MA Thesis
Equally Different or
Differently Equal
An interdisciplinary Approach
to Universalism and Relativism
and its functioning in the Dutch
National History Museum
Lieke Wijnia
Title:
Equally Different or Differently Equal
An Interdisciplinary Approach to Universalism and Relativism
and its functioning in the Dutch National History Museum
Author:
Lieke Wijnia
Student Number:
0301000
Thesis Supervisor:
Hendrik Henrichs (Utrecht University)
Secondary Thesis Advisor:
Caroline Nevejan (PhD. University of Amsterdam)
Hand in Date:
26-06-2007
Word Count:
18.012
Key Words:
Human Rights, Identity Formation, Heritage Selection
Utrecht University
Faculty of Arts
History Department
MA Cultural Heritage
Contact:
De Wulp 6
8862 LM Harlingen
lieke.wijnia@gmail.com
© Utrecht, 2007
1
“ ‘Where I come from’, said Archie, ‘a bloke likes to get to know a
girl before he marries her.’ ‘Where you come from it is customary
to boil vegetables until they fall apart. This does not mean,’ said
Samad tersely, ‘that it is a good idea.’”
- Zadie Smith, White Teeth, 2000, pg 98
“We can deny our heritage and our history, but we cannot
escape responsibility for the results.”
- Edward R. Murrow, as quoted in Good Night and Good Luck, 2005, “43.10 – 43.20”
“We have, it seems, never ceased to be apes;
yet we aspire to be angels.”
- Felipe Fernández-Armesto, So you think you’re Human?, 2004, pg 8
“If culture is part of the problem, culture is part of the solution.”
- Major René Teygeler, Cultural Affairs Department of Civil Military
Cooperation (CIMIC), Blue Shield Lecture, Utrecht, 23-03-2007
2
Contents
Introduction
p. 5
Part I – Universalism, Relativism and Heritage Reconsidered
1.1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
p. 7
1.2 Relativist Approaches to the Declaration
1.2.1 Anthropology
1.2.2 Interdisciplinary Views
1.2.3 International Politics
p. 8
p. 8
p. 9
p. 10
1.3 Contemporary Critiques on Universal Thought and Practices
1.3.1 Biological Discussion
1.3.2 Globalisation
1.3.3 Human Rights as Aim or Name
p. 10
p. 10
p. 12
p. 12
1.4 Conclusion
p. 13
Part II – Identity Formation and Heritage Selection in Universal and
Relative Contexts
2.1 Identity Formation
2.1.1 A Culture-Identity Framework
2.1.2 Cultural Heritage Aspects of Identity
p. 14
p. 14
p. 16
2.2 Heritage Selection
2.2.1 The Dutch Canon
2.2.2 UNESCO World Heritage List
2.2.3 Securing Identity
p. 17
p. 18
p. 19
p. 19
2.3 Identity, Heritage and Human Rights
2.3.1 Identity Crisis
2.3.2 International Community
p. 20
p. 20
p. 21
2.4 Conclusion
p. 22
Part III – Relative and Universal Identity Formation in the future
Dutch National History Museum
3.1 Plans for the Dutch National History Museum
3.1.1 The Vision
3.1.2 In Practice
3.1.3 Museum Displays and the Universal Declaration
3.2 Nationality in the Dutch National History Museum
p. 24
p. 24
p. 25
p. 26
p. 28
3
3.2.1 Musealised National Identity
3.2.2 The Canon and the Museum
p. 28
p. 29
3.3 National Identity in a Universal Context
3.3.1 Problematic Identities
3.3.2 A Museum as Cure?
p. 30
p. 30
P. 31
3.4 Conclusion
p. 32
Concluding Thoughts
p. 33
Acknowledgements
p. 36
Bibliography
p. 38
Images front page – clockwise:
Edgar Degas, Mary Cassatt at the Louvre: The Etruscan Gallery, c.1879/1880
soft ground etching and dry point, National Gallery of Art, Washington
Edgar Degas, Mary Cassatt at the Louvre: The Paintings Gallery, c.1879/1880,
etching, aquatint, dry point, and electric crayon on wove paper, National Gallery of Art, Washington
Edgar Degas, Mary Cassatt at the Louvre: The Etruscan Gallery, 1880,
pastel on paper, private collection, New York
Edgar Degas, Mary Cassatt at the Louvre: The Etruscan Gallery, c.1879/1880
soft ground etching, aquatint, and dry point, National Gallery of Art, Washington ,
4
Introduction
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, drafted and adopted in 1948 by the General
Assembly of the United Nations, is the ultimate manifestation of universalist thought which
received a new, sincere impulse after the end of World War II. This universalist line of
thought mainly focused upon fundamental equality between human beings. Although the
twentieth century saw several emancipation struggles, many human beings still face unequal
opportunities in the twenty-first century. Injustice and extreme poverty threaten the
existence of many. Continual necessity to fight absolute decisions by regimes and unfair
treatment of human beings exists in the international community. Therefore, the notion of
human rights is important and its implementation and concretization have to be constantly
discussed. Military interventions in human rights-violating situations, backed by the
international community in the legal form of the United Nations, do not guarantee human
rights-respecting situations once these interventions have finished. The notions underlying
human rights cannot be imposed from an international, political level, but have to emerge
from within society. Ultimately, human rights have to be respected and accustomed by
human beings themselves.
Human beings are born and raised in certain communities; nonetheless they often get
acquainted with other communities in later stages of their lives. Their communities and
cultural environments are the prime contexts to which human beings relate and in which
they form their identities. The concept of heritage plays an important role in this cultural
environment, since it makes this environment, in a sense, tangible. The two dimensions of
heritage, materiality and immateriality, are both important in this process of identification. In
a relatively small, local environment an individual can often fully develop a personal
identity, and choose certain heritage as a foundation for this identity. Accordingly, this
individual process can be balanced by means of putting it into a wider perspective. This
wider perspective can be found in a national or even international context. Only when an
individual identity is stable and the owner feels comfortable with it, a relation to a wider
perspective can be made. When an individual identity is not stable, the results may be
insecurity and a longing for extreme ideologies, such as nationalism. By relating to the
generalizations of nationalism the individual then tries to look for comfort by feeling part of
a larger, already existing whole which is more easily accessible. An identity is made up of
several layers, which correspond to individual (relative) and collective (universal)
perspectives.
The phenomenon of cultural heritage has a dynamic character, exemplified by the fact that
material heritage has become one of the main targets in violent conflicts. As cultural heritage
is so closely linked with identity, it became a trend to erase the “enemy’s” identity by
destroying its heritage. Therefore, the notion of cultural heritage, which is one of the
fundaments of identity formation, is of crucial importance in the promotion of human rights,
with the ultimate goal of their implementation. The main question in this thesis, which has
resulted from the above train of thought, is as follows;
How does the notion of cultural heritage relate to the conflicting universalist and
relativist approaches to the concept and implementation of human rights?
To work towards an answer to this question, this thesis will be divided into three parts. In
the first part, Universalism, Relativism and Heritage Reconsidered, an overview of the debate
around the Universal Declaration of Human Rights will be provided. The most contesting
approach of relativism will receive particular attention. Relativism, originated in the
5
academic discipline of anthropology, has become the fundament of challenges in the
realization and implementation of human rights. Crimes may still be committed in the name
of culture, but cultural differences should never be used as a justification. This is a
universally accepted notion, although the exact definition of crimes in the name of culture is
still heavily debated. A definition of cultural values is often a product of a specific culture.
For a long time, universalist ideals have been difficult to criticize since, in principle, no
disagreement exists about their equalitarian intentions. However, practices in the name of
these intentions have hardly ever resulted as intended. Therefore, Part I will conclude with
criticisms on human rights activism and universalist notions and practices.
Part II, Identity Formation and Heritage Selection in Relative and Universal Contexts, will
specifically focus on the heritage approach to human rights issues. In this approach, the
processes of identity formation and heritage selection are of great significance. The reciprocal
relationship between these two processes can offer new grounds for discussion in the human
rights debate. Therefore, the role of heritage notions in the process of identity formation will
firstly be discussed, in which the role of material and immaterial heritage in theories of
individual and collective identity formation will be analysed. Subsequently, the role of
identity formation in heritage selection will be dealt with and illustrated by means of two
leading examples, namely the Dutch Canon and UNESCO’s World Heritage List. Finally, the
preceding analyses will be linked to the human rights debate and, in particular, to difficulties
underlying their implementation.
After the theoretical discussion, a case study will be presented in part III, Relative and
Universal Identity Formation in the future Dutch National History Museum. In this chapter, the
recent history of and plans for the Dutch National History Museum will be presented. These
will be followed by an analysis of how its intentions overlap with human rights notions. The
central question in this part will relate to the issue of whether a museum will be the right
institution to enhance the establishment of a secure identity for Dutch citizens, which seems
to be absent at this time. Thus, the concepts of individualism, nationalism and universalism
are all of large significance in this discussion, and form the crucial link between the plans for
this museum and the human rights debate.
Concluding thoughts will be provided on further debate and research in the area of the
Dutch National History Museum and in the human rights debate. Most importantly,
suggestions will be made for the overlapping part of these two debates, which concern both
the Dutch and the international community. Due to globalization, notions concerning
identity and heritage are constantly changing. Therefore the meanings of, and practical ideas
on, debates on national museums and universal human rights are constantly shifting. These
notions are apparent in many layers of society, even beyond the dimension of law. For this
reason, an interdisciplinary approach is deemed necessary in this research. This thesis
intends to promote the importance of identity formation and the freedom to establish a
secure identity within these debates. A secure relative identity will lead to opportunities to
see oneself in a larger, even universal perspective. These processes have to be strongly
enhanced within the social structures in which they appear. Ultimately, all members of
humanity, constituting these societies, nations and the globe, are the ones which have to exist
and, most importantly, coexist.
6
Part I
Universalism, Relativism and Heritage Reconsidered
In this part, a general introduction to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights will be
presented, followed by its most important challenges. The notion of cultural relativism forms
a particular challenge to universalist thought. These conceptual debates greatly influence the
process of human rights implementation. This part will be concluded with contemporary
critiques on universalist thought and practices. Objections are continually raised on many
governments’ actions and initiatives in the war on terrorism and their responses to
continuous religious and nationalist extremism. This part hopes to provide a general
understanding of the human rights debate and the role of culture and heritage in relativist
challenges.
1.1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
On December 10, 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted and
proclaimed by the General Assembly of the United Nations. This document states the most
fundamental rights for every human being on earth. Formulated and agreed upon by human
beings, these rights proclaim fundamental equality for every member of mankind. The
enforcement of this notion and its resulting document were deemed to be necessary after the
many cruelties during the first half of the twentieth century. The consequences of dictatorial
regimes like those of Stalin in the USSR and Hitler in Nazi Germany were too detestable to
ever be faced again. The large, destructive influences these regimes had on countries in- and
outside of Europe made the drafting, adoption and ratification of the Declaration of Human
Rights an issue only appropriately manageable by the international community as
represented in the United Nations (UN).
The UN is an institution which develops strategies for intervention where humanitarian
values and interests are at stake. In order to take action, the UN relies on its member states
and their capabilities to perform these interventions. The institution of the UN itself is more
or less the bureaucratic route towards this action. To make all bureaucratic discussions come
to a reasonable solution, consensus is the key word. To reach this consensus, all member
states have to interact with each other, and therefore need to possess some degree of
empathy. This empathy is one of the key stones in the Declaration of Human Rights. It is one
of the universal aspects of behaviour, which is of major importance for the resulting
consequences of this document. However, not all peoples, regimes or nations, feel appealed
to the universality of the Declaration. They might claim traditions and cultural practices to be
more important guidelines for social and judicial procedures than the universal values for
humanity as defined in the Declaration.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights contains basic and more elaborate types of
human rights. Distinctions are made between civil, political, economic, social and cultural
rights. The Universal Declaration followed the United Nations Charter, which outlines the
procedures and operations of the UN. Establishing this charter was the primary reaction of
the international community to the shock caused by World War II. The charter mentioned
human rights protection, but did not precisely outline the means to do this. The drafting of
the Universal Declaration was a response to this. The key contributors in the drafting process
were the Canadian Professor of law John Humphrey, the Frenchman Rene Cassin, former
First Lady of the USA Eleanor Roosevelt, Dr. Charles Malik of Lebanon and Dr. P.C. Chang
of China. The fact that this was a truly international co-operation is one of the major
7
arguments to counter the challenging notion of cultural relativism, which in turn claims the
Declaration to be a manifestation of Western Enlightenment values.
The Declaration is currently a device which serves to ethically and diplomatically pressure
states which offend the values of human rights. Initially it was conceived as a documented
set of objectives to be practised by governments. The Declaration is now regarded as a
cornerstone of customary international law that binds all governments to its principles. The
Declaration was not signed by all parties, but the General assembly proclaimed it, which in
turn led to obliged ratification for all UN member states. The proclamation occurred with a
vote; 48 to none, with 8 abstentions. This was considered a moment of ultimate consensus,
since an array of regimes proved to all recognize the necessity of this document. Even
(partially) opposing parties showed this recognition by abstaining instead of voting against.
(Website UNAC, 1998). The document can be seen as a basic text, from which many
interpretations can be derived. Professor of International Relations Chris Brown points at a
three generations distinction within the Declaration. First generation rights are political and
liberty rights, second are economic and social, and third generation rights are peoples rights
(Brown, 1999:115). This distinction points at the multi-layered aspect of the Declaration.
These different layers and types of rights make the Declaration amenable to different
interpretations. These interpretations have led to a range of standpoints and reactions to the
Declaration. Every type of rights became a subject of study in the concerned academic
discipline. This shows the interdisciplinary complexity of the human rights.
1.2 Relativist Approaches to the Declaration
“(…) [H]uman rights could be seen as one of the most globalized political values of our
times” (Wilson, 1997: 1). Despite an apparent global consensus, implementation has turned
out to be difficult. Reasons for these difficulties can be found in cultural relativism, the
stream of thought counter to universalism. The debate between these discourses will
probably be everlasting, but certainly necessary within the international network of the UN
and globally operating NGO’s. As stated above the adoption of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights was one of the first tasks the UN completed successfully. Its promotion and
implementation, however, still leads to many concerns. “(…) [T]he idea that rights could be
attached to individuals by virtue solely of their common humanity is particularly subject to
penetrating criticism” (Brown, 1999: 103). Every discourse within the human rights debate
should be placed in a proper historical context. “Without a sense of the past (…) it would be
easy to conclude, mistakenly, that the only serious difficulties associated with human rights
thinking are generated by the unacceptable practices of alien Others” (Brown, 1999: 103).
Here, a focus on anthropological points of view is chosen, since anthropology underlies the
initiation of relativist claims. These are balanced by short descriptions of interdisciplinary
attempts of creating a more soluble concept of the human rights situation.
1.2.1 Anthropology
The cultural relativist discourse has found its way into the human rights debate through
growing concerns about and discontent with the so-interpreted Western values which
dominate the formulation of the Declaration. Many non-Western nations do not feel that the
formulations and their following implementation concern them despite their adoption of the
Declaration. The most concrete response to these concerns is that the drafting of the
Declaration was an international process, and that it was adopted by the UN General
Assembly as a result of this international co-operation (Website UNAC, 1998). Moreover,
organizations like the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) state that
the Declaration is heavily directed at the organizational structures of UN member states and
8
not at the nature of indigenous peoples, who are not listed as UN members (Website UNPO).
Originally, cultural relativism is a key notion in the academic discipline of anthropology.
Anthropologist Franz Boas pointed out that “all cultures are of equal value and need to be
studied from a neutral point of view. The study of a and/ or any culture has to be done with
a cold and neutral eye so that a particular culture can be understood at its own merits and
not another culture’s” (Website University of Texas-Pan American, 1994). His writings and
thoughts were academically elaborated by his students and in 1948 a collection of his most
significant work was published, entitled Race, Language and Culture. One of these students
was Melville Herskovits, the author of the American Anthropological Association’s (AAA)
statement on human rights, which was published in 1947. Since 1948, the academic discipline
has developed and its terminology has followed consequently. Over time, anthropological
relativism is appropriated into the human rights discourse. “Historically, anthropological
perspectives on transnational processes have been hampered by two related factors: (1) a
methodological emphasis on localism; and (2) a theoretical concern with ‘culture’.
Anthropology’s prolonged love-affair with local culture has meant that at various junctures,
anthropologists have positioned themselves in critical opposition to universal values and
transnational processes such as ‘human rights’” (Wilson, 1997: 1).
1.2.2 Interdisciplinary Views
After the early period of black and white views, more nuanced views on practical difficulties
of the human rights debate came to the fore. Many attempts have been made to combine
universalism and relativism, but these have not resulted in a convincing theoretical solution.
For example, Alison Dundes Renteln has made a plea for reaching a universal concept of
human rights through empirically analysing existing judicial system. She intended to reach a
universal judicial denominator through a relative analysis (Renteln, 1990). “In her urge to
present the global evidence for a single value which supposedly underpins human rights
standards, Renteln [ignores] the richness of ethnographic accounts” (Wilson, 1997: 7). By
trying to create one universal judicial value, Renteln probably excluded many relative factors
which actually led to human rights violations. The many nuances in the debate make it
particularly difficult and a solution will not be found by ignoring these nuances.
In the sociological discipline, researchers have tried to create a sociologically grounded
common denominator. For example, sociologist Bryan Turner (1993) has attempted to
incorporate aspects of relativism to reach “a more flexible and globally applicable conception
of human rights. [He] argues that a conception of human ontology is a precondition for any
notion of human rights (…). [S]ocial institutions are needed because humans are physically
and ontologically frail and unfinished, not because they are aggressive and bent on
domination” (Wilson: 1997, 5). Turner sees human frailty as the universal element of human
existence and this frailty should be the basis of an applicable institutional form of human
rights. However, in these early relativist reactions to the concept of human rights, culture
was seen as a static concept, uniform for all its members, “[c]ulture is referred to as an entity,
not as a process” (Wilson, 1997: 10). Especially the dynamic character of culture is important
in the human rights debate. Particular behavioural aspects, regarded as universal, are
simultaneously culturally related and interpreted differently in different cultural contexts.
Therefore, frailty as a departure point in the human rights debate creates just as many
difficulties as, for example, Renteln’s judicial approach.
Several degrees in both universalism and relativism have been distinguished. For example,
Jack Donnelly uses the terminology of weak, strong and radical to label strands in both
discourses (Donnelly, 2003: 90). Herskovits’ standpoint, put forward in the AAA’s statement,
is regarded as radical cultural relativism, in which “culture is the sole source of the validity
9
of a moral right or rule” (Donnelly, 1989: 109). Herskovits’ belief in the autonomous power of
culture was based on his view that culture can always restore social order, even when a
government or society is abusive (Wilson, 1997: 2). These early, radical anthropological
views have been balanced over the past few decades, but they illustrate that the concept of
human rights has not been hailed unanimously when it was introduced.
1.2.3 International Politics
These discussions on universalism are strongly related to the composition and operational
methods of the current international community. “The present sovereignty-based
international order allows for different and potentially competing accounts of the Good, this
contradicts the idea of universal human rights which, in the full package as developed since
1945, is based on one particular conception of the Good. (…) It is clearly the case that in the
post-colonial late-twentieth-century world, different countries have different notions of what
are appropriate rights – if any – for their inhabitants. In parts of East Asia authoritarian
regimes justify restrictions on individual liberty in the interests of economic development
and, on their account, in accordance with local custom. Islamic regimes do not recognise
certain rights regarded as crucial in Western liberal societies – the right to change one’s
religion being an obvious case in point. (…) The absence of consensus in the modern world is
not simply the product of differences between the major world cultures – the fault lines run
within as well as between cultures” (Brown, 1999: 116-117). Consequently, universal rights
might be only theoretically perfectly applicable to major violations of humanity. However, in
practice, it is difficult to impose a judicial punishment, because of bureaucracy in the court
systems or the alleged damaging of national honour. Therefore, Donnelly is right to
distinguish these degrees in the interpretation of human rights, because, seemingly trivial,
aspects like honour and pride play major roles in the policies of members of the international
community.
These emotional and political aspects closely relate to the notion of identity formation, which
forms the essential link between the human rights and the heritage debate in this thesis. By
accepting the dynamics within the streams of universalism and relativism, this thesis puts
forward identity formation to present a less politically and more culturally oriented
approach to the human rights debate by emphasising the role of heritage. Heritage selection
is of major importance in identity formation, from the individual to the global level. Human
rights activists propose a universal identity for every human being, which should be
prioritized over all other layers of identity. To complete the circle therefore, it is of utmost
importance to analyze the direct or indirect role of heritage in the human rights debate. This
interdisciplinary approach is directed firstly at individuals and societies, before it is directed
at governments and the political sphere.
1.3 Contemporary Critiques on Universalist Practices
Universalism emerged during the Enlightenment, an important period in Western history.
The practices which follow from current universalist thought are heavily criticized. Many
writings on the functioning of mankind in the midst of other animal species and on the ethics
and morals underlying universalist practices are produced in the early twenty-first century.
The writings that serve to focus in this last part were chosen because they incorporate a
similar interdisciplinary approach which this thesis tries to promote.
1.3.1 Biological Discussion
Questions concerning for whom exactly the Declaration is drafted and how our ideas of
being human have emerged are subject of a basic, biological level of the human rights
10
debate. The Spanish philosopher Felipe Fernández-Armesto analyses human rights practices
at this essential level. “The present limits of our concept of humankind are not obvious and
not universal. They have been attained as the product of a long, hard struggle in the Western
world to find a way of understanding humanity which embraces communities formerly
excluded by racism and ethnocentrism, while insisting on a clear distinction between
humans and non-humans” (Fernández-Armesto, 2004: 7). Many arguments have been
proposed to define this distinction, of which the fact that human beings create culture is seen
as the most important. In this debate, culture, includes tool-using or tool-making, using
language and writing to communicate, producing art, and using fire. Art and fire are only
used by human beings, but some animal types are known for their capacity to make use of
these techniques as well. Furthermore, research shows that animals have their own system of
communicating and use their own created tools (Fernández-Armesto, 2004: 12-25) None of
the arguments of what makes humanity uniquely human was ever completely convincing.
“Even if it were true that there are elements of culture that are capable of being used to
define humankind, it would not necessarily justify us hiving our species off from the rest of
creation in a special category of our own. (…) But it has failed because, in any case, nonhuman animals really do have culture” (Fernández-Armesto, 2004: 27). In my view, the next
cultural argument in this debate could be based on the phenomenon of heritage. Cultural
production is within the potential of animals, as Fernández-Armesto shows. However, the
urge of humanity to preserve and pass on its cultural heritage, to archive or display it in a
museum context, and the selection of cultural artefacts seem to be quite uniquely human
aspects. Unfortunately, this thesis does not offer enough room to elaborate upon this matter.
Fernández-Armesto views culture as a dynamic process, which is continually developing in
both human and non-human communities. His research focuses on the question why human
societies have grown so different from each other. This differentiation, however, has
occurred since a relatively short period of time. It started in “the latter part of the last great
Ice Age. Until then, most human communities had much the same way of life (…). The
period of our cultural differentiation (though not the mutability of our culture) now seems to
be over, as globalisation imposes, [a] world-wide (…) convergent model of how to live”
(Fernández-Armesto, 2004: 29-30). This “convergent model” emerged through for instance
world-wide operating multinationals, international co-operation of political communities
like the European Union, and international media like television and the Internet. Despite
this so-called convergence of this model, its consequences are ambiguous. Still, this model
has a dual character. On the one hand the world seems to become smaller through these
global networks, while on the other hand, these processes seem to trigger a strong response
to local and national values. Interestingly enough the societies, which hardly changed and
exploited their environments, turned out be the most successful consistent societies
throughout history. For instance, the Aboriginals in Australia have well-functioned with
their own social hierarchy, laws, and environmental procedures until they were confronted
with modernizing values of Western powers. “This social longevity – as we might call it –
aligns them with most non-human social animals” (Fernández-Armesto, 2004: 30-1). The
concept of human rights can be regarded as a product of increasing, almost overwhelming,
power of human beings; the power to perform injustice and to harm others. It is a framework
to relate to in the protection of human beings from their own capabilities. This has resulted
in a, perhaps unintended, urge to distinguish human beings from other species. FernándezArmesto feels that historical consciousness is a necessary element in these processes, because
it forces human beings to empathise with other cultures and individuals and it teaches how
to view oneself as part of a larger whole. This awareness of the pluriform character of a
larger whole is according to Fernández-Armesto essential to live in an increasingly smaller
world, being subject to globalisation. (Heijne, 2006: 58).
11
1.3.2 Globalisation
Globalisation does not automatically lead to an increasingly universal view of the world on
itself. The process of globalisation is important in relativist approaches to human rights.
Relativist arguments are often undermined by globalist arguments. The conviction is
emerging that because of globalizing cultural, economic and political factors, the world is
changing into a ‘post-cultural’ environment (Wilson: 1997, 10). This is a quite dramatic
interpretation, but the impact of globalisation cannot be underestimated in this debate.
Globalisation is not just a process of integration and unification, but it enhances “a
proliferation of diversity as well. A diversity of normative orders may still prevail and may
even be exacerbated by global processes, but they are no longer predicated upon isolation.
Rather, a sense of difference is constructed out of relatedness, opposition and an awareness
of plurality” (Hannerz, In: Wilson, 1997: 12). Cultures and societies do not exist in isolation
anymore, but have become part of a larger whole, which is often entitled as multicultural.
Nations and continents have increasingly adjusted their politics to the wide range of cultures
which inhabit them. Governmental policies and social movements emerged in response.
“Multiculturalism is universalistic in that differences between people are the result of closer
relationships which engender comparability and similarity; that is, the assertion of cultural
uniqueness implies a shared subscription to a global political discourse” (Hylland Erikson,
In: Wilson, 1997: 18). These types of writings emphasize the inclusion of both universalism
and relativism in the discussions on matters of global importance. The aim of this thesis is in
line with this promotion of a certain degree of universalism without neglecting the
importance of relativist thought and cultural differences.
1.3.3 Human Rights as Aim or Name
In this global and multicultural context, governments and human rights organizations are
constantly active in promoting the universality of human rights. Next to relativist critiques
on the concept of universality, the actual military practices resulting from the theoretical
debate increasingly become subject to critique. One of the most important contemporary
critics of human rights policies and the UN is journalist and writer David Rieff. He is
dedicated to writing on the, in his view impracticable, intensions of the contemporary
human rights movement. The main question in Rieff’s writings is whether it will ever be
possible to realise humanitarian goals with military power. He sees himself as a realist,
dismissing utopian thinking and views the human rights movements performing
imperialistic actions in name of a higher moral. “[Rieff] realised that imperialism sometimes
indeed is preferable to barbarism, but that in other cases imperialism is the greatest
barbarism. Many proponents of military interventions based on humanitarian motives are
committed to complacency, they see their good intentions as a quality on itself. The result
does not matter” (Heijne, 2006: 115-7). The reason why military interventions often do not
result as intended can be linked to the people and the culture of the area which become
subject to intervention. The intentions are received and interpreted in different ways by
those who support and perform the interventions and those who are intervened upon. The
latter party is hardly ever considered in its full diversity by the former. However, in
analyzing such statements, a clear distinction should made between interventions in the
name of human rights, thus with an other political or economic aim, and interventions like
those of the UN, organized with the aim of actual improvement of humanitarian
circumstances. The latter are in the line with the necessity of the Universal Declaration as an
instrument in protecting mankind from its own power to harm, and are organized and
performed with a completely different goal in mind than the former.
Intervening in the name of an ultimate moral does not automatically imply that the actual
situation is fully understood. “If you have the choice between the truth and what is right,
12
you should always choose the truth. [Rieff] feel[s] that intellectuals knowingly uphold a
myth regarding the possibility of imposing human rights from a higher level. That is where
reality is being greatly harmed. (…) Reality asks for relativism. (…) The enemies of cultural
relativism attack the world as it simply is (…)” (Heijne, 2006: 119). However, Rieff sees
himself as a balanced relativist and he feels that some truths are universal, while others are
not. He also recognizes the most important matter of dispute concerning the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights; the rights of the individual versus the rights of the
community. He feels that the Declaration contradicts itself, for its first part is on individual
rights, while the second is on social and communal rights. No easy decision can be made on
which type of rights has priority over the other. Rieff considers the war in Iraq as “the tragic
outcome of all dreams of human rights activists. (…) It was pride, such an undertaking is
outreaching our capabilities” (Heijne, 2006: 121). Another realistic approach to this particular
military action is recognizing whether improving the Iraqi human rights situation actually
was its main cause. Historical and political circumstances of military interventions have to be
put into a right perspective, for which the Universal Declaration of Human Rights can be
seen as a necessary framework in the protection of humanitarian values.
1.4 Conclusion
The drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 was deemed necessary
for most UN member states. The Declaration became a basic text from which many
interpretations are derived. While the principles underlying the Declaration were, and still
are, adopted around the world, it turned out to be impossible to maintain a law document
suitable for the wide variety of cultures and societies in the current international community.
Homogeneity does not characterise mankind. The challenging view of cultural relativism
fully explores this idea. This initially anthropological view emphasises the value of different
cultures and their subsequent views on treatment of human beings. Human rights became
subject to many governmental actions and military interventions, which have hardly ever
resulted as intended. The greatest relativist critique on interventionist practices concerns the
lack of consideration of cultural diversity of the intervened area. Exactly this diversity is of
crucial importance in the aftermath of military interventions. Many human beings around
the world are still harmed by injustice. Therefore, an international instrument like the
Universal Declaration is of utmost importance, but its implementation must subject to
constant discussion.
Recognizing both the significance of universalist values and cultural differences leads to
exploring the cultural barriers to universalist thought. Notions underlying the Declaration
can be positioned beyond the discipline of law. Processes of social stability and identity
formation are also of great significance for a balanced human rights situation. These two
processes are linked to each other by the phenomenon of cultural heritage. Consequently,
this makes the process of identity formation a crucial link between the human rights debate
and cultural heritage. The phenomena of identity formation and heritage selection are both
characterised by multiple interpretation levels, like relativist and universal dimensions. This
thesis tries to provide an interdisciplinary approach, by means of identity formation and
heritage selection, to the human rights debate. Part II will further elaborate upon the
relationship between the three major notions of this thesis.
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Part II
Identity Formation and Heritage Selection in
Relative and Universal Contexts
Despite all the criticism, this thesis regards human rights of utmost importance in the current
international community. This part will elaborate upon the notions of human rights as a
cultural phenomenon and that culture is an essential element in the implementation of
human rights. Identity formation and heritage selection, two significant socio-cultural
processes, will be analysed with regards to the notions of universalism and relativism. First,
the role of heritage selection in the process of identity formation will be discussed. The
different layers of an identity reflect both relative and universal aspects. Relativism can be
interpreted as a heritage based approach to human rights. The separate identity layers, and
the heritage on which they are based, are therefore of major importance to the human rights
debate and its promotion of a universal identity layer. Secondly, the role of identity
formation in heritage selection will be analysed. The concepts underlying two examples will
be discussed, namely those behind the Dutch canon and the UNESCO World Heritage List.
These examples reflect both relative and universal values. Analysing these values in identity
formation and heritage selection provides important instruments to explore the human
rights debate and human rights violations. This will be done in the concluding section of this
part.
2.1 Identity Formation
The term identity was popularized in the late 1950s by psychologist Erik Erickson. He
received a psychodynamic training from Anna Freud, the daughter of Sigmund Freud. In his
psychosocial stages, identity is related to the individual sense of the self. He sees identity as a
crisis in need of resolution during adolescence. He divided the resolution phase in adequate
and inadequate. James Marcia (1966) nuanced this view on the process of resolving this crisis
into a developing continuum of diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement.
Emerging as a social psychological term, over time, identity “took on such a bewildering
variety of meanings that it became (…) “[t]he purest of clichés”” and seems to be used in
every social debate (Gillis, 1994: 3). An identity can be seen as a form of immaterial heritage,
something that is passed on and transformed from generation to generation. An identity
includes personal, regional, national and possibly even universal aspects. This multilayered
aspect is what makes it such a complex and almost ungraspable process. Nonetheless, the
phenomenon of identity formation is important for the functioning of a society and the
maintenance of relationships between its members. Major levels of identity formation
concern the individual (personality), the familial sphere, the regional level (society), the
national level (country) and the universal level (humanity).This stratification of levels deals
with influences and, often unconscious, decision making, on how an individual or a social
group wishes to see and promote a public image. This is often unconscious, because one
naturally feels more drawn to certain elements of the environment than others. These
elements become part of the individual identity, but are by no means fixed for a life time.
This is mostly a natural development, by which an individual increasingly feels secure and
stable in its own life, co-existing with others who undergo a similar process.
2.1.1 A Culture-Identity Framework
These general assumptions on several identity layers are much researched in the academic
discipline of social psychology. Especially, the relationship between identity formation and
culture is of great importance for this thesis. In order to study the link between identity and
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culture in the human rights debate, an interdisciplinary approach is necessary. An
introductory model for understanding this reciprocal nature of the relationship between
identity and culture is provided in the research of social psychologist James Côté. In cooperation with Charles Levine, Côté has developed a framework in line of Erickson and
Marcia’s research. With this model, Western as well as non-Western cultures can be studied
and it can be a tool to explore cultural barriers to universalist thought in practice. He believes
it “is not so much the dominant values of a culture, or “everything” that has meaning in the
culture [that should be studied]; rather, one needs to understand the toolkit of resources
available to different members of the culture and how skilful various members are in
constructing and completing strategies of actions that achieve certain ends (or identities) for
them” (Côté & Levine, 2002: 123). One element of this toolkit is how identity formation is
enhanced. This can be studied by analyzing the different dimensions of identity. The content
of identities is culturally linked, while identity formation in principle is a universal
phenomenon, experienced by every human being.
Côte and Levine recognize three identity layers in their research; social, personal and ego
identity. Social identity is linked with political and economic structures, which are heavily
influenced by cultural factors and social roles. Personal identity refers to concrete patterns of
behaviour and interaction with others, in which social identity in combination with
individual life history is of major importance. Ego identity is completely focused at the inner
personal level, in which intra-psychic factors and biological dispositions play a significant
role (Côte & Levine, 2002: 7-9). It should be noted, however, that these three levels are all
interrelated and it is hardly possible to strictly separate one from another. Personality
influences the social identity, while these are both of importance for the ego identity.
Furthermore, three time periods are distinguished in the framework. These periods clearly
show how identity formation, and the three layers within, has developed with social
structures accordingly. The distinction between pre-modern and early-modern society can be
seen as the distinction between agricultural and industrializing societies. Late-modern refers
to the type of industrial-capitalist society that evolved in the second half of the twentieth
century (Côté & Levine, 2002: 125).
Fig.2 The Culture-Identity Framework, In: Côté, James E., 1996: 5
Social identity was quite fixed, and therefore entitled as ascribed in pre-modern societies,
while in the early-modern period social identity was increasingly based on individual
achievements. In the late-modern period, individuals can strategically promote and fit their
social identity into unknown communities. Therefore it is characterised as manageable.
Personal identity is characterised as heteronomous in the pre-modern period, because it can be
seen as a conformist and mechanical aspect within a community and in conformity with the
15
social identity formation. Also in conformity with the social identity formation in the earlymodern period, personal identity is increasingly based on personal achievement, gaining a
larger individual aspect for this identity layer. Therefore, this layer of identity is
characterised as individuated, while in the late-modern period personal identity is entitled as
image-oriented. This type is based on the promotion of images, which have the appreciation of
the members of a community. This appreciation gains one access to that community, as long
as these images are acceptable. The image which is projected is often more important than
the actual content behind that image in the late-modern period.
Finally, the ego identity is split up in the two elements of structure and process. “Ego
identity structure has been defined as “how experience is handled as well as (…) what
experiences are considered important” by an individual (…); ego identity process refers to the
manner by which the ego forms its identity as a distinct entity in relation to its object world”
(Côté & Levine, 2002: 128). Both ego identity structure and process have distinct types in the
three time periods. Structure is seen as foreclosed in the pre-modern period, because
commitments are determined and fixed by others. In the early-modern period, achievement is
the characterization because commitments become more self-chosen. In the late-modern
period ego structure is seen as diffused because of the lack of stable, long-term commitments.
With respect to process, ego identity is seen as adopted early in life in pre-modern societies,
because it was determined by others. In the early-modern period, ego identity is expected to
be constructed by individuals themselves and in the late-modern period, “people are
encouraged to (continually) discover their identities through consumption and pleasing
others (…)” (Côté & Levine, 2002: 128). It should be noted that not all world societies are
positioned in the same time period and have experienced the same level of development.
African or certain Asian societies might be characterised as pre-modern or early-modern,
while for example the larger part of western-Europe can be characterised as late-modern.
The stage in which societies are positioned also has consequences for their process of identity
formation and the treatment of cultural heritage.
2.1.2 Cultural Heritage Aspects of Identity
In general it can be stated that the level of personal identity (interaction) is where culture
(represented by social structures) and the individual (enforced by the ego identity) meet.
Also in psychology, culture cannot be regarded as a static, constant element, but has to be
viewed as a dynamic, variable process. As a result of its dynamics, culture is important in all
layers of identity formation. Human beings manage, project, (re-)discover and develop their
own identities and those of others. This can occur by consciously, or unconsciously, taken
decisions. These decisions result in how human beings want others to see and remember
them. The resulting social character can be related to the inheritance someone wishes to leave
behind. Similar processes can be recognized in social group identities. These decisions are
entitled as identity capital. Identity capital is what human beings invest in who they are and
how others see them (Côté and Levine, 2002: 123). These investments can be seen as socially
tangible and material investments, or psychologically intangible and immaterial
investments. The materiality and immateriality of identity capital, the social structures and
the cultural interaction greatly relate to the phenomenon of heritage.
Heritage is a complicated term with many interpretations and uses. “It is about bequeathed
goods or thoughts of a beloved person, it is an inheritance which we are willing to accept
and preserve for next generations. We want to keep that heritage alive, one way or another,
by using, by denominating, by studying, by re-interpreting, by admiring it. (…) [This is] the
heavy duty for the inheritors, living in the present, forming their own culture and maybe
creating their own future legacy. Sometimes it is achieved to integrate that care for the
16
heritage in the living culture of the present. But often this is not achieved, or after a while not
maintained anymore” (Grijzenhout, 2007: 4). UNESCO considers the following to be cultural
heritage: “monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting,
elements or structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and
combinations of features, which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of
history, art or science; groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings which,
because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of
outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science; sites: works of
man or the combined works of nature and man, and areas including archaeological sites
which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or
anthropological point of view” (Website World Heritage Convention, 1972: Article 1).
While this official definition is solely focused on material heritage, UNESCO recently called
upon the preservation of extraordinary immaterial heritage as well. For example, traditional
feasts and ritual ceremonies have to be preserved, as long as they are not in conflict with
human rights notions. Increasingly local initiatives emerge, concerned with immaterial
aspects of their surroundings, such as language and traditions. Both tangible and intangible
heritage are of great importance for identity formation. “Heritage now is that with which we
all individually or collectively identify. It is considered the rightful (though sometimes
unwelcome) legacy of every distinct people” (Lowenthal, 1994: 41). The phenomenon of
heritage is also a means of dealing with history. As a means, heritage is constantly
interpreted differently. Cultures have historically developed and this development can be
remembered, researched and passed on. In this process of passing on, the phenomenon of
cultural heritage as an approach to material and immaterial historical remains plays an
important role. “The core meaning of any individual or group identity, namely, a sense of
sameness over time and space, is sustained by remembering; and what is remembered is
defined by the assumed identity” (Gillis, 1994: 3). Heritage is a means to sustain an assumed
identity and its corresponding remembrance. Memories are constantly under revision, to
make them correspond with current identities, and therefore they can lend meaning to the
world in which one is living (Ribbens, 2002: 32). This meaning is then subsequently
preserved and documented by means of heritage instruments, such as archiving and
presenting.
2.2 Heritage Selection
Previously, identity formation was discussed as a psychological process. However, identity
can also be seen as a social and political construct. Therefore, identity formation cannot be
seen without its social and political implications and consequences. “Identities (…) are not
things we think about, but things we think with. As such they have no existence beyond our
politics, our social relationships, and our histories. We must take responsibility for their uses
and abuses, recognizing that every assertion of identity involves a choice that affects not just
ourselves but others” (Lowenthal, 1994: 5). Lowenthal also emphasises the twentieth-century
phenomenon of the democratization of heritage and its following recognition that everyone
possesses some form of heritage. “Heritage was not only what rulers were entitled to; it
defined them and assured their rule. And its loss spelled impotence. (…) Heritage is no
longer confined to the rich and the powerful; it now belongs to everyone. To be sure,
populism has not made us all equal: some inherit much, others little or nothing; some rule,
others submit. But more do inherit. And heritage also embraces things and ideas that give us
collective identity” (Lowenthal, 1994: 43). This recognition is also confirmed in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. In Article 22 it is stated that every member of society has the
17
right to accomplishment of economic, social and cultural development in accordance to one’s
personality.
The relationship between cultural heritage and identity formation is reciprocal, as can also be
seen in the culture-identity framework. Cultural developments not only influence the
process of identity formation, but in turn, identity formation also influences the specific
process of heritage selection. Social and cultural trends are most often reflected in heritage
which is preserved from a certain period in time. It should be noted, that there is no such
thing as the heritage of a certain society, because of its multilayered character. Therefore,
heritage selection occurs on just as many levels as identity formation. Two specific examples
of the reciprocal relationship between identity formation and heritage selection are the Dutch
Historical Canon and the UNESCO World Heritage List. The concepts underlying these two
examples can be analysed by means of relativism and universalism. These notions also
underlie heritage selection and identity formation. The Dutch Canon is initiated by the
government, thus from a national level. The aim is to present a guideline of historical
knowledge. This knowledge is considered to be necessary to understand how the
Netherlands became to function as it presently does. “The underlying idea is that a strong
state (history) encourages social cohesion” (Grever et. al., 2006: 3). The World Heritage List
originated from a universal approach, by establishing a selection of heritage sites around the
world. These heritage sites deserve special attention and protection because of their
universal value in the representation and preservation of humanity’s development. Both the
Dutch Canon and the World Heritage List provide a standard upon which several relative
and universal layers of identity can be based.
2.2.1 The Dutch Canon
In 2005, the former Dutch Minister of Education, Culture and Sciences (OCW), Maria van der
Hoeven proclaimed the necessity of a canon of Dutch history. After assessment of the early
twenty-first-century social developments, such a canon was seen of great value for
educational purposes. “The start of the twenty-first century seems to speed up the
development of identity formation. It seems there is a need for a new ‘Dutch tale’ in many
segments of society” (Website Dutch Canon, Letter of Committee, 2005: 1). This tale was
created by listing fifty subjects, entitled as ‘windows’, to be regarded as separate entities or to
be opened up to a wider point of view and more intense debate. Every window represents a
person, phenomenon or development in Dutch history. The initiative for the Canon can be
seen in direct relation to the diversification of Dutch society. Regional groups and
immigrants increasingly openly promote relative identities in the national context, which
strongly influences the notion of a national Dutch identity. The increasingly fast technological
developments aimed at future advancement also decrease a social connection with the Dutch
past. The current Dutch society seemed to be too complex for the educational spheres to
handle. In political spheres, historical knowledge and identity formation are seen as strongly
interlinked. Therefore, the Canon has the intentions to serve educational purposes of reestablishing a sense of the past within the younger generations of Dutch citizens. For similar
reasons underlying the Canon initiative, voices in Dutch politics were raised in favour of a
Dutch National History Museum (DNHM). The museum is also seen as an instrument to reestablish a connection with the Dutch past and as a consequence the securing of a Dutch
identity. The plans for the museum will be further elaborated upon in Part III.
Canons are created in many academic areas, such as literature, visual arts, natural sciences
and the historical discipline. Canons form a guideline and a standard of knowledge which
must be obtained when a student starts in a specific academic area. Furthermore, canons
function as discussion platforms on the academic discipline itself. The Dutch Canon is aimed
18
at reinforcing a feeling with Dutch history for pupils in the last years of primary school and
early secondary school pupils. However, the Canon Committee states that “[t]he Canon
should not be narrowed down to national identity (…). The Canon could contribute to
citizenship, because it is a canon of all Dutch citizens, ‘the story of the country we jointly
inhabit’” (Website Dutch Canon, Press Release, 2006: 1). By this statement, it becomes
obvious that the Canon Committee wishes to refrain from the promotion of nationalism, but
wants to enhance a feeling of unity and social cohesion amongst Dutch citizens. However, a
layer of a secure national identity cannot be seen separate from the aim of greater social
cohesion within the country. The Canon is based on fifty elements of history, regarded as
national heritage. These are supposed to enhance a collective sense of belonging and
solidarity. These feelings need to be appropriated into regional and national levels of identity
formation before they will effectively have result for individuals within a society. Therefore,
the intention of the Canon Committee to distance itself from the process of national identity
formation is understandable with regards to the negative flavour of nationalism. In reality,
however, the process of national cohesion amongst Dutch citizens cannot be distinguished
from the national and social layers of identity formation.
2.2.2 UNESCO World Heritage List
UNESCO’s World Heritage List emerged on a similar manner as the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, which was also initiated by member states of the UN. The list constitutes
many material heritage sites, buildings and landscapes. At the 32nd UNESCO General
Conference in 2003, a call was made for the necessity of preserving immaterial heritage as
well, for the reason that many countries in the world do not possess much material heritage.
This immaterial heritage may not be in conflict with the Universal Declaration of the Human
Rights, in order to be considered for the World Heritage List (Website UNESCO NL, 2-5-5).
The heritage on the list is deemed of great universal value, which means it contains
significant markers in the development of mankind. Therefore, the World Heritage List is a
canon as well, but it is directed at many different forms of heritage all over the world.
Moreover, not only the sites, buildings and works of art themselves are of great importance.
Also the methods of preservation are of large significance and new technologies can be
shared more easily between cultures by using the heritage list as a platform. Developing
cultures can receive aid from developed countries, which have the resources to perform
research and conservation experiments.
These differences emphasize that the heritage listings are linked to individual cultures. This
gives the list a relative character, next to its emphasis on the universal importance of each
heritage listing. This process can be compared to the intentions of the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights. The Declaration can also be seen as a canon, in which many different
cultural societies are positioned in a global context. It could be stated that the Declaration
thus enhances universalist thought, while co-existing with relative thought. This can be seen
in the multilayered aspect of the Declaration and the many interpretations which can be
projected on it. It should be understood that the process of appropriating a universal layer
next to relative identity formation by the many members of these cultural societies will be a
very lengthy and enduring process.
2.2.3 Securing Identity
Ultimately, ego, personal and social identity formation becomes a form of intangible
heritage. By means of their identity, human beings, social groups or nations construct an
inheritance which they wish to pass on into others’ remembrance of them and their influence
on their social environment. Heritage is just as multilayered as identity formation in the
sense that the process of heritage selection occurs on individual, familial, regional, national
19
and universal level as well. In this globalizing world, not only members within a culture
influence each other and each other’s heritage, but different cultures influence each other
and thus their cultural heritage as well. Through processes like migration, international
economics and world wide coverage by media such as television and the Internet, cultural
groups and societies are forced to see themselves in a wider, indeed global, perspective.
There seems to be a need for this wider perspective and a large acceptance of global media.
Nevertheless, these developments may also lead to identity crises and fear for the unknown.
In the social psychology this is related to an individual’s “sense of ego identity- [the]
subjective sense of continuity of being the same person over time and in different situations
(Côté & Levine, 2002: 121). If the sense of ego identity is strong, then an individual has a
stable identity, which is reinforced in many of one’s activities in the past and present and in
plans for the future. If the sense of ego identity is weak, an individual may experience a
changing appreciation for what is important. Severe problems emerge when one starts
doubting one’s core identity – “(…) whether there was ever a stable entity in their
consciousness in charge of anything” (Côté & Levine, 2002: 121).
Fernández-Armesto also refers to these fears when he states that “[p]eople are wondering
how they can preserve their sense of continuity in a world which is constantly changing. (…)
Change does not always mean destruction. I do not think we have to fear the process of
global unification. [Globalisation] can very well merge with a sense of an own identity. In
fact, the one strengthens the other” (Heijne, 2006: 62-3). The phenomenon of heritage, how
the past is dealt with and what is desired to be passed on to next generations, are of utmost
importance in this strengthening of cultural identity in a global context. Furthermore, Bas
Heijne discusses a re-emergence of nationalism because of this globalisation. He describes
the large change after a period in which the individual was the only entity which could be
discussed and in which regional and national identities were largely ignored. He promotes
the paradoxical acknowledgement that an individual needs a community to feel itself an
individual. It seems to be a reaction to the fear for the unknown taking over or even erasing
values, which have been taken for granted for a long period. During the past decades, these
values concerning regionalism and nationalism were never explicitly discussed (Heijne, 2007:
59). This view corresponds with Fernández-Armesto’s view on the functioning of cultural
identities in a global context. Individuals need to secure a stable cultural identity before they
can relate themselves to a larger, global context. In other words, a stable relative identity is a
prerequisite for an understanding of the functioning of the international community and the
appropriation of a universal identity layer next to the relative layers of identity. The notion
of cultural heritage forms a key in this understanding since it forms the heart of relative
identity formation. It forms the legacy which is carried on from the past and is appropriated
into the daily life of the present.
2.3 Identity, Heritage and Human Rights
After the analyses of the many aspects of the reciprocal relationship between identity
formation and heritage selection, the link between these two notions and the human rights
debate will be further elaborated upon. Cultural relativism may be used to justify several
kinds of human rights violations, but it can also provide a key to the long-term appropriation
of universality in mankind’s identity formation. One previously mentioned aspect of identity
formation is identity crisis. A secure identity can be regarded as a prerequisite to understand
someone else’s process of identity formation and its consequences. When an individual
identity is unstable, one is also less tolerant towards those who belong to different cultural
groups. To be able to understand this intolerance and the consequential acts, a certain degree
of empathy is necessary. Empathy is by no means similar to sympathy, but one must be able
20
to temporarily step into another world while analyzing injustice that is performed in name of
culture (Stern, 2003: xvi).
2.3.1 Identity Crisis
Developments concerning migration, international economics, and world-wide media like
the Internet are not only influencing individual identity formation, but also international
social structures. Currently, radical extremism is seen as the most dangerous threat to a
stable international community. “Today it seems that everyone claims a right to their own
identity. Individuals, subgroups, and nations all demand identity as if it were a necessity of
life itself. Identity has taken on the status of a sacred object, an “ultimate concern,” worth
fighting and even dying for. To those who believe they do not have it, identity appears even
more scarce and precious. On the other hand, contemporary society requires that we play so
many different roles that at least some of us are afflicted by what Kenneth Gergen has called
“multiphreni,” a condition of having too many conflicting selves, too many identities”
(Gillis, 1994: 4). Incapable to handle all the different identities, extremist groups are often
completely focused on one specific cause, based on what they see as the ultimate heritage. In
their view, this specific heritage is contaminated by corrupt influences from the outside
world and therefore both the heritage and the outsiders need purification. Whether this
purification occurs by peaceful or militant means has become subordinate to the ultimate
cause. This process can also be seen as the destabilization of one’s identity, because of the
broader context (and thus foreign influences) one finds oneself in. A particular aspect in a
particular layer is chosen as main focus and becomes the ultimate ‘good’ for that person.
When there is a social movement with a similar ultimate aim, one gains easy access and finds
many likeminded individuals and, accordingly, a certain form of apparent stability and
security.
Fear is seen as one of the main fundaments of extremism. In combination with an insecure
identity this leads to, as terrorism-expert Jessica Stern calls it, identity panic. Identity panic is a
term which covers the feeling of estrangement, which makes people seek for the stability of
an extreme identity. “Fear for globalisation is the cause of much what happens currently. (…)
On philosophical level it is not so difficult to accept that we live in a pluralist world, that
your truth is one of many truths. As long as you do not doubt your own truth, nothing is
wrong. Because of the process of globalisation, people are confronted with many, often
radically, different versions of the truth. Political pluralism is much harder to accept (Heijne,
2006: 79). As Heijne describes it, activists who promote universalism have to realise that only
when people have the opportunity to feel themselves somewhere at home, a place where
they do not have to critically analyze their own convictions and beliefs, they can truly be
pluralistic. Ultimately, humanity’s aim should be to create a small, sustainable world, in
which there is the consciousness that the larger world cannot be ignored. Global citizenship
and the longing for characteristic cultural expressions are interlinked and this recognition
should be the primary focus in this debate (Heijne, 2007: 59).
2.3.2 International Community
Canon formation, and the preceding heritage selection, can be seen as a social and political
construct in which identity formation also plays a political role. The plans for the Canon
were a political reaction to the cultural and social diversification of Dutch society. In the
most extreme cases, these processes could lead to identity crises or identity panic. The
multicultural and pluriform complexity of current Dutch society, and the incapability of
Dutch educational spheres to incorporate this complexity, Dutch politics initiated the Canon
with the ultimate aim of re-establishing the citizens’ connection with the Dutch past. It is not
an ultimate cure for identity panic, but the enhancement of social cohesion can be seen as a
21
basis of avoiding social instability. This is a national initiative within a broader context,
because the phenomenon can be related to Heijne’s view, as mentioned above. Ultimately,
the national Canon is to be a guideline in dealing with international or ‘foreign’ influences.
This reaching back to national or regional heritage to encourage social stability can also be
viewed the other way around. “In fact, the notion of cultural heritage reveals the vulnerable
Achilles heel of a society, which can be hurt easily and very painfully by those which want to
attack a society in its very soul” (Rooijakkers, 2005: 208). Conflicts have increasingly become
about attacking, or even erasing, the ‘enemy’s’ identity. In this type of battle, warfare and
troops are increasingly adjusted to the destroying of cultural heritage.
Moreover, identities and heritage can be attacked by governments, states and civil warfare.
These are situations in which the international community needs to act in the name of the
UN Charter. International intervention, on political or military level, should ideally occur in
co-operation with local organizations representing civilians. This is one of the elements
which was missing in Iraq, where military intervention has resulted in a civil war. This was
not the esteemed outcome after the fall of the dictatorial regime. This thesis does not want to
proclaim to have the ultimate solution to all violations of human rights and identity panic.
However, it tries to be a useful addition to the existing literature and the ongoing debates by
providing an interdisciplinary approach. It tries to promote the recognition that human
rights notions and universalist thought need time, during which social awareness has to
increase, to be appropriated into relative human values. This process cannot be imposed or
enforced. Instead, its appropriation into social structures can only be enhanced and
stimulated. A universal identity layer could be reached through securing stable relative
identity formation. Then, a universal aspect could be incorporated over time. It should,
however, always be kept in mind that human rights are relatively young, and it will take
considerable amounts of time to become a significant part of human behaviour.
Culture influences all separate layers of identity, and in turn, identity formation constructs
cultural structures within a society, as is formulated in the identity-culture framework.
Cultural identities are not fixed, but are produced results of cultural developments and
social circumstances. The conviction that universal values can be appropriated into human
identity formation and subsequently into human behaviour is based on the constructive
character of these processes. Cultural heritage can be seen as the fundament on which these
constructions are built (Nederveen-Pieterse, 1996: 175). Stable relative values enable one to
place oneself and one’s own truth into a universal perspective without generalizations and
extremist thoughts. The enhancement of this capacity and the acknowledgement of its
necessity can be of importance towards a more compromising situation in the co-existence of
the world’s many different cultures. In the next part, a case-study on the DNHM will be
presented. One of the opportunities the Dutch government sees for this museum is its
possible role as instrument to enhance the co-existence of many different cultures within the
Netherlands. The underlying idea is that by emphasising the shared aspect of the
geographical area, in which all these cultures live presently, social cohesion is stimulated.
2.4 Conclusion
In sum, different identity layers and the many forms of cultural heritage have a strong
reciprocal relationship. One chooses, consciously or not, on which heritage to base one’s
identity on. When this heritage provides a stable basis, one feels comfortable to place this
identity in a broader, national or global context. When stability is lacking, one is likely to find
easy access to movements or organizations which pretend to offer stability by means of
extreme generalizations like nationalism or religious fundamentalism. This can lead to gross
22
violations of human rights, for one obtains a particular ultimate goal and no means are
eschewed to reach this ultimate goal.
Canon formation can be seen as a form of offering stability. By means of selection, a standard
is created and often the selected heritage is placed in a broader, for example national or
global, context. This can offer a guideline for one’s identity to be seen in a broader context.
The open character of the Dutch Canon should always be promoted, to avoid hasty
generalizations on its content. These processes of identity formation are structured in the
culture-identity framework. Here, unstable identity formation is described as a logical
development over time. The late-modern diffused structure and discovery process of
identity formation underline the complicated situation of individual positioning in the
current context of globalization.
The political reaction of the Dutch government to these social processes has materialized in
the initiative of the Dutch Historical Canon and the Dutch National History Museum. An
analysis of these plans forms the case study in Part III. The processes of identity formation
and heritage selection, and their reciprocal relationship, will be analyzed with regards to the
plans for the museum. Questions concerning the propriety of a museum for the enhancement
of social cohesion and the approach of several identity layers in the museum displays, form
the fundament for the analysis of the Dutch National History Museum and the current sociopolitical atmosphere in the Netherlands, which will be provided in Part III.
23
Part III
Relative and Universal Identity Formation in the future Dutch National
History Museum
This case study will focus on the socio-cultural assumptions of the political initiative for the
Dutch National History Museum (DNHM) and how the notions of relativism and
universalism, in both identity formation and heritage selection, will function within such a
national cultural institution. The many regional or local phenomena which constitute a
national culture give the plans for the national museum a paradoxical character. How can an
institution like a museum promote a national phenomenon which is constructed out of many
relative elements? This problem is similar to that of the human rights debate, only on another
scale. Similar elements underlying the notion of universality can be seen in the promotion of a
national identity. Relativism offers a similar challenge to national views as it does to
universalism.
Firstly, an overview of the plans for the DNHM will be given. For these plans, A Vision by
Drs. Wim van der Weijden, will be seen as most important point of departure. This report was
published in commission of the Ministry of OCW in 2006. Furthermore, the intentions for the
museum will be compared to human rights notions in the context of identity formation and
heritage selection. The museum is supposed to become one of the key elements in enhancing a
more secure Dutch identity, which currently seems to be absent in the Netherlands. The
concepts of individualism, nationalism and universalism form the crucial link between the
plans for this museum and the human rights debate. Finally, proposals relating to both
content and presentation will be made for the future museum.
3.1 Plans for the Dutch National History Museum
A debate whether the Netherlands should have its own national historical museum took place
for years. In 2006, the parliament decided with a majority vote that the DNHM was to be
realised. The Dutch Canon was presented in the same year. Both initiatives are results of
Dutch cultural politics. Current minister of OCW, Ronald Plasterk, emphasised the possible
relationship between the DNHM and the canon. Both can be seen as reactions to the
complexity of the current Dutch society and the need of educational programmes to
appropriate this complexity.
3.1.1 The Vision
The political debate received a new dimension with Wim van der Weijden’s report The
National Historical Museum, A Vision (2006). In this report, former museum director Van der
Weijden addresses all the practical points to be considered for the realization of the DNHM.
The museum is to become accessible and worth a visit for all Dutch citizens, but Van der
Weijden emphasises that the target group of the museum is children in the highest grades of
primary school and adolescents in the first grades of secondary school. Since the Canon is an
educational tool for these grades, Van der Weijden sees the DNHM as a means to implement
the Canon. In order to achieve this, the museum is to represent Dutch society in its full
diversity. A chronological insight is to be provided in how Dutch society developed. This is to
lead to larger understanding of its current functioning. Whether themes and events should be
included in this chronology depends, amongst others, on the historical value, the availability
of authentic objects, the topical relevance, and the opportunities for identification of the
visitors with the themes and objects. This identification process is of particular importance for
the goal of implementation of the Canon. As the Canon has created an entrance to the
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development of the entire Dutch history, the DNHM is to become an introduction to all the
other specialized historical museums in the Netherlands. Simultaneously, co-operation of
these museums is expected for the temporary displays and activities, like debates, symposia,
manifestations and celebrations (Weijden, v/d, 2006: 6-7). This way the DNHM becomes an
introductory platform through which the Dutch museum field can perform research.
Furthermore, museums can present themselves and specific collection items in different and
challenging historical and social contexts. To achieve numerous displays and activities per
year, a solid network between the DNHM, the Dutch museum field and historical associations
will be required. Only through input of many specialized sources, the aimed representation of
the complete diversity of Dutch society and its history can be achieved.
3.1.2 In Practice
The second half of Van der Weijden’s report focuses on practical questions like the location,
the outreach and the organisation of the future museum. However, the concern of primary
interest seems to be the political ideology behind the initiative. Politicians Jan Marijnissen and
Maxime Verhagen, who initiated the political decision in 2006, stated that the DNHM “will
not only greatly contribute to the dissemination of historical consciousness and the historical
knowledge of civilians, but also to accomplish solidarity between the different cultures (…)”
living in the Netherlands (Weijden, v/d, 2006: 6). The idea that a museum could unite a
nation’s citizens was fully explored in the nineteenth century, when royal collections were
turned into public museums and education became the main concern of different types of
museums. Museums also functioned as instruments for social cohesion in the political
transformation towards these nation-states (Kaplan, 1996: 3). Is the Netherlands at a point in
its political existence, that it feels the need to re-establish itself as a nation-state? And will the
DNHM have a significant role for Dutch citizens in this process? For example, throughout the
nineteenth century, art museums wanted to provide its visitors with knowledge of the
displayed art works, their value and positions in the history of art. This concern was
expanded in the twentieth century, when art works were provided to visitors to gain insights
in their own socio-historical circumstances (Bergvelt et. al., 2005: 11-12). The goal of these
museum policies was to educate the visitors into well-behaved citizens, feeling united under
the denominator of the nation.
It seems that now in the twenty-first century, the Dutch government reaches back to these old
museum principles. The innovative aspect is that the education in the DNHM should occur
through greatly interactive displays and visitor participation. Active involvement in the
presentations can be realised through, for example, programs for mobile phones and
interactive touch screens. Through these policies, the visitor is to relate the historical museum
displays to his or her current private environment. With an approach that fits the zapgeneration, the intentions do not differ greatly from those of the nineteenth-century national
museums. In the current museum climate, educational experience is the key word. However,
the question remains whether it is possible to achieve cultural unity through interactive
museum presentations, which have to reach the entire country from one location. In this
debate, cultural unity refers to cultural stability while celebrating its large diversity and it is
certainly not referring to cultural homogeneity.
This interactivity is translated into a larger perspective by heritage-expert David Lowenthal in
his history/ heritage contrast. He characterizes the difference between history and heritage as
follows. “(…) [H]eritage is not history at all; while it borrows from and enlivens historical
study, heritage is not an inquiry into the past, but a celebration of it, not an effort to know
what actually happened but a profession of faith in a past tailored to present-day purposes”
(Lowenthal, 1998: x). The present-day purposes of the DNHM were expressed in the political
25
debate and are customized to the present-day display trend of experience presentations in Van
der Weijden’s vision. The plans for the DNHM can be described as a heritage approach to
history, since the authenticity of the objects in the museum will most probably become
subordinate to the storyline in the museum displays. In turn, the presentation will be aimed at
making the storyline as attractive as possible for the visitors. Especially the latter aspect is of
importance in Lowenthal’s approach to heritage. A carefully considered heritage approach
which incorporates enhancement of interactive dialogues could be a possible solution in
disseminating historical knowledge amongst young museum visitors.
3.1.3 Museum Displays and the Universal Declaration
This is also questioned by Pieter van der Heijden, the director of the presentation department,
the Experience of the Dutch Institute for Image and Sound (Beeld en Geluid), one of the leading,
most successful interactive displays. The archive and the presentation section form two
different departments within the institute. The presentation is not to be called a museum but
strictly an experience. The enormous collection of television programs and radio shows, which
are organized thematically, became accessible in a variety of ways. Children’s television, news
programs and entertainment shows are grouped in separate pavilions, in which the visitor can
individually choose which programs to watch. A thematic approach by means of television
genres is quite obvious, because visitors probably make a similar distinction in their own
television and radio consumption. It turns out to be formula that works well, since the
average museum visit lasts four hours. The target group for the DNHM is largely similar to
that of Beeld en Geluid. Van der Heijden sees much interactivity in an overwhelming display
as one of the best options for the DNHM to approach the target group in conveying the
historical message. However, he considers the Dutch Canon to be an instrument that is too
broad in scope to function as a departure point for the museum content and displays. He feels
it is close to impossible to capture the entire Dutch history by means of fifty windows in one
storyline. Therefore certain choices have to be made on how to approach this storyline.
Van der Heijden prefers a thematic approach, since a chronological display will probably not
sufficiently provide in visitors’ needs for references to the present. These references are
important, as Van der Heijden has experienced in the thematic approach of Beeld en Geluid.
Within the themes, the institute tries to provide the interpretations which the research
department attaches to the screenings and objects. These interpretations refer to the sociohistorical and cultural structures in which the television and radio programs were produced
(Interview Author with Pieter Van der Heijden, 04-06-2007, Hilversum). However, a thematic
approach will be less obvious in a historical museum than it is in the Institute for Beeld en
Geluid. A good example of a thematic approach, where chronology would have been the
obvious choice, can be found in Tate Modern in London. In contrast with, for example, the
chronological overview of artistic movements in the Museum of Modern Art in New York,
Tate Modern organizes its collection according to the themes of Material Gestures, Poetry and
Dream, Idea and Object, Oiticica in London, and States of Flux (Website Tate, Modern, Collection
Displays). The broad scope of each of these themes shows the difficulty of creating suitable
labels for a wide variety of objects or material. Therefore, the Canon could form more concise
point of departure for creating themes to capture a wide variety of Dutch history to be
displayed in the DNHM.
A thematic approach facilitates musealized references between past and present better than a
chronological display. These references enable the visitor to engage in the displays by means
of individual experiences and ideas. These individual experiences can in turn be assessed by
the interpretations, which the organizing institute attaches to the displayed objects or
visualised storyline. This creates a relationship of mutual interaction, without necessarily
26
referring to the interactive aspect of multimedia displays between the institution and the
visitor. In order for this relationship to sustain, a certain degree of trust must be reached. The
design of this trust and of these types of personal experiences in a museum environment is the
topic of Caroline Nevejan’s research. Amongst other things, she is a member of the Dutch
National Council for Culture and the Arts. Designing experiences for a museum context
highly depends on visitors’ previous experiences. Therefore, in order to create opportunities
for a variety of visitors to relate to the museum displays, several levels of complexity are
necessary. Interpretations from both the presenting institute as well as the visitors are
significant in these display levels. These interpretations do not always need to be in
accordance with each other. In fact, conflicting interpretations from both parties could create a
challenging situation for museum visitors to engage in, but also for the museum to broaden its
scope. Creating a dialogue, by showing similarities and contrasts between interpretations,
enhances mutual engagement and larger tolerance. Nevejan views the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights as an appropriate fundament for the reconsideration of museum
experiences, because it relates to a large variety of identities in a joint framework (Nevejan,
Debate Cultural Citizenship, 30-06-2007, Utrecht). The Universal Declaration explicitly
promotes human universalism, while it also emphasises cultural diversity and tolerant coexistence. Displaying this duality could stimulate greater open-mindedness with visitors and
expansion of this commitment to daily-life situations.
However, the joint framework or space in which these cultural identities function, is
continually changing. This has also influenced behavioural patterns, which have in turn
become an important emphasis of museum displays. The aspect of change is translated into
presentation designs by focusing on visitors’ experiences. The presentation of Beeld en Geluid
is a good example, as it is designed to easily switch between themes and pavilions. However,
it remains doubtful whether visitors clearly receive the underlying message in this highly
interactive environment. To capture one’s attention, the representations of the shows within
the different pavilions are extremely strong. According to Nevejan, this strength gives
representations and their according images the power to overwhelm people and to almost
evaporate individual thoughts, instead of enhancing critical confrontation. Without the
capabilities to critically engage, which museum displays ideally enhance, people are
surrounded by a ‘fake diversity’, as Nevejan calls it. In this fake diversity, people are hardly
committed and hardly have an own identity to share or defend. Without commitment, there is
no sense of independence either. The possibilities to switch from one image to another, from
one identity to another, could be seen as a representation of this lack of commitment. Through
these opportunities to constantly switch and change, people are more inclined to surrender to
the overwhelming image. The act of choosing thus becomes the actual lead of the visit, instead
of the displayed content. Therefore, commitment has to be provided as a choice, by designing
museum displays with a universal framework (Nevejan, Debate Cultural Citizenship, 30-062007, Utrecht).
When a universal framework is provided, visitors can fully engage with individual
commitment through relative identities, without ignoring the importance of a larger, global,
context. In these designs, commitment and ‘actual diversity’ could be achieved by realizing
that the museum is not a separate domain within society, but an active part of it. Instead,
museum displays can enhance visitors’ participation by showing them the relationship
between the displayed with everyday life. This does not mean objects from everyday life
should be the focus of the displays. However, the relationships between the particular
musealised objects, which make them heritage, and present-day life could be a key in reaching
the visitor’s full engagement. Especially in a national historical museum, such an approach
27
can make visitors realize how heritage has been passed on in generations before them and
how it came to play a role in identity formation.
3.2 Nationality in the Dutch National History Museum
The DNHM is to be of contributing value to the social cohesion in the Netherlands. The
museum aims at disseminating historical knowledge among the current younger generations
and future younger generations. This knowledge concerns the geographical area these
generations inhabit, but also the historical and current relationships maintained by the
Netherlands. Increased understanding on how the Netherlands came to function as it does
presently is to lead to greater cohesion. The focus in this line of thought is the Dutch national
identity, presented as one stable entity, but consisting of many social and cultural layers. This
ambiguity of a national identity and how it will function in a museum will be discussed next.
3.2.1 Musealised National Identity
As stated above, national identity formation concerns both relative and universal aspects. The
relative aspects concern the many regional traditions which have turned into national
symbols. The ‘typical Dutch’ down-to-earth mentality is interpreted differently in every
region of the country, but its concept is a common denominator all the same. The universal
aspect can be recognized here in the setting of a standard to which many should relate. The
notions of a national identity are similar to those behind the universal declaration, only on a
different scale. Many different cultural groups inhabit the Netherlands and the ultimate task
of the DNHM would be to let future generations of these different cultural groups feel united
under the common denominator of national identity. “[A] nation refers to those states
comprised of heterogeneous ethnic groups having a common identity imposed and based on
geographic boundaries established, defended and administered by a central authority”
(Kaplan, 1996: 3). This does not mean, however, that these ethnic groups and their history do
not have any roles in the development and sustenance of a national identity. “(…) [T]he
emergence and character of (…) nationalism are the result of pre-existing cultures and ethnic
ties in a given cultural unit of population” (Smith, 1999: 56). As has been emphasised with
universal values, a national identity also ideally grows out of relative identity formation and
secure relative identities within a national population. This development is reinforced and
stimulated by the central authority as mentioned by Kaplan, but can never be successfully
imposed with long-lasting results.
A national identity is largely based on objects and events regarded as national heritage. These
objects and events are considered to have great value and importance in the development of a
nation. Their importance has to be passed on to following generations in order not to forget
how the nation came to function as it does in the present. The national character of an
ensemble of relative identities, groups, and events is formed by dominant collective views
both within and on them (Kaplan, 1996: 1). Collective views are often promoted by the
government or other nationwide organizations, but social groups within the nation have to
sustain and actually express these. It is exactly this kind of collective range of thoughts on
relative phenomena which are supposed to be presented in the future DNHM. Collective
views, which respect relative phenomena, could unite relative groups under a common
national denominator and could ultimately create more respectful patterns of behaviour
between these different groups. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is based on the
same notions. Its treatment in the international community shows, however, that there should
also be room for confrontation and discussion. It is hardly possible to avoid this within a
national context. When museum displays are addressed in this matter of national instability,
the displays have to lead to discussions and dialogue. Therefore this approach of presenting
28
and analyzing Dutch historical social structures and their relationship to the present have to
be subject to experiment in the DNHM. Only in practice it could be researched whether a
certain methods of display have the desired effects. One such method could be a thematic
organization of the historical content, which will offer enough room for changing displays
and temporary projects.
3.2.2 The Canon and The Museum
One possible point of departure for the collective views to be presented in the museum can be
found in the Dutch Canon. This Canon should not be regarded as a static, standardized list of
required knowledge for Dutch citizens. The fifty listed events, persons and objects are starting
grounds for a larger discussion and the exposition of underlying social structures. This
dynamic selection of historical highlights is seen by Van der Weijden as the heart of the
museum. However, the Canon Committee is fiercely opposed to the political ideas on using
the Canon as fundament for the displays of the future DNHM (Interview Author with Susan
Legêne, 13-06-2007, Amsterdam). Van der Weijden also emphasises the necessity of putting
the Canon in an international context. Several levels of complexity should be incorporated in
the presentation to make it attractive for different age groups (Weijden, v/d, 2006: 8). The
open character of the Canon indeed seems to provide a good basis for including different
levels of interest and complexity in the museum displays. This openness also provides good
opportunities for the DNHM to function as a platform. For example, Anne Frank is one of the
Canon’s fifty windows. Her subtitle is Persecution of Jews. Next to her is the window for the
Second World War, which is dedicated to the Occupation and Liberation of the Netherlands. This
way, the political and strategic developments can be distinguished from individual
experiences and personal inheritances deriving from the period of WWII. Moreover, it would
be very interesting to discover how Anne Frank is treated abroad and how she is
appropriated to foreign histories of war experiences. Besides that, a political, socio-historical
time line could provide insight in how this war situation emerged. Such an approach will be
interesting for both children and adult visitors. These different levels of complexity could also
be visualised by means of interactive instruments for the less complex and more traditional
display methods for the more complex levels.
Furthermore, different complexity levels reinforce Heijne and Stern’s theories on identity
formation and identity panic in a globalizing world. Different presentation levels can firstly
address the Canon windows in a regional and national context and can consequently put
them in wider contexts. Such an arrangement in the displays will firstly stabilize the regional
and national values, before the topics are seen in a European or global context. If the Canon
windows would be put in the larger context only, people could feel that national symbols are
taken away from them personally, because no opportunities for relative identification are
presented. This could result in a return to regional or local values, since people could feel
these are the only values with which they can fully identify themselves. In a display on the
Second World War, it is of great importance to include both individual war experiences as
well as international diplomatic developments. People will be more inclined to identify
themselves with personal stories, similar to those they might have heard from, for example,
grandparents. However, it is also important to encounter the political developments, to
understand how a war situation emerged, in which people became these survivors or victims.
Therefore, these different layers must be presented in a good order, one that will enhance
understanding as greatly as possible.
Obviously, these conclusions are based on the assumption that a national historical museum
can function as an instrument to approach the unstable national cohesion of the Netherlands,
which makes it harder for people to position themselves in a larger, or different, context. This
29
assumption can only turn into reality if a well-functioning network of historical institutions
emerges, for which the DNHM will function as a solid base. However, in agreement with Van
der Heijden, the Canon probably turns out to be too broad in scope. Therefore, a selection has
to be made or a new, preferably thematic, approach has to be created in order to capture the
large Dutch history in a museum presentation. Ideally, the DNHM should become an
umbrella institution, which accommodates the rich diversity of the Dutch museum field.
When the director of the Dutch Open Air Museum, Jan Vaessen, states that a DNHM already
exists, he is right in the sense that Dutch history is fragmented in all the different historical,
science, ethnographic, and art museums (Vaessen, 2004: 99). However, the initiative for the
DNHM could add new, thought-provoking perspectives on the already existing collections.
By loaning from existing museum and private collections, the DNHM could add new
meanings to established Dutch icons by putting them into different perspectives and
challenging visitors’ suppositions on national views. Lastly, it should be safeguarded that the
museum does not become a political instrument, but that the DNHM will function as an
independent institution deciding on and shaping its own content. This will enhance the
opportunities of the museum to fully explore its possibilities instead of being limited by
political desires and strategies.
3.3 National Identity in a Universal Context
Different complexity levels are deemed to be necessary when creating a display which is to
enhance a stable national identity. These complexity levels refer to the multilayered aspect of
identity formation as well as to the multiple layers which can be recognized in Dutch cultural
heritage. Simultaneously, different levels in a museum display can represent the notions of
relativism and universalism. Incorporating and visualising these notions can be of
instrumental value in reaching the ultimate aim of greater social cohesion.
3.3.1 Problematic Identities
‘When a country has a problematic national identity, its government seems to reach to the
national museum as an instrument to solve the problems.’ This was one of the remarkable
comments during an international summit for museum directors in Germany last year,
attended by Ronald de Leeuw, director of the Dutch Rijksmuseum. This conclusion was
subsequently often used during Dutch meetings and debates on the DNHM, amongst others
during the debate referred to on the next page in Felix Meritis. It seemed to foster the
realization that the Netherlands is currently dealing with a problematic national identity. This
conclusion led to the recognition that a future national museum might be of contributing
value to the unstable social structures in which museums operate. This instability has a
greatly fragmented cause, whose several parts are all interrelated. Migration, globalisation,
political murders and social differentiation can all be seen as root causes of the unstable
national identity and the underlying question of what it means to be Dutch. This
fragmentation led to less and less shared national phenomena and memories. “National
memory is shared by people who have never seen or heard of one another, yet who regard
themselves as having a common history. They are bound together as much by forgetting as by
remembering (…)” (Gillis, 1994: 7). It currently seems that too many social (group) identities
and memories exist within the Netherlands, without essential overlapping elements and
without significant shared elements. Moreover, the existence of all these different identities
correspond with the zap-culture, as visualised in the museum display of Beeld en Geluid. This
results consequently in the experiencing and exploration of all the separate identity layers
instead of the formation of a cohesive whole. Sharing overlapping elements ultimately leads
to larger mutual understanding of identities and memories and enhances tolerant co-existence
of different groups within a certain geographical area. Several windows in the Canon seem
30
suitable for visualising shared histories and memories. The windows of Charles the Great, the
VOC, Max Havelaar, Multicoloured Netherlands and the Euro could lead to displays which cover
historical commitment of different ethnic groups currently living in the Netherlands.
However, these displays should expose a natural, logical commitment of these groups and
should avoid a forced relationship for the greater good of displaying cohesion. Particularly, a
logical display will lead to the creation of references with the present, while a forced display
can be experienced as coercive and uncomfortable. Cohesion cannot be displayed but is to be
a consequence of the displayed content by enhancing the public to make such references.
3.3.2 A Museum as Cure?
This last part will address how the museum could best reach its high-set aims of enhancing
social cohesion through disseminating historical knowledge, based on the assumption that the
DNHM will be established in the near future. The Dutch Canon could be a good instrument
for deciding on the museum’s content. However, a well-considered approach is necessary
with regard to the Canon’s wide variety of topics and the large span of time it covers. Despite
the Canon Committee’s concerns, the Canon could function as a tool in the almost impossible
task of capturing the entire Dutch history in one institution. It could even better be considered
as a departure point for the first displays and events in the museum through which the
museum can develop itself further. As Jorge Wagensberger, director of the Spanish science
museum CosmoCaixa, stated during the debate session International Perspective on the Dutch
National History Museum, a new museum can never be opened as a fully finished institution. It
should be regarded as a child, which continually grows and develops during its existence
(Debate, Felix Meritis, Amsterdam, 23-05-2007). Moreover, the Canon could be a tool in the
formation of different complexity levels in the presentations. For example, the windows of
Aletta Jacobs and Annie M.G. Schmidt are both related to women’s emancipation, but can
independently address political developments and the spheres of daily life. With the Canon as
an outline for the museum display, the windows can consequently be opened towards a
wider context and time frame.
The processes of relativism and universalism lead to a dual function for every national
historical museum. Firstly, the museum can enhance stable relative identities by creating a
national framework. This creates a democratizing process, since regions have each played
particular roles for the development of the nation. A solid national framework increases the
value of this regional heritage and the according relative identity formation processes. Stable
relative identities are necessary, finally, for well-functioning in a continually changing
national situation. Secondly, the Canon’s fifty windows provide enough room to be placed in
an international context. This can create an emphasis on the global relevance and universal
value of Dutch history and the contemporary functioning of Dutch society. The broad scope of
such an approach is to enhance a certain transparency of the displayed subjects. The museum
is to become a place for the visitors and not a platform for the expression of political
messages. In this approach “(…) the current citizens [of the transatlantic kingdom of the
Netherlands] should be the central focus and the educational and cultural fields should
provide [visitors] the instruments to attach their own (…) meanings and values to collections”
(Website KIT: Legêne, Ketelaar Lecture, 12-10-2007, The Hague). This approach of
transparency and focussing on visitors reflects both the latest trends in the museum field and
presentations as well as creating the opportunity for visitors to fully explore their identity
formation and own historical references.
According to Dutch professor Siep Stuurnman, a global approach to the Dutch Canon is very
valuable. He underlines that historical education, in school or museums, leads to “historical
understanding (cognitive) and identity formation (ideological and ethical)” (Stuurman, 2006:
31
59). The form and content of this historical understanding and identity formation, however,
depends on the type of history one encounters. Therefore, both relative and global
perspectives on national history are of great significance. Groupings of both relative and
universal values in museum displays can perform the role of enhancing larger understanding
and social cohesion. Firstly, the relative elements can be used to establish a secure relative
relationship between the displayed content and the visitors. Secondly, a stable relativity
enables visitors to place this content in an international context. A specific focus on the
particularity of Dutch views on or experiences with the particular content will make this
approach appropriate for the DNHM. In this approach, a sense of trust is communicated
because commitment is requested. This emphasises the mutual engagement of the institute
and the visitor. This dimension of trust will also be of great significance for the ultimate aim
of the museum for visitors to acquire historical knowledge and relate this to their present-day
situation.
3.4 Conclusion
The Dutch government considers a national museum to be an instrument in achieving a larger
social cohesion by disseminating historical knowledge. This social cohesion should be
obtained by raising awareness about the (history of the) Dutch national identity. This policy is
mostly directed at future generations, since the target group of the museum are children in
the last grades of primary school and the first of secondary school. Therefore, the display
methods are expected to be highly interactive, using mobile phone and touch screen
strategies. However, these strategies should be considered carefully, since too much
opportunity to zap and switch might conflict with the aim of conveying knowledge.
Interactivity should always be aimed at enhancing conversations and creating a tolerant
dialogue between the displayed and the visitor.
Underlying this notion on conveying knowledge in museums is the understanding that a
sense of trust must be realised in the museum displays. This trust emphasises the mutual
engagement of the museum and the visitors. A trustworthy environment facilitates
opportunities to secure relative identities and put these in a larger context. These different
levels of interpretation on a specific topic could be based on the Dutch canon. However, it will
be impossible to capture the entire canon in one permanent museum display. Therefore, the
ultimate aim would be to create a solid network of historical and cultural initiatives for which
the DNHM will function as an umbrella institution. Then the DNHM can become a platform
and stage different interpretations and complexity layers in the displays. This way, the
DNHM will also have a larger outreach.
This approach to the future DNHM can be compared to the multi-layered notions of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This is the only “secular instrument that has
functioned over fifty years as a normative reference point for the quality of well-being of
people around the world” (Nevejan, 2007: 10). Important notions of social cohesion and
tolerance underlie instruments like the Universal Declaration and the Dutch Canon.
Therefore, these instruments can become excellent foundations for museum presentations
intending to convey a message concerning social cohesion and tolerance.
32
Concluding Thoughts
The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights is one of the most significant documents
within the international community. Its universality implies that the Declaration should be
implemented in every part of the globe without hesitation. Instead, this universality is
greatly contested by means of cultural relativist approaches and the ideas that the
Declaration is supposedly based on Western Enlightenment values. However, the
Declaration was drafted in an international atmosphere of co-operation. Many injustices
continually occur throughout the world. Therefore, a leading instrument like the Universal
Declaration is of great significance in countering these unjust practices. Despite the
Declaration’s necessity, relativist approaches cannot be ignored. In my view, they are even of
importance in reaching a higher level of implementation of the human rights.
The Universal Declaration does not only address the discipline of national and international
law systems but also the functioning of individuals within specific social structures.
According to universal principles, individuals should continually see themselves within a
wider context, in which the universal value of being human is prioritized over individual
descent or national history. On the one hand, globalization fosters this line of thought. On
the other hand, it triggers a strong return to individual and local values as a consequence of
this constant emphasis on an expanded context. Therefore, identity formation is an essential
factor in this process. Enhancement of universal and relative identity formation is crucial in
the human rights debate related to, respectively, universalist thought and cultural relativism.
Furthermore, all layers of identity formation are strongly related to heritage selection.
Heritage is one of the key elements in establishing secure identity layers. Every individual
must first establish a secure relative identity in order to be able to subsequently see him- or
herself and his or her relative identity aspects in a larger, global context. Therefore, it is not
realistic to expect immediate implementation of universality.
This thesis presented an interdisciplinary approach concerning the disciplines of human
rights, history, anthropology, social psychology, and museum studies. The crucial link
between these areas has been the phenomenon of heritage. Historical objects, figures or
events are not considered to be heritage until they are presented as such. This selection
process takes place at various social levels and turns the selected ‘objects’ into familial, local
or national heritage. The selection process has been discussed by means of the educational
tool of the Dutch Canon. Fifty windows, each representing a person, event or object, are to be
opened up for further discussion. The historical knowledge which is gained from these
discussions is to ultimately lead to greater social cohesion amongst different cultural groups.
While the Dutch Canon is initiated at a relative level, heritage selection on a universal level
can be found in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Its value for the development of
mankind, which thus makes it universal, is emphasised for each of the listings on the World
Heritage List.
Many contemporary human rights violations in relation to identity formation and heritage
selection are acts of radical extremism. Fear of identity loss and an incapability to handle the
multiplicity of identity layers can be seen as root causes of these acts. Instability of certain
identity layers may lead the perpetrators to search for easy accessible social groups which
seem to provide security. These groups often focus on one aspect of a certain heritage in
particular. For example, extremists consider their religion or nation to be polluted and
destroyed by outsiders. Extremists wish to offer purification by any means. This purification
becomes the ultimate aim, for which everything must give way and everything is considered
33
allowed. These imbalanced situations rose as a consequence of reciprocal influences between
cultures, religions and nations. These influences became publicly noticeable due to, for
example, migration and globalization of the media and the Internet. This consequently leads
to insecure or unstable processes of identity formation.
The Netherlands are no exception to these globalizing processes. Many different cultural and
social groups currently inhabit the Netherlands. This led to the realization that the
Netherlands are currently dealing with the instability of different cultural identities, but also
with an unstable national identity. Migration, globalization, political murders and social
differentiation can all be seen as causes or expressions of this instability and the underlying
uncertainty about what it means to be Dutch. It almost seems that too many social (group)
identities exist within the Netherlands, without collectively shared essential heritage and
memories. Such a collective layer is exactly what enhances understanding of different
cultures and other identities. In turn, mutual understanding enhances more tolerant coexistence of different social and cultural groups.
The Dutch government signalled these social changes and instabilities. In reaction, a solution
was sought in the spreading of a collective aspect of all these cultural groups. A binding
collective aspect was found in the history of the geographical area of the Netherlands.
Therefore, the Dutch government installed a Canon Committee to produce a Dutch
Historical Canon. This Canon is to become a widely used educational tool for the last grades
of primary school and the first grades of secondary school. Thus, through providing similar
historical knowledge to children and adolescents from many different cultural and social
backgrounds, greater cohesion is to be enhanced amongst them. Furthermore, the
government has decided that the Netherlands should have its own National Historical
Museum. This future national museum is meant to remedy the unstable social structures in
which museums operate. It is still greatly debated whether the displayed content of the
museum should be based on the Dutch Canon.
In my opinion, the canon forms an excellent point of departure, but may never result in a
static display of fifty windows. A thematic approach to the already existing Canon seems to
be a just way to incorporate the notions of identity formation and heritage selection for the
enhancement of social cohesion. Themes like the Second World War or feminism offer
opportunities for both the museum to display and for visitors to engage in several levels of
complexity. These different levels of complexity can be addressed through different
historical topics which, in turn, address these particular themes. Such an approach to
museum presentations enables visitors to firstly recognize individual relative identity layers
before these are placed in a wider, global context. This thesis’ findings on identity formation
and the role of heritage selection in this process are deemed to be crucial in achieving the
ultimate aim of the future Dutch National History Museum.
This thesis has never aimed to offer an ultimate solution for full implementation of universal
human rights, nor has it wished to give exclusive support for cultural relativist claims. First
and foremost, it has tried to be realistic and to approach a political debate, which attains
many social and cultural dimensions, from the interdisciplinary point of view it deserves.
This departure point in the human rights debate incorporates both universal and relative
claims and seeks for a balance between these lines of thought. Secondly, by approaching the
phenomenon of heritage as the crucial link between identity formation and human rights, I
have tried to emphasise the complementary character of universalism and relativism in
many layers of contemporary globalizing societies. An interdisciplinary approach provides a
key in the functioning of these complementary processes in the reciprocal relationship
34
between identity formation and heritage selection. Thirdly, by relating the notions of
universalism and relativism in identity formation and heritage selection to the practical
example of the future Dutch National History Museum, this thesis has tried to show the
relevance of these abstract theoretical processes for the contemporary Netherlands and its
cultural politics.
Notions like universality and national identities can never be imposed. They have particular
functions for international law, but in everyday practice they have to emerge from within
society and develop into human values and behaviour. Therefore, a balance between
universality and relativism has to be sought within social structures of everyday life. This
complementary character is reflected in the proposed approach to relative and global
contexts in museum displays for the future DNHM. Ultimately, people need to have the
opportunity to feel at home somewhere before they can see themselves in a larger
perspective. When this fundamental safety is provided, one is able to assimilate the plurality
of social structures which constitute this larger, universal perspective.
35
Acknowledgements
It is a truth universally acknowledged that the writing process of a thesis is like a misty,
bumpy road, with ups and downs, and seemingly never-ending. It was definitely true for
this thesis. I hope reading the document currently in your hands was as an adventurous
discovery for you as the writing process was for me.
Quite some people have provided me with the right luggage for this journey, for which I
would like to take the opportunity here to most abundantly thank them.
Hendrik Henrichs, for being my supervisor and for in the end almost always being right,
which is with hindsight one of the best character traits a supervisor can have;
Caroline Nevejan, for her second opinion, for her critical engagement in my writings and for
offering me a different sound than I had heard until then;
Yasemin Balci, for carefully reading the entire piece and for the expert knowledge of this
future Mrs. Darcy, deeming to become like her husband, “a human rights barrister,
a pretty nasty beast apparently”;
Vera Wieringa, for being my wonderful “oh, we’re hilariooous” MA and ICN partner in
crime, for being a solid point of reference and for keeping me sharp and above all
laughing on the off-days;
Gustavo Ferro, for being the king of the thesis jungle when it comes to introductions and
conclusions, while he was under large pressure of producing one thesis of his own;
Sarah Jane Girlfriend Earle, for being my English point of reference in the thesis seminars of
the MA program and for her final edit of my thesis;
Margreet de Looze, for her expertise in psychology, keeping me real and down to earth, for
providing many Center Parcs occasions and for being such a good friend around the
corner;
Sanne Tielemans, for her everlasting long-distance online enthusiasm for the topic of this
thesis and her full backing support concerning basically every aspect of my life;
Heit, Mem and Sybren, my loving family, for always giving me full support for my
overloaded schedules and sudden careers moves, and mostly for knowing me so
extremely well.
Writing a MA thesis on a topic with such a wide scope sometimes made me, how feminine,
lose my orientation completely. At these moments the above mentioned people have
functioned as road signs leading me back in the right direction, like historical world
explorers used the sky and the stars to position themselves.
Currently, reading the stars for direction has become a rarely practiced science, indeed a
kind of heritage. The concluding poem addresses a particular way of observing the stars up
36
in the sky and how this point of view has been the ultimate fundament for this thesis. It
addresses the continual change of individual and collective views I have discussed.
Awareness of these processes and of how we deal with these phenomena in daily life is of
fundamental importance for the functioning of today’s world and tomorrow’s future.
The More Loving One
Looking up at the stars, I know quite well
That, for all they care, I can go to hell,
But on earth indifference is the least
We have to dread from man or beast.
How should we like it were stars to burn
With a passion for us we could not return?
If equal affection cannot be,
Let the more loving one be me.
Admirer as I think I am
Of stars that do not give a damn,
I cannot, now I see them, say
I missed one terribly all day.
Were all stars to disappear or die,
I should learn to look at an empty sky
And feel its total dark sublime,
Though this might take me a little time.
By: W.H. Auden
37
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Debates
Nevejan, Caroline, Debate Cultural Citizenship, Luther Church, Utrecht, 30-05-2007
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Meritis, Amsterdam, 23-05- 2007
39
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Interviews
Conducted together with Vera Wieringa, for our Internship in the New Heritage Project at the Dutch
Centre for Cultural Heritage (ICN), Amsterdam
Pieter van der Heijden, Beeld en Geluid, Hilversum, 04-06-2007
Susan Legêne, Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam, 13-06-2007
40