Steve Walsh
Background and Rationale
For many involved in the teaching of Celtic, regional or minority (CRAM) languages, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) may be regarded as an approach which has ‘passed its sell-by date’ or which is inappropriate to all contexts. Indeed, for language teaching professionals across the world, it might be claimed that CLT has emerged as a ‘weak form’ of what was originally intended and is unable to ‘deliver’ appropriate techniques. In its weakest form,
CLT might be viewed as a kind of ‘phrase-book’ methodology, offering learners an opportunity to pick up useful expressions and vocabulary but failing to enable them to really get to grips with the complex grammar or important structures which constitute the central nervous system of any language.
Under a task-based approach to language learning (TBLL), the main focus is on bringing ‘real-world’ contexts into the classroom. There is an emphasis on using language as a tool for completing tasks rather than as a subject in its own right.
Tasks are devised which require learners to use certain key structures in order to finish the task – language is seen as the means rather than the end. Importantly, there is considerable emphasis on ‘focus on form’ (FonF, see, for example
Doughty and Williams, 1998). In other words, while language is seen as the means to an end, it is still the focus of attention in the final stage of a three-part process (see below). According to Willis (2001: 175), TBLL views language as the ‘driving force in language learning’. Put differently, while the learning process evolves around tasks, it is the language which remains as the focal point of study.
The large body of knowledge which has now been established in Second
Language Acquisition (SLA) research has helped to inform some of the practices which are central to TBLL (see for example, Long and Crookes, 1992; Crookes and Gass, 1993). From the research which has been conducted in the last twenty years or so, it is unlikely that many practitioners would refute the centrality of interaction to the acquisition process (c.f. Long, 1983, 1996). Only by interacting with peers and teachers are learners afforded learning opportunities (Walsh,
2002). Understanding the nature of the interaction is crucial to gaining an understanding of the SLA process - teachers have a much more central role in this process than was previously believed (see, for example, Johnson, 1995).
Prese ntly, under a TBLL approach, the ‘swing’ is now back towards form-focused feedback post-task, providing learners with space to reflect on the language they have been using and to make connections and comparisons with previously acquired language.

TBLL in Practice
According to Willis (1996: 234), ‘[a task is an activity] where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose in order to achieve an outcome’. The outcome may be linguistic (an answer to a question, for example), or non-linguistic (following directions to get to a destination). It is important to recognise that the nature of the task is crucial to the learning that takes place.
For example, some tasks seem to generate more language than others, while convergent tasks (which ask learners to come to an agreement) are less likely to result in real engagement than divergent tasks (which cause learners to argue or dispute a particular issue). Skehan (1998) also comments on the importance of recognising that tasks have differing degrees of linguistic and cognitive complexity. This may be important for teachers during task-selection, analysis and sequencing.
Other considerations include the relationship between class-based tasks and work/study skills: to what extent are tasks intended to prepare learners for the
‘here and now’ and to what extent are they designed for some future application?
Clearly, the issue of relevance is central to selection: learners are unlikely to succeed or to become motivated or interested if the materials being used have little in common with a perceived need
– present or future.
According to Prabhu (1987), there are essentially three task-types: information gap , where students use language to share, give or gain a piece of information; reasoning gap , where students use language to share opinions, and problemsolving , where language is used to solve a problem. Whatever the focus of a particular task, learners will be asked to perform operations in the L2 in relation to topics which have been selected
. These ‘operations’ may include listing, classifying, sequencing, ordering and sorting, comparing and sharing personal experiences (Willis, 1996).
A Framework for TBLL (Willis, 1996)
Central to the framework devised by Willis (1996) is the concept ‘focus on form’
(FonF). The challenge for teachers is to provide learners with opportunities to use the target language for real communicative purposes, while ensuring that they do not lose sight of the language form. Put simply, the aim is to maximise the attention paid to both form and meaning . Various strategies might be adopted to ensure that FonF is integral to the task; for example, getting students to give oral presentations means that they are more likely to attend to form than if they are working in a closed pair.
According to Willis (1996), a three-part cycle is essential if language acquisition is to be maximised. In the first stage, the task cycle , learners attempt to complete a task using any linguistic resource at their disposal. Of course, the language

used may be inadequate to complete the task and learners are encouraged to
‘struggle’ to express themselves adequately. At this stage, the role of the teacher is to listen and offer support where necessary. In the second part, the planning cycle , students work with the teacher to improve their presentation. At this stage, there is a heavy emphasis on form-focused instruction as learners attempt to improve the overall accuracy of their work. Error correction and scaffolding
(where new language is ‘fed in’ as and when necessary) are key to the process and the teacher plays a much more central role in shaping the contributions made by learners. In the final stage, the report cycle , learners execute their oral presentation and the teacher’s role is merely to act as a chair and to summarise each presentation. At the end of the cycle, there is a language focus stage, where students are given an opportunity to reflect on the new language which has emerged through the task and study that language in a more systematic fashion.
While the framework could be used as described here, clearly, there are endless ways in which it might be adapted to local contexts. For the teaching of CRAM languages, for example, the task cycle might be replaced with an activity in which learners study a text and attempt to work out the meaning of a new structure.
They then present their deductions to other students and receive feedback and input from the teacher. The key principles of the approach are still adhered to: there is a problem which has to be solved collaboratively; learners interact with each other; the main focus of the task is a linguistic one; attention is given to both form and meaning.
TBLL: Future Directions
Based on the work which has been completed on both TBLL and SLA, there are now a number of possible directions or trends which might combine to enhance approaches taken to the teaching of CRAM languages. Many practitioners will breathe a sigh of relief when reading this paper to see that grammar is still firmly at the centre of language teaching. This is clearly especially important in the teaching of CRAM languages, where the study of studying linguistic variations, differing forms and nuances of meaning is central to the learning which takes place. FonF ensures that learners are engaged with the content of the discipline
(i.e. the language under study), while at the same time having an opportunity to take part in meaningful discussions with peers in order to solve a particular problem.
By adopting a form-focused approach to tasks, various teaching and learning strategies can be developed and exploited. For example, FonF encourages the learner strategy of noticing (Schmidt, 1990), where learners learn to make connections and links between the language forms they are investigating.
Noticing is now considered a key component of the second language acquisition process. Similarly, a task-based approach fosters strategies for rehearsal .

Examples of rehearsal include giving students time to prepare before they are aske d to ‘perform’ in public, allowing thinking time during discussion-based tasks, maximising wait time (the delay which elapses between a teacher question and a learner response). In the same way that native-speakers rehearse the precise words that they intend to use in certain contexts, learners too need an opportunity to prepare before they commit to a response. Both noticing and rehearsal are clearly beneficial strategies in terms of the confidence they instil in learners.
From a teaching perspective, TBLL allows tasks to be tailored to the local context. For any teaching strategy to ‘work’, it is apparent that the teacher must have ownership. This involves taking an idea, trying it our, evaluating it and adapting it to a particular teaching situation. Once teachers have ownership, it is much more likely that a task will be successful and that learners will enjoy their classes. A second strategy which teachers following a TBLL approach might consider is that of shaping learner output. This might entail scaffolding a response made by a learner or correcting an utterance so that a more appropriate form of expression is used. Essentially, shaping output entails teachers taking a more central, directive role as a means of ensuring that students learn to monitor their own output and, eventually, self-correct.
Conclusions
TBLL has much to offer in almost any language teaching context, adopting, as it does, many of the principles of sound pedagogy found in other disciplines. Few educationists, for instance, would deny the importance of student-centredness in promoting active learning. For many learners, adults and children alike, experiential learning (‘learning by doing’) is often preferable to learning in isolation or through an approach which draws too heavily on theory. Similarly, current socio-cultural theories of teaching and learning highlight the need for cooperation and collaboration in learning tasks. Finally, motivation and challenge are maximised when learners are engaged in problem-solving activities. TBLL makes use of all of these principles. Perhaps, more importantly for the teaching of CRAM languages, it is, by definition, context specific and can easily be adapted to any language teaching situation.

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