RESEARCH METHODS
CSTU 7920-2769
Lecturer: Geoff Bridgman & Helen Gremillion
Resource Depletion Research Project Task
Partial literature review (25%): A written research essay of 1000 words
covering an area of literature that is important to the development of a project on
the rapidly depleting resources of the Earth
Due: Friday 09 April 2010
Word Count:
1615
(Excluding headings, quotations referencing)
Plagiarism Declaration:
“I, declare the following to be my
own work, unless otherwise referenced, as defined
by Unitec New Zealand’s policy on plagiarism”
Date: 01 April, 2010
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This review explores environmental ethics in relation to the environmental issues
we face in the 21st century.
Environmental ethics will be defined and many
contributing factors relating to human attitudes and behaviours will be
summarised, critiqued and put into context in relation to environmental issues.
This topic has been chosen because the writer believes understanding the
human psyche in response to resource depletion is fundamental in achieving a
paradigm shift.
My research indicates this is a complex topic with many
associated theories beyond the scope of this paper. This review therefore covers
only a selection of theories, including intrinsic value, non-locality, religion,
anthropocentrism, communication/technology, critics and findings from research
regarding changing attitudes.
Environmental ethics is a philosophical discipline studying the moral relationship
between human beings and the environment. Specifically the emphasis is the
value and moral status human beings place on the environment and its nonhuman contents (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2008). The discussion is
varied and complex incorporating diverse world views of culture, religion, politics,
socio
economic
spectrums,
feminism
plus
scientific
and
psychological
perspectives.
Possibly the most important debate in environmental ethics is the question of
value; whether human beings place intrinsic or extrinsic value on non-human
contents of the environment. Closely related to this is the question of whether
or not human beings consider themselves to be part of the universe and its nonhuman contents, or separate, indeed superior to nature and therefore entitled to
exploit it (Benson, 2000). Those who argue for intrinsic value believe that nature
and its non human contents have value in their own right, whereas extrinsic
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being the attitude that nature has value only for what it contributes and
therefore has no value in itself (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2008),
(Benson, 2000).
The question of anthropocentrism, or human centeredness, is intertwined with
this debate. This theory argues the mind set, embedded in traditional western
thinking and Judeo-Christian culture, that humans are the centre of the universe,
separate and more important than non-human contents of the universe.
Therefore religious world views are likely to influence the way in which we view
the environment. According to the first book of Genesis 1:27-8 we are told that
“God created man in his own image”, with the first words said to humans: “Be
fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish of
the sea and the birds of the air and over every living creature that moves on the
ground” (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2008).
Non-anthropocentrism is the view that this human centeredness is at the heart of
the problems of environmental destruction and argue that if anthropocentrism is
the problem then perhaps non-anthropocentrism is the solution. Recent writers
such as Arne Naess, Lynn White jr. and Aldo Leopold have challenged Western
Judeo-Christian and anthropocentric perspectives arguing that every being,
human or non-human has value in themselves, independent of the usefulness for
human purposes, and equally have the right to live and flourish.
that we should move from anthropocentric to an ecocentric
1
Naess argues
view of the world,
i.e. where we see ourselves as part of an ecospheric whole.
More recently,
Australian philosopher Richard Routley refers to the dominant western view of
anthropocentrism as “human chauvinism”, arguing this is just another form of
prejudice against those outside the privileged class, i.e. prejudice and oppression
1
Ecocentrism is a term used in ecological political philosophy denoting a nature-centred, as opposed to human-centred
value systems. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocentrism, 2010).
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of non-human contents of the universe (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
2008).
The newness of environmental issues together with complexity also contribute to
resistance to a human paradigm shift. Although environmental concerns have a
long history, for example the foundation of the Sierra Club in 18922, human
beings have not dealt with resource depletion on such a scale before. Further
the contemporary environmental ethics debate is a relatively new area of
philosophical ethics
emerging in the 1970s
(Benson, 2000), (Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2008).
It is important to make some distinction between carbon footprints and carbon
ecology footprints.
A carbon footprint is the total greenhouse gas emissions
(GHG) caused by individuals, organisations, events or products. Once this has
been calculated strategies can be identified to reduce them, often through
development of alternative projects to offset usage (Wikipedia encyclopedia,
2010).
An ecological footprint is the measure of human demand on earth, i.e. the
human use of earth’s resources compared with the earth’s capacity to
regenerate. Therefore the measure of carbon footprints can be used to measure
at what rate humans use the earth’s resources and how many earth’s it would
take to sustain usage at a certain level of human lifestyle (Wikipedia
encyclopedia, 2010).
2
The Sierra Club is the oldest and largest grassroots environmental organisaton in USA. Their mission is to explore,
enjoy and protect the wild places of the earth; To practice and promote the responsible use of the earth’s ecosystems
and resources; To educate and enlist humanity to protect and restore the quality of the natural and human environment;
and to use all lawful means to carry out these objectives (http://www.sierraclub.org/ 2010).
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The question of deep and shallow ecology is tied up with the above debate of
intrinsic
value
and
anthropocentrism.
Deep
ecology
supports
non-
anthropocentricism; the idea that humans are not separate from nature and as
such nature, the sacredness of mountains, rivers, trees and all non-human
content should be respected as if it was part of oneself. Shallow ecology is the
fight against pollution and resource depletion but not at the expense of the
health and affluence of those in the developed world (Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, 2008).
Critics of deep ecology include some feminist perspectives that argue the
concept of nature and humanity being one interconnected system is in effect a
form of human colonialism which is incapable of seeing nature as a genuine
“other” and thus independent of human interest and purpose.
Further, many
third world nations argue deep ecology is ‘elitist’ and for the economically and
socio-politically well off. Both arguments raise important questions about the
implications of deep ecological perspectives in diverse social, economic and
cultural contexts (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2008).
Another key perspective to consider is that of non-locality.
In physics non-
locality deals with the direct affect of one object on another distant object.
Quantum physicist, David Bohm, challenged the physics community since the
early 1950’s making distinctions between implicate and explicate order, arguing
implicate order, space and time are no longer dominant in determining
relationships. Rather explicate order, which stresses interconnectedness, is more
relevant. This is particularly important in the environmental ethics argument as
it supports the view that we, and the world, are part of a system in which what
happens in one part of it affects every other part of it (Sharpe, 1991).
“All things by immortal power,
Near or far,
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Hiddenly, to each other are,
That thou canst not stir a flower
Without troubling of a star”
(The mistress of Vision Francis Thompson cited in Sharpe, 1991)
However, Bohm also argued that in environmental ethics, believing everything
interconnects is not enough, as it does not say how we should follow this belief,
i.e.
what
needs
to
be
done
for
human
beings
to
choose
greater
interconnectedness to the environment and a life of less consumption? (Sharpe,
1991).
A paradigm shift is not just an idea, it is to do with who we are as human beings.
It is an experience that takes place in our minds, bodies, feelings and attitudes.
However, only far-reaching and fundamental changes proportional to the
challenges we face will suffice. Change must be founded on basic changes in
values at individual, national and world levels (Elgin, 1999).
At present, humanity is experiencing a revolution in our ability to communicate,
however the technology explosion and mass media promotes high consumption
lifestyles.
Further to this argument many economists believe that continuing
technological advancements will solve the ecological problems.
Economist,
Stephen Moore, who writes about “The Coming Age of Abundance” in his book
“The True State of the Planet”, illustrates this perspective of ‘technological
optimism’ with rationale that since the beginning of time the standard of living
has risen along with the rise in population. Another economic optimist, Julian
Simon argues historically, in the pursuit of profit, human ingenuity and problem
solving leads us to be better off. This perspective also argues that human beings
lose patience with predications of calamity when previously dates for calamity
have come and gone without materialising (Elgin, 1999).
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Human disenchantment is tied in with the pursuit of progress, power and
technological control which together with removing our fear of nature also
destroys our sense of awe and wonder towards it, thus maintain the perspective
of superiority for exploitation (Elgin, 1999).
However we cannot dispute that advancement in technology and communication
are powerful tools that could in fact support an increase in collective intelligence
or a ‘global brain’ taking a path toward further mindless consumerism or used to
design a sustainable future.
Further, with the communication revolution the
world becomes a far more transparent place. Just as the media can expose
social injustices and human rights issues so can it expose injustice against the
planet.
When the whole world is watching we move from the personal to the
collective creating a human conscience and the ability to take responsibility for
our actions (Elgin, 1999).
The answer must then lie in both human and technological solutions, which could
create a new mindset of discovering the truths together with mobilising and
supporting one another toward building a sustainable civilisation rather than
fighting to protect what we have.
In recent years many surveys have been conducted on human attitudes to
environmental issues, however surveys show that the public at large, while
sympathetic to environmental issues, has only a vague understanding of the
seriousness of the situation (www.newhorizons.org/future/elgin2020c.html),
(Highbeam research, 2005).
In 2005 a Gallup poll found 66% of Americans personally worry about the
environment; 35% worry a great deal, 31% worry a fair amount, 27% only a
little and 8% not at all. The poll also found that daily concerns overshadow
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people’s worry about the environment (http://www.gallup.com/poll/15925/DailyConcerns-Overshadow-Environment-Worries.aspx).
Arguably the most important global survey was the Gallup Organisation’s - ‘The
Health of the Planet Survey’ in 1993, where 24 nations were surveyed. When
writing about the results Dr Riley E. Dunlop, director of the survey, concluded;

There is “virtually worldwide citizen awareness that our planet is indeed in
poor
health,
and
great
concern
for
its
future
well-being”
(www.newhorizons.org/future/elgin2020c.html)

Majorities in most nations gave a higher priority to environmental issues over
economic growth and willing to pay a higher price for its protection.

There was little evidence of poor blaming the rich and vice versa, rather there
appears to be widespread acceptance of mutual responsibility.
Findings of the largest environmental survey conducted in 1998 for The
International Environment Monitor, involving over 35,000 people in 30 countries
found that people believe that environmental laws in their countries don’t go far
enough, stating “Majorities of people in the world’s most populous countries
want
sharper
teeth
put
into
laws
to
protect
the
environment”
(www.newhorizons.org/future/elgin2020c.html), (Highbeam research, 2005).
As noted in the introduction the environmental ethics debate is a varied and
complex area of philosophy.
However, this review has defined the debate
together with defining many of the associated terms relating to environmental
issues and how they relate to environmental ethics. The material has been well
researched and many theories and perspectives have been summarised,
critiqued and put into context.
Again, the writer believes awareness and
understanding of these human perspectives and underlying attitudes is
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imperative if we are to develop a paradigm shift in human world views regarding
environmental issues.
Reference List
Benson, J. (2000). Environmental Ethics: An introduction with readings. London:
Routledge
Elgin, D. (1999). New Horizons for Learning: Perspectives on the future 2020 challenge.
Adversity Trends. Retrieved April 2, 2010, from,
http://www.newhorizons.org/future/elgin2020c.html
Highbeam Research, (2005). Survey Methodology. Retrieved April 2, 2010, from,
http://highbeam.com/doc/1G1-14665325.html
New Horizons for Learning: Perspectives on the future 2020 challenge. Adversity Trends.
Retrieved April 2, 2010, from, http://www.newhorizons.org/future/elgin2020c.html
Sharpe, K.J., (1991). Environmental ethics and David Bohm’s implicate order. Retrieved
April 5, 2010, from http://www.ksharpe.com/word/BM11.htm
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Environmental Ethics (2008). Retrieved April 5,
2010, from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-environmental/#DeeEco
The Gallup Corporation. (1993). Retrieved April 2, 2010, from
http://www.gallup.com/poll/1615/Environment.aspx
The Gallup Corporation. (2005). Retrieved April 2, 2010, from
http://www.gallup.com/poll/15925/Daily-Concerns-Overshadow-EnvironmentWorries.aspx
Wikipedia free encyclopedia. Carbon Footprint. Retrieved April 5, 2010, from,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonfootprint
Wikipedia free encyclopedia. Ecological Footprint. Retrieved April 5, 2010, from,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocentrism
Wikipedia free encyclopedia. Ecological Footprint. Retrieved April 5, 2010, from,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologicalfootprint
Partial literature review (25%): A written research essay of 1000 words covering an area of literature that is
important to the development of a project on the rapidly depleting resources of the Earth:
Core questions:

what resources are available for the future?

what resources do we as individuals use (what is our Carbon Footprint)? and

what meaning would we make of the information about the above?
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The review will summarise, critique and put in context information from at least four different sources such as a journal
article, a book chapter or a substantial review or analysis article. At least one of these sources will be a research report
that contains a methodology section. Short internet or newspaper stories or reviews are not appropriate, students should
use the source articles for the these stories
Due: 9th of April
Marking criteria
The literature review must include the following:

Justification for selecting this area for review – explain in an introduction how this area of literature is important to
the research questions 3% good start on very challenging topic
3%
A conclusion that ties together the issues you have discussed for your 4 or more sources of literature 4% You lost the
plot slightly in your conclusuion. I think that you argued for more than “awareness and understanding of these
human perspectives and underlying attitudes” If we understand Bohm’s “interconnectedness”, then our
consciousness has to inhale the consciousness of those and that which we are connected to. That’s a
fundamentally different kind of consciousness, beyond the ego-centrentic demands of modernism and postmodernism, into a world-centric space where ethics and morality operate differently in part because I no
longer have to satisfy a individual barreness of existence by constantly consuming.
2.5%
It will also include some or all of the following. Your emphasis will differ depending on the articles chosen – some
will be theoretical, some descriptive, some quantitative. 18%
16/18
 Definitions of key terms in the literature covered that relate to the research questions covered. In some cases a
simple definition will do, in others a major part of the literature review will be spent teasing out the meaning
behind a key term. For example how do we define carbon footprint or carbon credits? Anthropocentrism, deep
ecology, shallow ecology – all done well/

The key current theoretical or philosophical positions from your area of the literature review that are relevant to
the hypothesis or question including information that supports/negates the various theories discussed. For example
a) global warming brings with more erratic weather patterns, meaning that we have worse droughts, but also worse
winter storms; b) this is the first time in human history that we have the information from past civilisation failure
that gives us the opportunity to avert global disaster. You dealt well with difficult theory for two thirds of the
essay.

Demographic data/information about the population/s you wish to study or who may be affected by your research.
For example how many Chinese and Indians will own a car in the next 5 years? How many people in New
Zealand consume at a level of 5 Earths? Some interesting survey material brought in.

Important background information to the area of study that sets the context for the research and/or the history of
study in this area. For example, to understand why it is difficult for us to respond to the threats of global warming,
we need to understand something (perhaps from evolutionary psychology) about how humans predict and respond
to future events. The surveys were useful background information.
Marks will be lost for the following

Quoting: be careful about quoting large chunks of other people’s work. Your job is to analyse, synthesise and
summarise. Use large quotes only where something absolutely critical to your writing is being said in a way that
could not be clearer, more compressed or elegant. When quotes are longer than 40 words they should be indented
on a new line. No problems

References -2% if not provided. Full referencing using the standard APA system – refer to the student handbook.
Good, except of internet addresses. No penalty.
The weight given to various aspects of the literature review will differ depending on the what area of the literature
students are exploring and what they chose to emphasise.
21.5/25 excellent effort.
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