequate
water supply.
Michael Mortimore, 2009. ‘Dryland Opportunities: A New Paradigm for People, Ecosystems and
Development’
2
Republic of Kenya, 2007. ‘Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey, 2005-06’
3
Republic of Kenya, District Development Reports, 2002-2008
1
4
Republic Of Kenya, 2011. ‘Vision 2030 Development Strategy for Northern Kenya and other Arid Lands’
iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Marsabit County, is the second largest county in Kenya after Turkana covering a total surface
area of 69,430 km². The County is classified as 100% Arid and Semi-Arid Land (ASAL) zone
and has an estimated population of 291, 166 people and over 1.1 million livestock heads of
different species as per the 2009 census.
Physical conditions of Marsabit differ widely, with some areas showing high agricultural
potential able to sustain crops like Maize and Khat, to the difficult expanses of the Chalbi desert.
Marsabit also has some special ecosystems like Mt. Marsabit and Lake Paradise – a crater lake.
A lot of work has been done in the County in regards to investments in water, mainly by Non
State Actors who have developed a large number of water points. 71% of water points have been
developed or last rehabilitated by Non State Actors. However from this study, given the
geographical expansion of the area as well as its potential, these water points, whereas they have
eased domestic water needs, may not be the most strategic for livestock development farming.
The only major infrastructure of huge magnitude in water is Badasa dam which is ongoing but is
still far from completion.
Marsabit County does not have a fully fledged Water Service Provider with a Service Provision
Agreement (SPA) although Marsabit town and Moyale among others do have some town supply
systems. The Water Service Board which serves this area – Northern Water Services Board, has
its headquarters in Garissa and cannot logistically provide lots of support to Marsabit. In
Marsabit County, the local presences of nationally associated Institutions in Water were a
WARMA Office, and District Water Offices.
During the course of this study it was not possible to determine sewerage coverage. Sanitation
coverage is however quite low, with some districts like Chalbi having a coverage of about 12%.
Not surprisingly the hygiene conditions of mapped water points were poor, and of the 47 water
points tested for bacteriological contamination, 66% were found to have varying levels of
contamination. More worryingly, of the 9 sampled tested at Kenya Water Institute (KEWI), 8 of
them were found unsuitable for drinking before treatment because of various chemical
components. The remaining one, although fairly well balanced chemically, had levels of
turbidity which were beyond permissible levels.
Functionality rates were significantly high in the mapped points, over 70% of sampled water
points (piped and point) were found to be functional. Most mapped point sources were found to
be improved (63%) with all the piped schemes mapped (29) considered as improved. This points
at the tremendous work that has been done especially by Non State Actors and communities in
making water, at least for domestic use, available in the area. However, in order to unlock the
potential of the area, it would be important for Non State Actors and the Government, since they
have the muscle, to invest in piped schemes as opposed to point schemes. Viable technologies
for pumping like solar and wind power can be explored.
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Some of the most serious issues identified in the study include addressing the water quality in the
area, which can be done through simple methods like household treatment, sanitation education
and improvement in sanitation coverage; to use of more complex methods like reverse osmosis.
Quality surveillance and related response has to become routinized through the County
Government, Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Ministry of Water and Non State Actors.
This study attempted to map as comprehensively as possible the water points in Marsabit
County, and a digital map has been developed and can be accessed online. Marsabit County is
one of the few Counties in the Country whose network coverage is extremely poor, making it
impossible to transmit all the data collected to the digital system (mapping data was collected
using smart phones). This data presented here however, provides a comprehensive enough
picture of the water scenario in Marsabit County, and is a sound baseline which can be updated
in various ways. This data should be managed in such a way that it can be regularly updated as
functionality statuses change, or as new points come up or dry up.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... ii
FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................................... iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................. vi
LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................. viii
1.0 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 THE RIGHT TO WATER: THE GLOBAL CONTEXT ................................................................... 1
1.2 THE RIGHT TO WATER: THE KENYA CONTEXT ...................................................................... 2
1.3 GOVERNANCE OF WATER RESOURCES IN ASALS ................................................................. 3
2.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 5
2.1 AREA OF THE STUDY: MARSABIT .............................................................................................. 5
2.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: ............................................................................................................. 5
2.2.1 Objectives of the study ................................................................................................................. 5
3.0 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................. 7
3.1. WATER POINT MAPPING .............................................................................................................. 7
3.2. WATER QUALITY TESTING ......................................................................................................... 8
3.2.1 Sampling ...................................................................................................................................... 8
3.2.2 Sampling techniques for bacteriological tests .............................................................................. 8
3.2.3 Microbiological analyses ............................................................................................................. 8
3.2.4 Chemical analysis ........................................................................................................................ 9
3.3 QUALITATIVE METHODS ............................................................................................................. 9
4.0 FINDINGS ............................................................................................................................................ 10
4.1 WATER SECTOR INSTITUTIONAL SET-UP .............................................................................. 10
4.1.1 THE POLICY SET-UP AT NATIONAL LEVEL .................................................................... 10
4.1.2 WATER SECTOR REFORMS ................................................................................................. 10
4.1.3 Water Act 2002 .......................................................................................................................... 10
4.1.4 Importance of Water Sector Reforms ........................................................................................ 10
4.1.5 Water Sector Reforms implications ........................................................................................... 10
4.1.6 Constitutional provisions on water in Constitution 2010 ........................................................... 11
4.2 WATER SECTOR INSTITUTIONS ................................................................................................ 11
4.2.1 Water Services Trust Fund (WSTF) .......................................................................................... 11
4.2.2 Water Resource Management Authority (WRMA) ................................................................... 12
4.2.3 Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB).......................................................................... 12
4.2.4 Water Services Boards (WSBs) ................................................................................................. 13
4.2.5 Water Service Providers (WSPs) ............................................................................................... 13
4.2.6 Water Appeals Board ................................................................................................................. 14
4.2.7 Water Users Roles and Responsibilities .................................................................................... 14
4.2.8 National Water Conservation & Pipeline Corporation (NWCPC)............................................. 14
4. 3 THE INSTITUTIONAL SET-UP IN MARSABIT ......................................................................... 15
4.4 . FUNCTIONALITY ........................................................................................................................ 21
4.5. WATER ACCESS ........................................................................................................................... 26
vi
4.6. GOVERNANCE, MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY .................................................... 31
4.7. SUITABILITY (QUALITY) ........................................................................................................... 38
4.7.1 Results ........................................................................................................................................ 39
4.7.2 Discussions of the results ........................................................................................................... 41
4.7.2.1 Microbiological Water Quality ........................................................................................... 41
4.7.2.2 Chemical Tests .................................................................................................................... 42
4.7.5 Comments on the results ............................................................................................................ 42
5. 0 CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................................................................. 43
6.0 ADVOCACY AND INTERVENTIONS RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................... 45
7. 0 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 48
8.0 ANNEXES .............................................................................................................................................. x
8.1 Marsabit water points map .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.2 Sample of the chemical analysis: Results ........................................................................................... x
8.3 Questionnaires..................................................................................................................................... x
8.4 List of water points mapped ................................................................................................................ x
vii
LIST OF ACRONYMS
AGMs:
ASALs:
AWSB:
CIFA:
CLTS:
CPC:
CRS:
CWSB:
DPHO:
DWOs:
FGDs:
FH:
GPS:
HRBA:
JICA:
KEBS:
KEWI:
M3 :
MGDs:
NEMA:
NGOs:
NSAs:
NWCPC:
NWSB:
NWSS:
OP:
PACIDA:
PISP:
SPA:
TWSB:
UN:
UPC:
WAB:
WAGs:
WARMA:
WASREB:
WHO:
WRUAs:
WSBs:
Annual General Meetings
Arid and Semi Arid Lands
Athi Water Services Board
Community Initiative Facilitation and Assistance
Community Led Total Sanitation
Community Planning Cycle
Catholic Relief Services
Coast Water Services Board
District Public Health Officer
District Water Officers
Focus Group Discussions
Food for the Hungry
Geographical Positioning System
Human Rights Based Approach
Japan International Cooperation Agency
Kenya Bureau of Standards
Kenya Water Institute
Meters Cubed
Millennium Development Goals
National Environmental Management Authority
Non Governmental Organizations
Non State Actors
National Water Conservation and Pipeline Company
Northern Water Services Board
National Water Services Strategy
Office of the President
Pastoralist Community Initiative and Development Assistance
Pastoralist Integrated Support Program
Service Provision Agreement
Tana Water Services Board
United Nations
Urban Planning Cycle
Water Appeals Board
Water Action Groups
Water Resources Management Authority
Water Services Regulatory Board
World Health Organization
Water Resource Users Association
Water Service Boards
viii
WSIs:
WSP:
WSPs:
WSSD:
WSTF:
WUAs:
WWDBs:
WWGs:
Water Sector Institutions
Water and Sanitation Program
Water Service Providers
World Summit on Sustainable Development
Water Services Trust Fund
Water Users Associations
Water Works Development Boards
Water Working Groups
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1.0 BACKGROUND
1.1 THE RIGHT TO WATER: THE GLOBAL CONTEXT
The right to water contains both freedoms and entitlements. The freedoms include the right to
maintain access to existing water supplies necessary for the right to water, and the right to be
free from interference, such as the right to be free from arbitrary disconnections or
contamination of water supplies. By contrast, the entitlements include the right to a system of
water supply and management that provides equality of opportunity for people to enjoy the right
to water5.
The elements of the right to water are that it must be adequate for human dignity, life and health.
The adequacy of water should not be interpreted narrowly, by mere reference to volumetric
quantities and technologies. Water should be treated as a social and cultural good, and not
primarily as an economic good. The manner of the realization of the right to water must also be
sustainable, ensuring that the right can be realized for present and future generations 6.
While the adequacy of water required for the right to water may vary according to different
conditions, the following factors apply in all circumstances:
(a) Availability. The water supply for each person must be sufficient and continuous for
personal and domestic uses7. These uses ordinarily include drinking, personal sanitation, washing
of clothes, food preparation, personal and household hygiene. The quantity of water available for
each person should correspond to World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines 8. Some
individuals and groups may also require additional water due to health, climate, and work
conditions;
(b) Quality. The water required for each personal or domestic use must be safe, therefore
free from micro-organisms, chemical substances and radiological hazards that constitute a threat
5
UN, 2003. ‘Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 15, The right to water
(Twenty-ninth session, 2003), U.N. Doc. E/C.12/2002/11 (2002), reprinted in Compilation of General
Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc.
HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 105 (2003)
6
See General Comment 15 above.
7
“Continuous” means that the regularity of the water supply is sufficient for personal and domestic uses.
8
J. Bartram and G. Howard, “Domestic water quantity, service level and health: what should be the goal for
water and health sectors”, WHO, 2002. See also P.H. Gleick, (1996) “Basic water requirements for
human activities: meeting basic needs”, Water International, 21, pp. 83-92.
1
to a person’s health9. Furthermore, water should be of an acceptable colour, odour and taste for
each personal or domestic use;
(c) Accessibility. Water and water facilities and services have to be accessible to
everyone without discrimination, within the jurisdiction of the State party. Accessibility has four
overlapping dimensions:
i) Physical accessibility: water, and adequate water facilities and services, must be
within safe physical reach for all sections of the population. Sufficient, safe and
acceptable water must be accessible within, or in the immediate vicinity, of each
household, educational institution and workplace. All water facilities and services
must be of sufficient quality, culturally appropriate and sensitive to gender, lifecycle and privacy requirements. Physical security should not be threatened during
access to water facilities and services;
ii) Economic accessibility: Water, and water facilities and services, must be
affordable for all. The direct and indirect costs and charges associated with
securing water must be affordable, and must not compromise or threaten the
realization of other Covenant rights;
iii)Non-discrimination: Water and water facilities and services must be accessible to
all, including the most vulnerable or marginalized sections of the population, in
law and in fact, without discrimination on any of the prohibited grounds; and
iv) Information accessibility: accessibility includes the right to seek, receive and
impart information concerning water issues10.
1.2 THE RIGHT TO WATER: THE KENYA CONTEXT
Water sector reforms led by the Ministry of Water and Irrigation since the Water Act of 2002
was passed have progressively addressed the human right to water and sanitation. More
explicitly, the National Water Services Strategy (NWSS) 2007 and the Pro-Poor Implementation
Plan (PPIP) 2008 embrace the human rights approaches in the provision of water services,
calling for citizen participation and empowerment. A special publication of Human right to
9
The Committee refers States parties to WHO, Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 2nd edition, vols. 1-3
(Geneva, 1993) that are “intended to be used as a basis for the development of national standards that,
if properly implemented, will ensure the safety of drinking water supplies through the elimination of, or
reduction to a minimum concentration, of constituents of water that are known to be hazardous to
health.”
10
See General Comment 15 above.
2
Water in Kenya was adopted by the Ministry in 2007. In 2010, Kenya signed into law a new
constitution enshrining the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities for each person
along with the right to sanitation in The Bill of Rights, Chapter 6. The domestication of this law
underlines the commitment to scale up efforts to provide safe, clean, accessible and affordable
water and sanitation for all11.
International human rights treaties and conventions consider access to water and sanitation as a
human right. The right to water is defined by the UN as the right to equal and non-discriminatory
access to sufficient amount of safe drinking water for personal and domestic uses - drinking,
personal sanitation, washing of clothes, food preparation and personal and household hygiene to sustain life and health12.
Under HRBA, everyone is entitled to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and
affordable water for personal and domestic use. HRBA to water and sanitation also demands
accountability of governments, the international community and the private sector, requiring
information sharing and genuine participation in decision-making by the most vulnerable and
marginalized individuals, who have been historically discriminated against or neglected such as
residents of informal settlements and the poor rural communities.
A very explicit ambition with the water reforms is to put in place and implement clear structures
of accountability as well as openness and transparency and participatory approaches. While this
is recognized it is clear that reform implementation will require intensification of capacity
development, awareness raising and methodology development/application, particularly at local
level and the roles and responsibilities of local actors as well as the individual
consumers/citizens. In developing such a mechanism it is critical to combine it with raising
awareness of right-holders specifically consumers, of their rights and responsibilities and lobby
to the responsible Water Services Providers, the respective Water Services Board and the
National Regulator on consumers’ views.
1.3 GOVERNANCE OF WATER RESOURCES IN ASALS
In the ASALs, water is limited both in terms of quality and quantity. Long periods of scarcity of
water imply that the communities have evolved mechanisms of managing the little water that is
available so as to provide for their needs. The pastoralists apply rules, regulations and penalties
11
See General Comment 15 above
UN, 2003. ‘Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 15, The right to water
(Twenty-ninth session, 2003), U.N. Doc. E/C.12/2002/11 (2002), reprinted in Compilation of General
Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc.
HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 105 (2003)
12
3
as one way to achieve sustainable water management in the midst of scarcity. Access to water is
controlled by group membership so that unauthorized use may be met with persuasion, force or
legal action. Non-members are only allowed access after making substantial payments or
agreements.
According to a WSP publication, traditionally, the clan had structures that provided the basic
framework for accessing water and other natural resources. Access was clearly understood to be
part of reciprocal agreements, where the digging, use and maintenance of wells were governed
by an elaborate system of customary rules. The traditional systems combined a degree of private
and communal well digging, use and maintenance. Most clans regulated the ownership of
resources in relation to the clan’s ability to claim and maintain effective occupation. Common
practice was that large dams and wells were not owned by any group and had no permanent rules
that regulated their use. But clans or communities owned and regulated access and use of small
dams, pans and shallow wells.
Relatively, and in some cases for good reasons, the water points are few. Nevertheless, the total
number of water points varies with seasons, so is the distances covered to access water. Few
boreholes exist, mainly funded by the Government and development partners in programmes
like Arid Lands Resource Management Programme-OP/WorldBank in the ASALs. The
government handed over the boreholes to the community with little orientation on how to
manage them, borehole management became a problem because the communities were not used
to managing such modern watering points with its associated technologies. Consequently, with
interventions, Water User Associations (WUAs) were introduced. The WUAs were made up of
livestock owners from the various households and villages. Members of the Association were
meant to discuss and generate rules and regulations to govern access and use of available water,
especially from the borehole. The Water Users Association and Borehole Committees were to
manage, while being guided by clear rules and regulations on the management and use of
watering points. However, there is a close association between resource-based conflict and
power, in that conflict results when there is scarcity of resources and one individual gains
without proper governance, people will use unorthodox means to access water for their
livestock. This is likely to cause conflicts and also bring to surface weaknesses like lack of
governing and management systems for water.
For marginalized groups, especially among pastoral communities seeking to redress injustices or
inequalities in water resource distribution, conflict becomes an inherent feature of their struggle
for survival.
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2.0 INTRODUCTION
2.1 AREA OF THE STUDY: MARSABIT
Marsabit County is situated in the upper part of the former Eastern province of Kenya. It is the
second largest county in Kenya after Turkana covering a total surface area of 69,430 km². It
borders Ethiopia to the North and North East, Wajir County to the East, Isiolo County to the
South East, Samburu County to the South and South West and Lake Turkana to the West and
North West. Marsabit County is divided into seven districts namely Chalbi (Marsabit North),
North Horr, Laisamis (Marsabit south), Marsabit central, Sololo and Moyale. The County has an
estimated population of 291, 166 people and over 1.1 million livestock heads of different species
as per the 2009 census.
The county is classified as 100% Arid and Semi-Arid Land (ASAL) zone which experience
cycles of drought and famine year after year diminishing the community source of livelihood.
The topography of the County is extensive plain lying between 300m and 900m above sea level.
The west and north plains are bordered by hills and mountain ranges. Temperatures range from a
minimum of 10.1°C to a maximum of 30.2°C, with an annual average of 20.1°C. Rainfall ranges
between 200mm and 1,000mm per annum. Most rainfall (rainy season) is seen in March, April
and May with dry periods in June, July, August and September.
2.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY:
Concern Worldwide, has been implementing various humanitarian interventions in various parts
of the Country including in Marsabit. In their experience, they have come to the realization that
it is very difficult to engage people in Arid and Semi Arid Areas (ASALs) without addressing
their water problems. Concern Worldwide therefore has been looking at developing
interventions around water, with a strategy to guide their approach and investments.
However, it was necessary to carry out a water study to get a clear picture of the water situation
on the ground, which could lead to needs based and evidenced based advocacy and interventions
in water. Countrywide, reliable information on rural water is scanty and no comprehensive
analysis of the situation has ever been undertaken, completed and published in regards to this
(Impact Report).
2.2.1 Objectives of the study
The following we the objectives of the study:
 To map water points in Marsabit and their functionality with the view of producing a
County water map;
5


To carry out water quality tests in sampled water points to get a picture of suitability for
use by human beings;
To analyze the water sector set-up to guide advocacy in Water in ASALs
Through the mapping, it is possible to get a reasonably good picture of the water situation and
coverage in Marsabit County. This should be helpful in two ways. One, it will guide a more
coordinated investment in water in areas of greater need and two, it will serve as data based
platform to push for increased resource allocation in water in certain areas. The study further
gives concrete recommendations to guide the County advocacy agenda on water and natural
resources management.
6
3.0 METHODOLOGY
The study was divided into three components:
 One, desk review and discussions with the client
 Two identification of research team, training them and undertaking data collection
 Three, data analysis, determination of the water set-up and development of digital virtual
maps.
Both qualitative and quantitative methodologies were used in this study. The methods used were
categorized into three:
1) Water point mapping
2) Water quality sampling and testing
3) Qualitative research through key informant interviews and focus group discussions
3.1. WATER POINT MAPPING
Water point functionality mapping was done using a set of questionnaires for rural water points
and piped water points. The questionnaires were aligned to the ones used for mapping through
Water Services Boards (WSBs) for standardization purposes.
Most data collection was done digitally through android enabled mobile phones integrated to a
central data management system for real-time capturing and submission. Questionnaires were
coded though Concern Wordwide’s mobile research system, and uploaded as an application unto
the phones. This system was designed to enable data entry, capturing of a digital photo of each
water point and capturing of GPS coordinates. GPS garmins were also used as back-up to pick
GPS coordinates because of problems with network connectivity in Marsabit.
Data collection was done with the support of 8 locally recruited research assistants divided into
four teams to cover the seven districts in Marsabit County:
i) North Horr district,
ii) Laisamis (Marsabit South) district and Loiyangalani district,
iii) Marsabit(Marsabit Central) district and Chalbi (Marsabit North) district,
iv) Moyale district and Sololo district.
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3.2. WATER QUALITY TESTING
3.2.1 Sampling
A portable water quality testing kit ‘Paqualab 50’ was used to determine the bacteriological
status of the water from sampled water points. This test kit enabled water quality to be tested in
line with the World Health Organization (WHO) standards). Sterile conditions were obtained
prior to sampling by use of an autoclave and during sampling by using flaming techniques
around water outlet points. Sample bottles were either rinsed three times with source water
before collecting the sample or rinsed with 70% methanol to minimize the risk of external
contamination. For water points installed with taps, the water outlet was flame sterilized using
cotton wool soaked in 70% methanol for 20–30 seconds. Water was pumped out to waste for 3060 seconds to discharge water that had stood for a period in the service pipe if not found in use.
The sample bottle was then rinsed and the sample drawn. For the open wells and earth
pans/dams, the sample bottle was held by a bottle holder then plunged into the well to a depth of
0.3m below the water level to draw the sample. Microbiological analysis was carried out in-situ
so that the microbiological parameters would not change with time.
3.2.2 Sampling techniques for bacteriological tests
Sampling was done at the end of the mapping exercise, and was done randomly, but in
proportion to the total number of points mapped in each area. Below is the breakdown of
sampled points:
Area
Number sampled
Moyale/ Sololo
13
North Horr
16
Laisamis/ Loyangalani
12
Marsabit / Chalbi
6
3.2.3 Microbiological analyses
The numbers of faecal coliforms were determined using membrane filtration technique. 10ml of
sample was put in the sterilized filter apparatus and diluted to 100ml using distilled water. This
measured volume of water (100ml) was filtered through a filter membrane using a suction pump.
Bacteria were retained on the membrane and into a petri-dish flooded with Lauryl Sulphate
Broth incubated, after a recover period of one hour, 44°C for faecal coliforms for 24 hours. If
8
present, bacteria grew into visible colonies that were counted manually. Each test was done
using the same procedure for consistency and the results were converted to represent a count per
100ml. To ensure sterile conditions, Petri dishes, medium and forceps were autoclaved
(sterilized). After each sample collection, the filtration unit was flame sterilized using 70%
methanol.
3.2.4 Chemical analysis
Following field discussions, it was realized that there were some water points that could have
suspect chemical composition. By use of purposive sampling method, nine water points were
sampled (5lts per sample) and sent to Nairobi for full chemical analysis. Chemical analysis was
conducted at Kenya Water Institute (KEWI).
3.3 QUALITATIVE METHODS
Focus Group Discussions were conducted among citizens in all the four study areas to get
contributions on Citizen Participation, citizen involvement and citizen awareness of issues
around water, among others. These FGDs were conducted on groups ranging from 5 – 15 people.
A total of 10 FGDs were conducted, with 8 being mixed gender groups and 2 women groups.
Key informant interviews / discussions were also conducted, and these interviews sought to
engage various opinion authorities on their understanding of the realities and plans for Marsabit
County. Among the Institutions engaged were:
 Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA)
 Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation
 Food for the Hungry
 District Water Officers
 PISP
 CIFA
 JICA
 Ministry of Water and Irrigation
 Water Services Trust Fund
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4.0 FINDINGS
4.1 WATER SECTOR INSTITUTIONAL SET-UP
4.1.1 THE POLICY SET-UP AT NATIONAL LEVEL
A water policy was developed in 1999 to guide the water sector in Kenya. This is what laid the
ground for subsequent water sector reforms that were rolled out from 2002 after the Water Act
was passed.
4.1.2 WATER SECTOR REFORMS
In 2002 the Water Sector Reforms momentum in Kenya culminated in the enactment of the
Water Act 2002 which was gazetted in October 2002. The Act introduced new water
management institutions to govern water and sanitation issues in Kenya. With the enactment of
the Water Act and subsequent water sector reforms, the Kenya government committed itself to
adopting a Human Rights Based Approach (HRBA) in the sector as expounded in the National
Water Services Strategy (NWSS). More reforms are expected once the new water policy and
new water bill are enacted hopefully in 2013. The National Land Commission Policy, which has
lots of interlinkages with the water sector, has already been enacted.
4.1.3 Water Act 2002
The Water Act 2002 provides the framework for water sector reforms. The reforms revolve
around the following four themes:
 Separation of the management of water resources from the provision of water services.
 Separation of policy making from day to day administration and regulation.
 Decentralization of functions to lower level state organs
 Involvement of non-government entities in the management of water resources and in the
provision of water services.
4.1.4 Importance of Water Sector Reforms
The long-term intention of these water reforms is to contribute to poverty reduction in the
country, particularly in the rural and urban poor areas, through the establishment and
development of a well managed and sustainable water sector.
4.1.5 Water Sector Reforms implications
The Government of Kenya is committed to water and sanitation governance as demonstrated by
the following public documents:




Water Act 2002.
National Water Services Strategy.
National Water Resources Management Strategy.
Water Services Regulatory Board Tariff Guidelines and Models.
10

Pro-poor Implementation Plan for Water Supply and Sanitation.
Water sector reforms are intended to:





Enhance water resource management.
Increase efficiency in water and sanitation services provision.
Improve customer care and increase customer satisfaction.
Increase development and investment.
Improve professionalism in the sector.
4.1.6 Constitutional provisions on water in Constitution 2010
The Constitution provides that every person has a right to clean and safe water in adequate
quantities, as enshrined in Article 43(d);
The Constitution now provides that County public works including water and sanitation services
provision and storm water management are a function of County Governments under schedule
four.
4.2 WATER SECTOR INSTITUTIONS
The following are the institutions that have been formed as a result of the Water Act 2002.
Though not complete, the New Water Bill and New Water Policy have been under development,
and when passed under the next government, will cause some changes in the way the Institutions
discussed below are set-up and managed.
4.2.1 Water Services Trust Fund (WSTF)
Section 83 of the Water Act 2002 mandates Water Services Trust Fund (WSTF) to assist in
financing the provision of water services to areas without adequate water. The functions of
WSTF include:






Mobilizing resources
Ensuring compliance with the rules of funding water services.
Ensuring disbursement of funds; Monitoring, implementation of projects.
Carrying out technical and financial audits of projects; Appraising applications and
proposals for financing of projects.
Establishing links with Water Service Boards in all parts of Kenya and other stakeholders
in the water sector.
Facilitating the efficient administration, management of activities and operations of the
Trust Fund.
11
The latest Bill Drafts (2012) have suggested renaming of Water Services Trust Fund as Water
Sector Trust Fund, with its functions remaining more or less the same.
4.2.2 Water Resource Management Authority (WRMA)
The Water Act has provided for the separation of management of Water Resources from that of
Water Supply and Sewerage. Key Functions of Water Resource Management Authority
(WRMA) under the water Act 2002 include:









Developing principles, guidelines and procedures for the allocation of water resources.
Monitoring and periodically reassessing the national water strategy.
Issuing, verifying, transferring and cancelling water permits.
Monitoring and enforcing the conditions attached to the water permits.
Regulating and protecting water resources quality from adverse impacts.
Managing and protecting water catchments.
Determining charges and levying water use fees.
Gathering and maintaining water information and publishing the same periodically.
Liaising with other actors for better regulation and management of water resources.
The latest Bill Drafts (2012) have suggested renaming of Water Resources Regulatory Authority
with increased regulatory mandate. WRMA already has sub-catchment Offices in several parts
of the Country and it is likely to retain its six basin operations.
4.2.3 Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB)
Section 47 of the Water Act 2002 spells out key functions of the Water Services Regulatory
Board (WASREB) as follows:






Issuing licenses for provision of water services.
Determining standards for the provision of water to consumers.
Establishing procedures for handling complaints made by consumers against licensees.
Monitoring compliances with established standards for the design, construction,
operation and maintenance of facilities for water services.
Monitoring and regulating licenses and to enforce license conditions.
Advising licensees on procedures for dealing with complaints from consumers and to
monitor the operations of the procedures.
The latest Bill Drafts (2012) have suggested renaming of Water Services Regulatory Board as
Water Services Regulatory Commission, with its functions remaining more or less the same but
with an enhanced regulatory framework.
12
4.2.4 Water Services Boards (WSBs)
Water Service Boards have delineated areas of supply to ensure the provision of water services
to all parts of the country. These are: Athi Water Services Board, Tana Water Services Board,
Coast Water Services Board, Lake Victoria South Water Services Board, Lake Victoria North
Water Services Board, Northern Water Services Board, Rift Valley Water Services Board and
Tana-Athi Water Services Board.
Functions of the WSBs, as outlined in Section 53 of the Water Act 2002, are:





Efficient and economical provision of water services as authorized by license
Custodianship of Water Services Provision Assets
Contracting, monitoring and enforcing agreements between WSBs and WSPs, in
accordance with the regulations set by WSRBs in the licenses.
Maintaining and acquiring assets, planning development and management.
Ensuring efficient and economical provision of water services authorized by the license.
Various proposals have been advanced in regards to the place of Water Services Boards, in the
various drafts of the Bill (2012), with the most popular three being retaining Boards for mutually
agreed trans-county infrastructure development, or merging the Boards under a national unit
named Water Works Development Board with diminished regulatory oversight over WSPs, or
doing away with them altogether.
4.2.5 Water Service Providers (WSPs)
The Water Act 2002 defines Water Service Providers (WSPs) to include companies, NGOs,
community groups and person(s) who must be formally registered under the Societies Act,
Chapter 108 of the Laws of Kenya. WSP act as agents of Water Service Boards (WSBs).
The main role of WSPs is to:


Provide water and sanitation services.
Develop, rehabilitate and maintain water and sanitation facilities of the WSB in their area
of jurisdiction.
Under the News Constitutional order, dominant WSPs in Counties will likely have expanded
roles in infrastructure development, with close working oversight and financing from County
Governments.
13
4.2.6 Water Appeals Board
The functions of Water Appeal Board (WAB) as outlined in section 85 and 87 of the Water Act
2002, include:
• Hearing and determining appeals from decisions or orders of the Authority, the Minister or
Regulatory Board.
• Hearing and determining disputes in the water sector.
• Performing other judicial functions that pertain to the use and development of water resources;
• Making and varying rules of their procedures from time to time
Draft Bill 2012, propose renaming Water Appeals Board as Water Tribunal. WAB already has
several regional offices. It is not clear however, how the tribunal with interface with the already
formed Land and Environment Courts.
4.2.7 Water Users Roles and Responsibilities







Familiarize themselves with the provisions of the legal instruments governing water,
irrigation and arid land reclamation sectors.
Observe high level of competitiveness in doing business with the water sector officials.
Provide regular feedback on quality of service through designated “suggestion boxes”,
correspondences or verbally.
Not to compromise the water sector officials in any way for rendition of services.
Give information on adverse incidents on the water sector such vandalism of
infrastructure, bursts etc.
Demand an official receipt for any payment made for delivery of goods and services.
Prompt payment of fees and bills for water resources and services as the case may be.
4.2.8 National Water Conservation & Pipeline Corporation (NWCPC)
The National Water Conservation and Pipeline Corporation (NWCPC) has the following
functions:
 Construction of dams
 Drilling of boreholes
 Bulky water supply
The proposed draft water bill has proposed changing of the name to National Water Storage
Corporation.
14
Chart Showing Institutional Framework of the Kenyan Water Sector13
4. 3 THE INSTITUTIONAL SET-UP IN MARSABIT
The main formal water actors in Marsabit are Water Resources Management Authority
(WARMA), District Water Officers (DWOs)/ Northern Water Services Board (NWSB) and
District Public Health Officers (DPHOs). WARMA is supposed to issue licenses for water
abstraction and coordinate formal water resources and catchment management activities mainly
through Water Resources Users Associations (WRUAs). District Water Offices on the other
hand are supposed to educate communities on issues relating to water including supporting
formation and capacity building of Water Users Associations (WUAs), and supporting in
implementation and management of water works/ projects. District Public Health Offices among
other functions support sanitation monitoring, sanitation education and issues relating to water
quality.
There was no evidence of regularized water quality testing in the County, and the mandate for
that is overlapping among the three mentioned Institutions alongside National Environmental
Management Authority (NEMA), and is done on a ‘need basis’. The only resident water testing
Kenya Water for Health Organization (KWAHO), 2009. ‘Enhancing Water and Sanitation Governance in
Kenya: Human Rights Based Approach to Reforms in the Kenya Water Sector’
13
15
kit we were able to trace in the County is the ‘Paqualab kit’ at the Public Health Office in
Marsabit.
Marsabit has evidentially a heavy presence of Non State Actors, with some of the strongest
Actors in water including PISP, CIFA, FH, Caritas PACIDA, JICA and CRS. Some of these
Actors implement directly while others like JICA and Concern Worldwide implement through
partners. It was noticed however, that some of the most active NSAs in the area are
Organizations like PISP, CIFA and PACIDA, who are supported by bigger donors and whose
major operations are only in Marsabit. Since these are local organizations this could be an
advantage or a risk because of ‘stonewalling’. These Organizations although doing a good job
require institutional strengthening to minimize this ‘stonewalling’ risk.
Marsabit County does not have a full fledged registered Water Service Provider (normally
known as Water and Sewerage Company). The largest town in the County, Marsabit, relies on
Bukuli springs for most of its supply, which is not very reliable during the dry season. The other
sources of water in the County include shallow wells, boreholes, earth pans/dams, rock
catchments, roof catchment, seasonal rivers and vendors/truckers.
Non State Actors have played a very major role in development/ rehabilitation of water points
and schemes in Marsabit, with an overwhelming majority of rural points having been developed
or last rehabilitated through NSA (including Churches) as illustrated below:
Stakeholder Funding: Rural Piped water scheme
16
Stakeholder Funding: Rural water point
However, there is the feeling that these actors can do much more to correspond with the heavy
presence they have in the County, although the County is quite vast.
In all the areas where discussions were held especially through Focus Group Discussions, it was
evident that there is hardly any knowledge of water sector reforms or water sector institutions
among Citizens. As such citizens were not able to identify whether there has been any change as
a result of sector reforms. However, citizens were very clear on one thing, that apart from the
support they occasionally get from Ministry of Water Officers in repairs and in development of
dams, they are not involved in formal decision making processes.
Water Services Trust Fund has accordingly been implementing a two year project named
Medium Term ASAL Program through Ministry of Northern and Other Arid Lands in 6
Counties namely Marsabit, Lamu, Isiolo, Garissa, Wajir and Tana River. The project has
integrated components which include sanitation, resources management and water provision.
The study was not able to establish the reach of those interventions in Marsabit.
The government is highly involved in water trucking, with several trucks available for that use in
the County. The government also regularly allocates resources for fuel for trucking purposes
through Northern Water Services Board (NWSB). However, water trucking, although useful, can
17
easily be exploited by water cartels. The biggest government project in the area is Badasa dam
(below) which has been under construction for the last 3 years.
From the exercise, 508 sources were successfully mapped, with 479 of these being rural point
sources and 29 rural piped schemes.
Of the 479 mapped rural water points 63% were improved as opposed to 37% that were found
to be unimproved as shown below. All piped schemes (not included in this figure) are considered
as improved sources.
18
People access water from a variety of sources, with shallow wells comprising the bulk of
improved water points in the area as illustrated below:
Improved point sources
Among the unimproved sources, pan/dams comprise the bulk of water source.
19
Unimproved point sources
Tanker-trucks form the bulk of unimproved water sources
20
4.4 . FUNCTIONALITY
In relation to water points, 302 (63%) were found to be improved and 177 (37%) to be
unimproved. All piped schemes (an additional 29) are classified as improved.
Of the sampled points, among the points sources, 335 (69.9%) were found to be functional and
in use, 54 (11.3%) non functional and the rest faced with various functionality problems.
Among the piped sources, 24 (82%) were functional and in use, 1 (3.4%) non functional and the
rest (4 points) faced with various functionality and usability problems. This is as tabulated below
in the table for point sources:
In terms of functionality, most of the water points are functional and are in use.
21
Reasons for non usage are as below with dry/low yielding being the most cited reason.
Reason why the source is non-functional or not in use (improved sources only)
For the improved sources, they are either not in use or are non-functional mainly because they are under
construction or have technical breakdowns.
22
The study further sought to find out the reasons as to why non-functional ones had not
been repaired and these were the responses:
Why not repaired (point sources)
Few non-functional water points are not repaired due management/ownership problems
In regards to piped supply, the results were as follows:
Functionality Status
Majority of the piped water supply systems are functional and in use
23
Reason why the source is non-functional or not in use (improved sources only)
Technical breakdown, cheaper sources and new under construction equally contribute to
the non-functionality or not-in-use status of the improved sources.
24
Why not repaired
Half of these points are unrepaired because of issues relating to spare parts
25
4.5. WATER ACCESS
On the face of it, water supply from available water points is above average. For example, when
asked about the reliability of the water sources, these were the responses:
Reliability of points (Note: on average, not snap shot)
Reliability of piped schemes (Note: on average, not snap shot)
In regards to the sufficiency of water for domestic consumption and again for livestock, these
were the responses:
26
For rural water points:
Water Quantity: Water availability
Close to a half of rural water points are seasonal
Water Quantity: Sufficient for Households
27
Water Quantity: Sufficient for livestock
More than half of respondents reported that the water supply is insufficient for livestock. Owing
to the importance associated to water for livestock in this area, this a serious concern
Piped schemes:
Water availability
28
Quite some time is taken up in search of water per trip as indicated below
In respect to rural points.
Time Water Collection (on average) (Note: time to and fro, including waiting time)
In respect to piped points:
Time taken for Water Collection (on average) (Note: time to and fro, including
waiting time)
People apparently take longer to access water from piped schemes which would point at how
these schemes are stressed. We sought to interrogate this phenomenon further.
29
In some areas like Shauri Yako in Marsabit Central for example even though people access
water from piped supply from Kiosks, the water problem is severe. Each village has a Kiosk
supplied with water from Bukuli with the total number of kiosks being 14. During drier seasons,
they have organized a rationing system where each village gets water one day at a time leading
to a week or two week cycle. During the supply day, each household is allowed a maximum of 6
jerricans, a total of 120 litres per household. People supplement this with use of water from
vendors. Most water vendors get water from Logologo borehole which is 50kms away and sell it
at upto Ksh 70 per 20l jerrican. It is common for people to go for three days without a shower
with schools especially the boarding school in the locality being the hardest hit. When women go
to search for water themselves, it often takes them a whole day and even then they are not
assured of getting some. The same situation was reflected at Manyatta Otte in Marsabit Central.
Below is a photo of one of the kiosks at Shauri Yako during a day of supply.
To illustrate how severe the problem is, the local chief gave the following illustration, ‘some
times we get donations of jembes and pangas. Although well intentioned, our priority is water.
For in order for one to till the land, one must have the energy. And to get the energy, one must
eat food and drink water’
30
4.6. GOVERNANCE, MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY
Management structures of water points were varied as much as they were interesting. For
example at the visited place at Shauri Yako, the kiosk is run by a women group. This group has
not held elections for 12 years. Each household is charged Kshs 200 per month for water and
funds realized are not publicly declared. However, community members reported that whenever
there is a breakdown, repairs are always done promptly to avoid public backlash and loss of
revenue.
In Manyatta Otte, management is still under a women group where communities are not
involved in decision making especially in relation to changes in pricing. Elections are not held
and neither are meetings held to include people who are not members of the women group. In
this case also, repairs are done in time especially with support from the Ministry of Water. At the
kiosk they are charged between Kshs 3 and 5 depending on size of container and household
connections between Kshs 200-300 per month based on consumption through metres.
District Water Officers feel that management structures are weak in many of community
management points and schemes, with some citing that the money collected is at times used to
give people soft loans as opposed to being used for maintenance. DWOs have cited that they
have involved in capacity development of WUAs.
Surprisingly, despite weaknesses in management styles, there are some gains that have been
made over time considering that functionality rates of water points are relatively high. There is
thus the need to make deliberate efforts to find out what systems actually work. With more
strengthening of these groups especially WUAs, it is likely that functionality rates will even go
up.
These were the findings on management structures in place for rural points managed by the
community:
31
Committee in place?
Management structures are in place for most rural water points
Regular Committee meetings?(> quarterly)
Majority of the management committees hold regular meetings
32
By-laws in place?
By-laws are in place for most of the committees
Official selected as per by-laws?
Close to half of the officials of the committees are select as per by-laws
33
Public meeting income & expenditure? (during the last year)
More than half of the public meetings have income and expenditure
AGM with all members? (held within the last year)
More than half of the committees had AGMs with their members
34
And in regards to piped schemes, these were the responses:
Committee in place?
Most piped water schemes have committees in place
Regular Committee meetings? (> quarterly)
A large percentage of the committees hold regular meetings
35
By-laws in place?
Majority of these commitees have by-laws in place
Official selected as per by-laws?
A small section of the committees don’t select officials as per by-laws
36
Public meeting income & expenditure?(during the last year)
Majority of the committees don’t have public meeting income and expenditure
AGM with all ```members? (held within the last year)
A large majority of these committees have AGMs with all members
The above results, although representative, appear to be biased. This is because most
respondents interviewed were committee members, and the data given does not correspond with
information from Focus Group Discussions, which show that many groups have weak
management structures, poor governance structures, poor resources collection and management
structures, and low tranparency.
37
4.7. SUITABILITY (QUALITY)
Water is life – it forms 75% of the human body. Safe water sustains a healthy population and it
contributes to the quality of life of households through the provision of basic needs of water and
sanitation. It is estimated that 80% of all illness in developing countries is related to water and
sanitation. Every 20 seconds, a child dies from diseases associated with a lack of clean water.
That adds up to an unconscionable 1.5 million young lives cut short each year.(Ban Ki-moon,
2008. Water is life. UN). Potable water supports public health and ensures economic growth.
Water of poor quality can cause social and economic damages through water-related epidemics
such as cholera which in turn increases medical treatment costs.
In Kenya, unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene ranked 2nd among the leading risk factors 5.3%
and contribution to mortality and morbidity (WHO 2009).
The vision of Kenya’s new water policy -2012 is “adequate water and sanitation for all” and
seeks to provide every Kenyan with “equitable” access to water and sanitation services for
sustainable socio-economic development of the country. This is in line with the Millennium
Development Goals (MDG’s) and the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)
targets of 2002 to strive to halve the population of people without access to water and sanitation
by 2015. This is a big challenge for Kenya due to the country’s economic problems where over
56% of the people live below the poverty line coupled with the fact that Kenya is a water scarce
country with over 80% of the total land area regarded as Arid and Semi-Arid Land (ASAL). The
country has fresh water per capita of 647M3 against the United Nations recommended minimum
of 1,000M3 with a projected decline to 235M3 by 2025 unless effective measures are
implemented.
Potable water is one that is free from disease causing microorganisms (pathogens), low in
concentrations of compounds that are acutely toxic or that have serious long term effects on
health. Potable water should also be clear, not saline, and free from compounds that can cause
colour, taste and odour. The conventional way of extracting drinking water from the ground is
by drilling boreholes and shallow wells through the existing water table to form a well point. In
certain regions of Northern Kenya, as the water percolates through the soil, harmful physical,
biological and chemical constituents (e.g. fine suspended matter, faecal coliforms and fluoride)
become contained in the water making it unsuitable for human consumption.
The main sources of water for the target communities are boreholes, covered/protected and
open/unprotected shallow wells, earth dams/pans, gravity-fed piped systems, springs and lakes
and seasonal rivers.
38
This research work was undertaken to develop a data-base on water points, status, functionality,
management and establish water quality for selected water points. This study investigated
biological, chemical and physical water quality. It compared the difference in water quality
between the water points in seven districts in the rainy season.
4.7.1 Results
The water quality analysis parameters were compared to the WHO and KEBS guidelines to
ascertain if the quality of the water were in accordance with appropriate drinking water
standards. The results per water point by region are as shown in the table below.
39
Moyale/Sololo
Gununesa shallow well
Moyale Town Tap
Har Bora pan
Karbruri BH
Dambala fachana pan
Obbu pan
Ramata dam
Kalasinga shallow well
Oda BH
Budug shallow well
Harbagasa pan
Holde pan
Yabale pan
North Horr
Police Shallow well
DC well
Galas shallow well
Gas well
Galas community well
North Horr Boys well
Abdub Kampicha well
Horiguda oasis
Manyatta Kunni tap
Horriguda shallow well
Horiguda mosque well
GBH shallow well
Muslim academy
North Horr Boys tap
Palm shade well
Jabo bora well
Marsabit/Chalbi
Tuye dera well
Haro Bota dam
Maikona Mushin well
Marsabit town tank
Maikona AP shallow well
Abudo Halake well
Laisamis/Loiyangalani
Habibo Shallow well
Lenarokwe well
Miungichan well
Laisamis tap
The singing well of Illaut
Ngurunet tap
Kulasamaki tap
Elmolo bay pry tap
Kula pesa tap
South Horr tap
Kiwanja ndege tap
Lake turkana
ecoli/100ml
30
80
100
130
30
0
0
0
20
40
50
0
100
0
0
160
0
180
170
0
0
310
0
130
0
0
0
0
150
60
90
30
450
0
230
220
180
660
180
310
300
70
100
320
380
170
0
40
4.7.2 Discussions of the results
4.7.2.1 Microbiological Water Quality
Microbiological water quality results show that the water is grossly polluted with faecal matter.
In terms of faecal coliforms (ecoli), the results show that approximately 66% of the water
sources tested during the study did not meet either the WHO or any National standards for
drinking water. Laisamis/Loiyangalani water points had the highest number of water points
contaminated with 91.7% of all sampled water points showing high levels of E. coli. This was
closely followed by Marsabit/Chalbi with 83.3% of water points contaminated. 91% of tap
water and 58% of the wells were contaminated while interestingly results from the entire (2)
borehole sampled for water sampling and testing had been contaminated with the contamination
ranging from 30 – 130 E. coli/100mls.
Table 1: Number & Percentage of contaminated sampled water sources in Marsabit county (December 2012)
Source Frequecy No. contaminated % Contaminated
Wells
24
14
58
Taps
11
10
91
Oasis
1
0
0
BH
2
2
100
Lake
1
0
0
Dam/Pan
8
5
63
Total
47
31
66
The quality of water has a direct relationship with the environmental surrounding of the water
sources. To be able to compare the quality of the sample sources with the water testing results,
sanitary observation survey was carried out at the time of the sampling and supported with the
Ministry of Health data on sanitation coverage. Overall the environmental sanitation in most of
the water points was poor coupled with low sanitation (latrine) coverage. For example latrine
coverage data for North Horr stood at 12% (MoH latrine coverage report, May 2012). This
means that more than 87% of the population lack an appropriate faecal disposal mechanism and
hence use open defecation, a risk to environmental sanitation and hence bacteriological
contamination of water.
41
4.7.2.2 Chemical Tests
The study sought to investigate chemical composition of some water points. From the area, nine
water points we sampled and brought for analysis at Kenya Water Institute (KEWI). These
samples were drawn from the following areas:
1. Bamata Dam
2. Huri Hills
3. Holale Shallow wells in Moyale
4. North Horr police lines
5. Kalacha shallow wells
6. Kargi Town Shallow wells
7. Maikona town shallow well
8. Kinisa Pan
9. Burgabo Borehole, in Chalbi Desert.
Among the parameters tested were Ammonia, Turbidity, Conductivity, ph, Fluoride, Calcium,
Total Hardness, Iron, Carbon Dioxide, Total Dissolved Solids, Nitrate. From the tests, the
verdict given is that in all the Water samples had various components above recommended
standards apart from one, whose only problem was found to be turbidity. The professional
verdict therefore is that this water should not be used for consumption without treatment.
It is instructive to note that the samples were not tested for potassium, sodium and heavy metals.
Considering that there have been some reported livestock deaths and a significantly high cases of
cancer in some areas like Kargi, a further investigation could be necessary at some point.
4.7.5 Comments on the results
The levels of contaminations for all the contaminated water points are way above both the WHO
and KEBS drinking water quality standards at zero (0) ecoli/100ml of sample. North Horr
district has a high water table, high concentration of shallow wells and low sanitation coverage.
The lack of sanitation facilities in the area could therefore be attributed to the high
contamination of water point’s especially shallow wells. This points to the need for a continued
monitoring of the water points through regular sampling and testing to ascertain the change in
quality of the water with time.
From these findings therefore, we cannot conclusively say that water from these sources is
always contaminated throughout the year and hence not fit for human consumption with finality.
The high levels of contamination especially in the boreholes may point to the need of checking
the system to establish the point of contamination and if the situation is the same during the dry
season. Nevertheless, the results show the need for a scheduled sampling and testing during
different seasons coupled with hygiene education for behaviour change and capacity building of
water treatment. While efforts should be made to ascertain the level of contamination in the dry
seasons, the communities should be supplied with water treatment chemicals to ensure safety of
the water at the household level while mitigating effects of drinking contaminated water like
outbreaks of Cholera or acute diarrhoea diseases.
42
5. 0 CONCLUSIONS
1. The level of investment through the government has been low with Non Governmental
Organizations and Churches doing a disproportionate portion of investments and
rehabilitation of water points. The notable heavy investment in water in the County by
the government is the Badasa dam, whose construction needs to be speeded up.
2. Whereas citizens have displayed a willingness to pay for the water they consume in most
cases, the funds collected in many instances can only cover management and routine
repairs. These funds are not likely to be enough for capital expenditures like generator
replacement and repairs. Some of the bigger rehabilitation works for community schemes
can therefore be done through government funds. But there are indications that if funds
are collected well and transparently they would be enough to support most schemes.
3. Although the majority of the points mapped are improved, many of these points are
susceptible to contamination since they are shallow wells. On an average the hygiene and
sanitation conditions observed around water points, whether improved or unimproved,
were poor.
4. Whereas water access for domestic use is above average and for livestock just below
average, the distribution of water is not facilitative for livelihoods and economic growth.
Many water points are clustered and within settlement areas, leaving large swathes of
land unutilized. Even within the settlement areas, time taken to access water is too long,
with most of the population spending more than an hour per round trip to fetch water
from point sources.
5. Water quality is quite poor with 66% of sampled water showing contamination. Most of
the water points were not only contaminated but heavily so by national and international
standards. Chemical analysis at KEWI also showed that all water points sampled needed
treatment before consumption. This correlates with observed poor hygiene conditions, as
well as with sanitation coverage, which in some districts like Chalbi (Marsabit North),
stands at 12%.
6. Functionality of water points was relatively high. Functionality of piped schemes was
much higher, which may point at better technical support. The same support can be
exported/ devolved to lower levels to support community managed points.
7. Knowledge of the water sector, water policies and acts, and constitutional provisions in
relation to water are very low.
43
8. There is a vibrant citizenry in the County. In many water points, it was reported that there
is a management committee in place, which meets regularly. The percentage of groups
with by-laws at was also impressive. In some places, Water Users Associations (WUAs)
has been formed and trained to manage water points especially through District Water
Officers and Non-State Actors although this does not appear to have translated to sound
management practices.
9. Although there are many Organizations operating in this place, there is little evidence of
coordination and harmonization of activities. WESCORD, although making some efforts,
is largely dysfunctional. The formal sector (Ministry of Water), has not offered robust
leadership in this. Therefore, there is no up to date data base of water points or of
interventions that particular organizations are engaged in.
10. In most instances, where quasi-governmental institutions shoulder most governmental
responsibilities, governmental institutions take the back stage. That is the manifest
situation in Marsabit County in relation to water and the situation needs to be reversed.
11. In most areas where FGDs were conducted, water was identified as having been a cause
of conflict especially in the dry seasons, among communities.
12. Water supply can be increased in many areas by desilting the silted dams/ pans, and
through getting efficient systems of pumping water from boreholes to enable longer
pumping hours with fewer/ more manageable breakdowns like solar systems.
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6.0 ADVOCACY AND INTERVENTIONS RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The government needs to take charge as the lead actor in Marsabit County and as such
more resources should be availed for Marsabit County. Funds can be made available
through Ministry of Water, through Equalization Fund and most significantly, through
dedicated allocation of resources to water through County Budget. Citizens can play a
key role by identifying this as a priority sector and engaging County governments to
allocate resources accordingly.
2. Marsabit is the second largest County in Kenya, hosting many development partners, yet
it lacks basic infrastructure and does not have a Water and Sewerage Company. This in a
way, is systematic marginalization and one of the first priorities of the County
Government should be to set-up a proper water and sewerage company. Such a company
will support proper planning especially for sewerage for Marsabit Town which is
showing signs of economic take-off. The Company can also take over overall
management of smaller companies and schemes, which have proven unviable to run and
manage.
3. The role of government officers in water needs to be redefined. With quite a substantial
investment being done by non-state actors and communities, government officers should
be available and accessible to support with repairs and maintenance, as well as in
demonstrating the best ways to harvest water. In effect, their role should be to provide
extension services in water.
4. Although WARMA is doing some conservation work with WRUAs, environmental
conservation has not been mainstreamed. This is evidenced through drying up of springs
and diminishing levels of water in Lakes such as Lake Paradise. Urgent mechanisms
need to be put in place to arrest this situation and promote water recharge even for
boreholes.
5. Water quality is a grave issue in this area. A water surveillance mechanism needs to be
put in place for systematic sampling and analysis so that contamination can be detected
and contained in good time. The County Government either separately or as a section of
Water and Sewerage Company, needs to set-up a testing lab in the County where samples
can be tested. Non State Actors also need to shift some attention from water access to
water quality and sanitation. The Public Health Office needs to coordinate sanitation
approaches and distribution of treatment chemicals. Appropriate approaches that have
worked in other areas like Community Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) need to be
introduced. Water purification options and gadgets, especially those that use solar, should
be explored. It may also be necessary to conduct a dedicated water quality analysis study
45
in the County to determine the exact patterns of contamination and how this may have
affected human health and the implications of long term usage of this water.
6. Since most schemes and systems are community managed, there is an opportunity for
more training and strengthening of Water Users Associations (WUAs) to manage water
points more economically. Funds realized can be used for simple repairs, simple water
treatment, and piping to communal water points as a start.
7. There is need for aggressive citizen education especially in the Water Policy and Water
Bill and provisions for participation. It is not possible to have demand driven change
when citizens are unaware of their rights, obligations, and opportunities that abound. In
particular citizens need to become aware of how they can work through County
Government to exploit and push for higher resource allocation to the sectors that matter
most to them. They also need to understand how they can utilize opportunities like
Community Planning Cycle (CPC) and Urban Planning Cycle (UPC) through Water
Services Trust Fund (WSTF). Communities can also form community watchdog
mechanisms like Water Action Groups (WAGs) and Water Working Groups (WWGs)
which are working very well in places like Mombasa, to monitor projects, hold
government institutions to accountability, and educate Citizens/ Consumers on various
issues. There should also be a County Forum to meet on regular basis where the County
Government and its Water Service Provider (s) can report to citizens on plans and
progress in realization of the right to water.
8. Marsabit is a land of huge untapped potential, and can support cultivation as well as in
livestock production. An example of Marsabit’s agricultural potential is the miraa crop
(khat), which does not do well in many places, but which has flourished here in some
pockets of Marsabit Central. Some thinking needs to begin happening around how water
from the many small points can be aggregated and piped further from settlements, to
enable the more explorative citizens begin utilizing idle land for agriculture.
9. Water storage at household level should be promoted and supported. Even in areas where
water supply is not so stressed like parts of Loiyangalani and North Horr, lots of
households still spend huge amounts of time and resources because of the lack of
tendency/ inability to store water.
10. Investments in water in the County need to be profiled and consolidated to avoid
duplication, and investments in areas that are not really in need for example the some
boreholes sunk by the Ministry which has not been equipped to date since the areas there
are sited are not really water stressed. There needs to be a central place for data
aggregation. The data in the virtual map developed out of this exercise can serve as an
46
initial database, updated either continuously or annually. Overtime, citizens can begin to
play a key role, providing information on functionality and quality among others through
online mechanisms. The Ministry of Water recognizes its shortcomings, but attributes
part of this to the fact that partners do not share lots of their data. The capacity of the
relevant Ministry and the County Government should be developed such that they can
maintain and update a central database. The incoming County Government can play a
key role in this.
11. Public Private Partnerships need to be encouraged to consolidate efforts around areas of
greatest need. For example, when funds are limited, the government can drill a borehole
and partner with Non-State Actors for equipping or extending piping; or vice versa.
12. Coordination among various stakeholders in the Water Sector starting from the relevant
Ministry, are both inadequate and inefficient. Whereas devolution to Counties must
happen meaningfully, it is important to keep vigil in the Policy development process to
ensure that related functions are merged/ integrated. Information flow should also be
enhanced and this can be done through the proposed ASAL Secretariat.
47
7. 0 REFERENCES
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 2002. ‘Substantive Issues Arising in the
Implementation of The International Covenant On Economic, Social And Cultural Rights’.
Retrieved from
http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/a5458d1d1bbd713fc1256cc400389e94/$FILE/G0340229.doc
J. Bartram and G. Howard, “Domestic water quantity, service level and health: what should be
the goal for water and health sectors”, WHO, 2002.
Kenya Water for Health Organization (KWAHO), 2009. ‘Enhancing Water and Sanitation
Governance in Kenya: Human Rights Based Approach to Reforms in the Kenya Water
Sector’. Retrieved from
http://www.kwaho.org/documents/UNDP_Water_Governance_HRBA_Bondo_Consultancy_TOR_
Capacity_of_Water_Actors.pdf
Michael Mortimore, 2009. ‘Dryland Opportunities: A New Paradigm for People, Ecosystems
and Development’
P.H. Gleick, (1996) “Basic water requirements for human activities: meeting basic needs”,
Water International, 21, pp. 83-92.
Republic Of Kenya, 2011. ‘Vision 2030 Development Strategy for Northern Kenya and other
Arid Lands’. Retrieved from
http://typo3.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/Vision2030%20development%20strat
egy%20for%20northern%20kenya%20and%20other%20dry%20areas%202011%20.pdf
Republic of Kenya, 2011. ‘National Policy for the Sustainable Development of Northern Kenya
and other Arid Lands: Releasing Our Full Potential’. Retrieved from
http://www.dmikenya.or.ke/call_for_proposals/Draft%20Sessional%20Paper%20for%20ASAL.pdf
Republic Of Kenya, 2011. ‘Vision 2030 Development Strategy for Northern Kenya and other
Arid Lands’. Retrieved from
http://www.aridland.go.ke/ministry_docs/vision2030_draft3.pdf
Republic of Kenya, 2009. ‘National Policy for the Sustainable Development of Arid and Semi
Arid Lands of Kenya’. Retrieved from
http://www.aridland.go.ke/ministry_docs/ASAL_policy.pdf
UN, 2003. ‘Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 15, The
right to water (Twenty-ninth session, 2003), U.N. Doc. E/C.12/2002/11 (2002), reprinted
in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human
Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 105 (2003)’. Retrieved from
http://umn.edu/humanrts/gencomm/escgencom15.htm
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8.0 ANNEXES
8.1 Marsabit water points map
http://goo.gl/maps/AnoFl
x
8.2 Sample of the chemical analysis: Results
x
8.3 Questionnaires
(Attached)
8.4 List of water points mapped
(Attached)
x