Motivation for Excellence: Results from the National Braille Challenge Study
Research in the Rockies 2010: Research Summit on Braille Reading and Writing
Presentation Summary
Adam Wilton, MA and Cay Holbrook, PhD
The University of British Columbia
Introduction
The research literature in educational psychology spanning the past 30 years is replete with
theories and constructs of academic motivation (see Wigfield & Eccles, 2002). According to Covington
(2000), “the concept of motivation stands at the centre of the educational enterprise” (p.171). The
importance of achievement motivation to students’ learning outcomes cannot be overstated, yet this
relationship may not be widely understood by professionals working in educational settings. While this
relationship is of general importance to all students, some populations of students are at risk for lower
motivation for academic success. This may be true for students with severe visual impairments, who
may more vulnerable to external loci of academic control than sighted populations (Spenser, Head,
VanDusen, & Chalfant, 1997; Tuttle & Tuttle, 2004). Students with external loci of control do not see
academic outcomes as contingent on their knowledge, effort, skills, etc. and may not be motivated to
take on new intellectual challenges. It is therefore critical that professionals working with students with
visual impairments have a sophisticated understanding of the construct of achievement motivation, as
well as its underlying component constructs. The current research examines several of these component
constructs in detail, contextualizing them in a special program designed to support students’ motivation
for academic achievement in braille reading and writing – the Braille Challenge.
Relevant Constructs from the Achievement Motivation Literature
Despite the wide application of the term across educational contexts, “achievement motivation”
is not a unitary construct (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002). There are numerous constructs that comprise the
student’s “motivation” to engage in academic pursuits (Wentzel & Wigfield, 1998). In an effort to better
understand the achievement motivation of students with visual impairments in context, several of these
constructs are important to the current study. Two of these constructs (academic locus of control and
self-monitoring) are outlined in the following section.
Academic Locus of Control.
The locus of control construct has traditionally been of interest to researchers and professionals
in education (Kalechstein & Nowicki, 1997). Generally stated, locus of control refers to the individual’s
“perceptions of control over access to reinforcements” (Anderson, Hattie, & Hamilton, 2005, p.517). If
reinforcement is not seen as “contingent on the subject’s own behaviour, then it will not increase the
subject's expectancy that a particular behaviour or event will be followed by a reinforcement in the
future” (Stipek & Weisz, 1981, p.102). When applied to student learning, the academic locus of control
refers to the student’s belief that academic outcomes are contingent on personal characteristics (i.e.
effort, knowledge, ability) (Kalachstein & Nowicki, 1997).
Research with sighted learners has consistently shown that an internal academic locus of control
is positively related to academic success (Findley & Cooper, 1983; Kalachstein & Nowicki, 1997).
While there is a dearth of corresponding research with samples of students with visual impairments,
similar conclusions are drawn from research involving this population (i.e. Parsons, 1987).
Self-Monitoring.
Several researchers highlight the importance of the student’s ability to actively monitor his or her
own progress as he or she works towards achieving academic goals, for both typically-developing and
disabled populations (Lee, Palmer, & Wehmeyer, 2009; Rock, 2005). Specifically, self-monitoring has
been identified as an important component of self-determination instruction for students with visual
impairments – self-determination being a component area of the Expanded Core Curriculum for these
students (Agran, Hong, & Blankenship, 2007; Hatlen, 2009).
Overview of the Braille Challenge
The Braille Challenge, administered and sponsored by the Braille Institute of America, is a skill
competition open to students in grades one through twelve from across the United States and Canada
who use braille as their primary literacy medium. In 2010 overall participation was 723 students, up
from 450 in 2007 (Niebrugge, 2010). This year, students came from 34 regional sites and represented 43
US states and 4 Canadian provinces. The growing popularity of the Challenge is made evident by a
comparison to 2005 figures – when 6 regional sites hosted preliminary events (Niebrugge, 2010). This
popularity is also demonstrated by the fact that according to national figures in the US, it is estimated
that 13% of school-age braille readers participate in the Challenge.
Programming at the Braille Challenge
The Braille Challenge consists of two stages of competition (preliminary and national).
Preliminary challenges are held in one of two formats. They can be organized as regional events,
bringing together students with visual impairments from local communities. Preliminary challenges are
held individually or in small group settings, providing that a teacher of students with visual impairments
proctors the event. Once students’ performance has been scored, top students are invited to the National
Braille Challenge in Los Angeles, California. For the 2010 National Challenge, 60 finalists have been
invited to participate from the original pool of 723 contestants.
The Challenge is composed of 5 discrete competitions (Niebrugge, 2010). Within these competitions,
activities are unique and do not remain fixed across yearly Challenges. Each competition focuses on a
particular skill area critical for optimal use of braille as a literacy medium:

Reading comprehension (All grade levels)

Speed and accuracy (Grades 5-12)

Proofreading (All grade levels)

Spelling (Grades 1-4)

Charts and graphs (Grades 5-12)
Survey Development and Sampling
In an effort to examine the relationship between these motivation constructs and participation in the
Braille Challenge more closely, the parent/guardian survey was guided by the following research
questions (corresponding hypotheses are included):
R1: Are there any motivational characteristics common to students who participate in the Braille
Challenge competition, as rated by their parent/guardian?
H1: Participants in the Braille Challenge will demonstrate a similar constellation of
positive motivational characteristics, as rated by their parent/guardian.
R2: What is the perceived impact of the child’s participation in the Braille Challenge on motivational
outcomes, as rated by parents/guardians?
H2: Parents/guardians will indicate that there is a significant positive relationship
between their child’s motivational outcomes and their child’s participation in the Braille
Challenge.
The purpose of the teacher survey was to understand if or how teachers incorporate the Braille
Challenge into their classroom practice. The teacher survey was guided by the following research
questions (corresponding hypotheses are included):
R3: What influence does a student’s participation in the Braille Challenge have on a teacher of
students with visual impairment’s classroom practice?
H3: Teachers of students with visual impairments will integrate, promote and capitalize
on their students’ participation in the Braille Challenge in the context of their own braille
instruction.
R4: What is the perceived impact of the students’ participation in the Braille Challenge on
motivational outcomes, as rated by teachers?
H4: Teachers of students with visual impairments will indicate that there is a significant
positive relationship between their students’ motivational outcomes and their students’
participation in the Braille Challenge.
Survey Design and Distribution
The parent/guardian survey contains 17 multiple choice and scalar questions, and took an
average of 4:20 to complete. A hyperlink to the online survey was sent via electronic mail to 438 valid
email addresses. From this original mailing, 57 completed surveys were obtained, resulting in a return
rate of 13.0%.
The teacher survey contains 15 multiple choice and scalar questions, and took an average of 3:30
to complete. A hyperlink to the online survey was sent via electronic mail to 338 valid email addresses.
From this original mailing, 65 completed surveys were obtained, resulting in a return rate of 19.2%.
Study Participants
Relevant information pertaining to parent/guardian participants was gathered in the context of
their child’s participation in the Braille Challenge. Table 1 reports on the distribution of grade levels at
which these children first participated in the Challenge. Graph 1 displays these data.
Please note that all data outlined in this document are displayed in both table and graph format to
ensure their accessibility.
Grade
Level
1
Percentage 25%
of Sample
2
3
4
5
39%
39%
45% 29%
6
7
8
9
11%
11%
11% 9%
10
11
12
7%
5%
1%
Table 1: Distribution of initial Braille Challenge participation by students – Reported by
parents/guardians
Graph 1: Distribution of Initial Braille Challenge Participation of Students – Reported by
Parents/Guardians
These data indicate that the majority of parents/guardians report first participation in the Braille
Challenge early in their child’s educational career. It is also reasonable to assume that many of these
students continue to participate, since over 50% of finalists in 2009 were participating in at least their
second National Challenge (Niebrugge, 2010). Therefore, this sample of parents/guardians is reasonably
well informed about the Braille Challenge and is well positioned to comment on its influence on child
outcomes. Based upon parent/guardian responses, 45% of children had participated in the National
Braille Challenge in Los Angeles. Thus, the sample contains roughly equal numbers of
parents/guardians whose child has only participated at one stage of the competition. This distinction
enables distinctions to be made between parent/guardian perceptions of children who have, and have not,
advanced to the National Challenge.
Teachers indicated their experience with the Challenge as measured by the number of
participating students, as well as their years of service as a teacher of students with visual impairments.
Table 2 reports on the distribution of the number of students that a teacher has had participate in the
Braille Challenge at any level (individually, locally, or regionally). Graph 2 displays these data.
Number of 1
Students
2
Percentage 45.61% 17.54%
of Sample
3
4
5
6
Do not
know
17.54%
5.26%
3.51%
7.02%
3.51%
Table 2: Distribution of number of students who have competed at any level – Reported by
teachers.
Graph 2: Distribution of Number of Students who have Competed at any Level – Reported by
Teachers.
Table 2/Graph 2 reveal that 45.61% of teachers have only ever had one student participate in the
Braille Challenge at any level. This is not surprising, given the significant growth of the Braille
Challenge in recent years (see Section I). It is also interesting to note that of the students represented
above, 54% have participated in the National Challenge. Thus, in the current sample, many teachers’
experience of the Braille Challenge is that of one student participant.
Results
Parent/Guardian Survey
The parent/guardian survey contains one item that directly assesses the priority that
parents/guardians place on increased motivation as a result of their child’s participation in the Braille
Challenge.
 “What are your goals for your child’s participation in the Braille Challenge? – To encourage and
motivate my child to continue to use braille in his/her daily life.”
Rating of
Critically
importance important
Important
Somewhat
important
Not important
Percentage
of sample
20.45%
6.82%
4.55%
68.18%
Table 3: Distribution of parent/guardian ratings of importance of increased motivation through
child’s participation
Graph 3: Distribution of parent/guardian ratings of importance of increased motivation through
child’s participation
Academic locus of control.
The parent/guardian survey contains three items that assess parents’ perceptions of their child’s
locus of causality as it relates to academic endeavours.
 Parents/guardians indicate their level of agreement with the following statement: “My child feels
that her/his achievement is highly dependent on his/her effort.”
Strongly
agree
Percentage 54.35%
of Sample
Somewhat
agree
28.26%
Neutral
2.17%
Somewhat
disagree
8.7%
Strongly
disagree
4.35%
Do not
know
2.17%
Table 4: Distribution of parent/guardian responses when asked about child’s academic locus of
control (effort)
Graph 4: Distribution of parent/guardian responses when asked about child’s academic locus of
control (knowledge)
 Parents/guardians indicate their level of agreement with the following statement: “My child feels
that her/his achievement is highly dependent on his/her knowledge.”
Strongly
agree
Percentage 53.33%
of Sample
Somewhat
agree
31.11%
Neutral
6.67%
Somewhat
disagree
4.44%
Strongly
disagree
2.22%
Do not
know
2.22%
Table 5: Distribution of parent/guardian responses when asked about child’s academic locus of
control (knowledge)
Graph 5: Distribution of parent/guardian responses when asked about child’s academic locus of
control (skills)
 Parents/guardians indicate their level of agreement with the following statement: “My child feels
that her/his achievement is highly dependent on his/her skills.”
Strongly
agree
Percentage 53.33%
of Sample
Somewhat
agree
31.11%
Neutral
6.67%
Somewhat
disagree
4.44%
Strongly
disagree
2.22%
Do not
know
2.22%
Table 6: Distribution of parent/guardian responses when asked about child’s academic locus of
control (skills)
Graph 6: Distribution of parent/guardian responses when asked about child’s academic locus of
control (skills)
Self-monitoring.
One question explicitly evaluates parent/guardians’ perception of their child’s ability to actively
engage in self-monitoring in academic contexts.
 Parents/guardians indicate their level of agreement with the following statement: “My child
independently monitors his/her own progress towards achieving his/her own goals.”
Strongly
Somewhat Neutral
Somewhat Strongly
Do not
agree
agree
disagree
disagree
know
Percentage 31.91%
38.3%
10.64%
4.26%
12.77%
2.13%
of Sample
Table 7: Distribution of parent/guardian responses when asked about child’s self-monitoring
Graph 7: Distribution of parent/guardian responses when asked about child’s self-monitoring
Teacher Survey
The teacher survey contains one item that directly assesses the priority that teachers place on
increased motivation as a result of students’ participation in the Braille Challenge.
 “What are your general expectations for your students’ participation in the Braille Challenge? To encourage and motivate my student to continue to use braille in his/her daily life.”
Rating of
Critically
importance important
Important
Somewhat
important
Not important
Percentage
of sample
35.59%
8.47%
0%
55.93%
Table 8: Distribution of parent/guardian ratings of importance of increased motivation through
student participation
Graph 8: Distribution of teacher ratings of importance of increased motivation through student
participation
Integration into Practice.
There is one question on the teacher survey that explicitly evaluates teachers’ perceptions of their
integration of motivational aspects of the Braille Challenge into their classroom practice.
 “When preparing my student(s) to participate in the Braille Challenge, I generally use the
prospect of participating in the Challenge to motivate my student(s) to ready themselves.”
Always
Mostly
Some of the
time
Rarely
Never
Percentage 45.45%
of sample
32.73%
18.18%
0%
3.64%
Frequency
Table 9: Frequency of teacher use of participation in the Braille Challenge as a motivational tool
Graph 9: Frequency of teacher use of participation in the Braille Challenge as a motivational tool
Conclusions
These conclusions are based, only in part, on the data presented in this summary. More complete
analyses will be outlined at the conference presentation. Taken together, the data outlined in the previous
section largely validate the research hypotheses listed earlier in this summary.
 According to parent/guardian perceptions, there are some motivational characteristics (i.e.
academic locus of control and self-monitoring) that are common to participants in the Braille
Challenge. However, some characteristics (academic locus of control) are rated as being more
present among Challenge participants than others (self-monitoring) (H1 partially supported).
 Parents support the assertion that participation in the Braille Challenge has a positive influence
on the child’s motivation for academic success (H2 supported).
 Teachers of students with visual impairments work to integrate motivational features of the
Braille Challenge into their own educational practice (H3 partially supported).
 Teachers support the assertion that participation in the Braille Challenge has a positive influence
on the student’s motivation for academic success (H4 supported).
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