Virtue-based ethics
The man who damages another damages himself,
and evil schemes are most harmful to the schemer.
—Hesiod (fl. c. 700 BCE), Works and Days, 265-6.
§I. INTRODUCTION
1) Background: Virtue ethics as an ethical school of thought
a) Virtue ethics is now considered a major alternative to consequentialism
(utilitarianism) and deontology (Kantianism).
b) It is a long tradition of ethical thinking with early advocates among ancient
Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle.
c) Some argue that Confucianism is also a form of virtue ethics.
2) Some characteristics
a) Comprehensive
b) Controversial
c) Virtue ethicists deal with questions related to human nature and the very
nature of morality itself.
3) Our focuses
a) What makes virtue ethics different from other ethical theories?
b) What are the main theses put forward by the virtue ethicist?
c) How to apply virtue ethics when we are dealing with real life ethical issues?
d) What are the limitations and weaknesses of virtue ethics?
§II. CONTRASTING VIRTUE ETHICS WITH CONSEQUENTIALISM AND DEONTOLOGY
1) Two imaginary scenarios:
a) The Kantian who visits his friend in hospital
i) Characteristics:
(1) This person performs this action for the sake of duty.
(2) While duty is his reason for action, he is not motivated to do so: he
does not have any positive emotion associated with this action.
ii) Comments:
(1) Acting for the sake of duty seems to be undesirable in some forms of
personal relationships.
(2) There seems to be a split between reason and (emotional) motivation.
b) The utilitarian and the trolley problem
i) Characteristics:
(1) The moral rightness or wrongness seems to be located in the
consequences only.
(2) The moral dilemma is presented in an impersonal way.
ii) Comments:
(1) The utilitarian seems to have neglected emotions such as regret and
repulsion.
(2) What kind of person one is seems unimportant to the utilitarian.
(3) To act according to utilitarian principles may lead to a fragmented life.
2) The responses of the virtue ethicist
a) The consequentialist and deontologist have the wrong questions and focuses
i) Too much emphasis is put on the morality of acts.
ii) Morality is understood to be a matter of following certain principles which
are concerned with:
(1) Consequences, or
(2) Duties and obligations.
b) Ethics should not be concerned only with individual acts. Instead, the
question ‘How are we to live?’ should be given sufficient attention.
c) To answer the question how we should live, we need to deal with questions
such as ‘What kind of person do I want to be?’ or ‘What sort of character traits
or virtue can help us live well?’.
§III. MORAL IDENTITY, THE VIRTUES AND HUMAN FLOURISHING
1) The moral agent and moral identity
a) While consequentialism or utilitarianism is clearly act-centred, virtue ethics is
often considered to be agent-centred.
b) Whether an act or a practice is moral or immoral is related to what kind of
person is perform the act or practice in question.
c) To deal with ethical problems or to try to live a good life, it is necessary to
consider our moral identity, i.e., what kind of person one wants to become.
2) The virtues and human flourishing
a) The possession of the virtues makes up our moral identity for the most part.
b) The virtues are responsive to reasons and they need to be developed or
cultivated. (Consider the example of courage.)
c) While it is not always clear which virtues together are sufficient to make a
good life, it seems that the possession of some virtues is necessary for a good
life.
3) Why are the virtues necessary for human flourishing? On the virtues and the
human condition (or human nature)
a) There are a number of fundamental problems facing human life:
i) How should be distribute resources and goods? Is there a just or fair way?
ii) How should we treat another human being? Should we be kind or should
we treat others as if they are mere things?
iii) We need to plan our lives and control our desires, by what means can we
manage this?
b) The virtues make human life more worth living by offering some solutions to
the problems:
i) Life is more satisfying when we live in a just society. (The virtue of
justice.)
ii) We can enjoy living in human communities when we are respected and
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liked by others. (The virtues of humanity and friendliness.)
iii) Our lives can become structured when we are not totally controlled by
blind desires and external circumstances. (The virtue of temperance or
self-control can deal with this.)
§IV. APPLYING VIRTUE ETHICS IN DEALING WITH MORAL ISSUES
1) Background: the characteristics of virtue ethics as an alternative ethical approach
a) The conceptual paradigm: The framework of virtue ethics makes the moral
agent, emotions, the virtues and human flourishing its focuses.
b) Evaluative language: Instead of using ‘thin’ terms such as ‘morally right’,
‘rational beings’ or ‘greatness happiness’ to describe behaviour and ethical
issues, the virtue ethicist attempts to use a more nuanced language to respond
to the complexity of our moral life. As a result, ‘thick’ terms such as
‘cowardly’ or ‘generous’ are applied to acts, and such terms have both a
descriptive and evaluative element. A person may be said to have acted
‘dishonestly out of weakness of will with tragic consequences for her life’.
This concern of the virtue ethicist gives literature and narratives a role to play
within moral philosophy.
c) Particularism: The moral agent and personal experience play a role: a virtuous
or wise person would be in a better position to judge what is the virtuous thing
to do in particular circumstances.
2) Applying virtue ethics: some examples
a) Abortion and callousness
b) Animal welfare and compassion
c) Patriotism: is it a true virtue?
d) Racism: how to combat it?
3) Virtue ethics on reason and emotion
a) Thinking about ethical problems from the perspective of virtue ethics is an
expression of our rational ability.
b) Although the virtue ethicist pays attention to the emotional aspects of human
beings, the emotions are not considered to be something totally distinct from
reason.
c) The example of anger:
i) Anger has an object—we are angry about something (an event or
someone).
ii) A judgement is involved in experiencing anger. (‘This person is insulting
me!’)
iii) It is also possible to rationally evaluate whether our anger is appropriate or
not. (‘Is it necessary for me to feel so angry with this person?’)
d) The absence of emotions such as sorrow or regret in some situations may
indicate a flaw in a person’s ethical character. However, it is still possible to
subject an emotion to rational evaluation. (Consider the emotion of disgust.)
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What is a virtue?
(Based on Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics)
A definition:
An activity according to what is appropriate or reasonable.
Concerned with actions and feelings.
Requires decision.
Related to circumstances and guided by reason.
What are the distinguishing features of a person with a virtuous character?
The virtuous person possesses knowledge: she knows what she is doing and
why.
To count as truly virtuous, the virtuous does not act virtuously for some
ulterior motives (居心).
The virtuous has a firm and unchangeable character.
The truly virtuous person performs the right act with pleasure because her
emotions form a harmonious relationship with her actions.
4) Avoiding dangers
a) The distinction between indoctrination and the development of an ethical
character
i) Indoctrination is the implanting of values in an unquestioned manner.
Virtue ethics is distinct from indoctrination because it calls for rational
justification.
ii) The emphasis on the virtues and human flourishing does not automatically
give support to a traditional morality. We should see virtue ethics as a
conceptual tool which can help us to reach a more defensible philosophical
position. [Not final answers!]
b) The lure of relativism
i) The list of desirable virtues may vary between different cultures. However,
it is important to note that the virtues are based on some reasons or
purposes so a culture may revise its list of virtue critically.
ii) A particular character trait within a culture may become an obstacle to
human flourishing. In this case, it need not be considered a virtue by the
virtue ethicist. (Consider the traditional ‘female’ virtues such as virginity
and obedience.)
iii) Reason and the virtues: the virtues are not natural, instinctual reactive
disposition—they involve reasons, decisions and the intention to be
cultivated. A relativist is silent concerning which virtues should be
cultivated.
5) Challenges: What are the limitations and weaknesses of virtue ethics?
a) Concerning human nature:
i) Does it make sense to talk about human nature?
ii) Is human nature constant? Or can it be changed?
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b) Concerning the virtues:
i) What if there are disagreements about the statuses of particular virtues
between different cultures?
ii) Is what is considered a virtue a product of class structures or power
relationships?
c) Concerning human flourishing:
i) Is the virtue ethicist having too narrow a picture of human flourishing?
ii) Can a person have a flourishing life without the virtues?
References
Annas, Julia (1981), An Introduction to Plato’s Republic, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Annas, Julia (2000), Ancient Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction, New York:
Oxford University Press.
Crisp, Roger and Slote, Michael (ed.) (1997), Virtue Ethics, New York: Oxford
University Press.
Hursthouse, Rosalind (1999), On Virtue Ethics, New York: Oxford University Press.
Irwin, Terence (trans.) (1985), Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics, Indianapolis: Hackett.
Lee, Desmond (trans.) (1987), Plato: The Republic, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Statman, Daniel (ed.) (1997), Virtue Ethics: A Critical Reader, Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.
Trianosky, Gregory (1990), ‘What is Virtue Ethics all about?’, American
Philosophical Quarterly, volume 27, number 4, October 1990, pp. 335-44.
Further reading
Rosenstand, Nina (2006), The Moral of the Story: An Introduction to Ethics, fifth
edition, McGraw-Hill, esp. Part 3. [A ground-breaking introductory book which
integrates ethics and narrative works such as stories and films.]
(Hektor K. T. YAN)
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