Process And Quality Factors In Laundry And Toilet Soap Production
TABLE OF CONTENT
Content
Title page
Letter of transmittal
Approval page
Dedication
Abstract
Table of content
CAPTER ONE
Introduction
Scope and objective of projects
Chapter two
Literature survey
History of soap making
Raw materials used for soap making
Soap manufacturing processes
Processes and steps involved in production of soap
Quality factors in soap production
page
Chapter three
Experimental procedures
Equipment and materials used
General procedure
Experimental procedure for laundry soap
Experimental procedure for toilt soap
Experimental analysis
Determinations of saponification value
Determination of free falty acid
Determination of free caustic alkali
Determination of moisture content
Determination of PA of soap
Chapter four
Experimental results
Discussion
CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion
Recommendation
References
Appendices
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Soap is a class of products that serves for cleaning of human, property and
surrounding. Hence, soap in its various forms, is in high demand in all society.
For generations its use has increased until its manufacture has become an
industry essential to the comfort and health of civilized man. In fact, modern
civilization may be gauged by the per capital consumption of soap and
detergents.
Soap a classical example of detergent (cleaning agent) – differs from detergent
in processes of manufacture and chemical composition.
These result in
differences in action.
Soap depends for its washing action on the fact that its molecules possess one
ionic (polar, water – attracting or hydrophilic) end and one covalent (nonpolar, water repelling or hydrophobic) end which attracts oils and greases.
Thus, soap molecules can make water and oils come into an emulsion which
can be washed away. This is the modern concepts of surface active agents or
surfactants; soap, detergents, emulsifiers, wetting agents and penetrants.
Soap is not, however, satisfactory, as it forms a scum (precipitate of insoluble
calcium and magnesium salts) in hard and acidic waters. Synthetic detergents,
on the other hand, do not form a scum in hard or acidic water as their calcium
and magnesium salts are solute, are usually more soluble in water than soap is;
enable water to spread and penetrate more fully over or through an article
being cleaned and can generally be used equally well under alkaline or acidic
conditions.
Soaps are essentially the sodium or potassium salts of various fatty acids, while
detergents are very complex mixtures of many substances, all chosen to impart
a particular action in cleaning.
The polar end of the detergent molecule
consists of sulphonic acid ( - SO3H) or hydrogen sulphate (-OSO3H) group
present in the form of its sodium salt to increase solubility. The non-polar end
of the detergent molecule is a long alkyl – substituted benzene chain.
Extensively branched chains are not biochemically degradable and such
detergents cause pollution in rivers and sea wage waters.
Soap also contains additives for some desired qualities. These include salt,
soda ash, sodium silicate, sodium bicarbonate, perfume, colour, citric acid,
borax, magnesium sulphate, and trisodium phosphate. A combination of
inexpensive builders, e.g. soda ash with more effective (and expensive)
tetrasoium pyrophosphate or sodium triphasphate, is sometimes superior to the
phasphate used alone.
Although the use of soap has declined since World War II, majority of the
world’s toilet tablets are still soap, and in the developing countries hard soap
bars are still the most important fabric washing products. Also, a substantial
proportion of the fabric – washing powder used in the United Kingdom is soap
powder. Other uses of soaps are in textile finishing, emulsion polymerization,
cosmetics and polishes.
Basically, all soap is made by saponification, that is the hydrolysis of naturally
occurring fats and oil by sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) or potassium
hydroxide (caustic potash). Various additives have been used to impart some
specific characteristics to the products.
The qualities and properties affecting soap and also the processing (which
forms the basis of this project) depend on factors such as the nature and type of
oil used, the type of alkali used and also on the proportion of mixture of both
major raw materials.
SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT
Soap can be produced with a variety of raw materials, using several processes
and thus obtaining varying qualities. However, from the literature survey, it
was found that various types of oils differed, consequently, their soap products
different.
In this work, soap is to be produced using palm oil and palm kernel oil
respectively. The objective is to compare the qualities of the soaps made from
these oils and also the processing involved for laundry and toilet soap
production.
The work entails working out the soap formulas and using the formulations to
produce soap. The two soaps so produced will then be tested analytically to
determine their various physical and chemical properties.
From the results obtained from the various analytical test, distinguished
process qualities of the two soap will then be deduced.
Finally, recommendation will be made to aid further research on the project.
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