MANAGING THE WATER QUALITY EFFECTS
FROM DENSELY POPULATED SETTLEMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA
L.A. Boyd*, M. Hinsch*, G. Quibell**
*Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Directorate: Water Quality Management, Private
Bag X313, Pretoria, South Africa, 0001. E-mail: tbg@dwaf.pwv.gov.za
and tba@dwaf.pwv.gov.za
**Carl Bro Group, Glostrup, Denmark. E-mail: tbc@dwaf.pwv.gov.za
ABSTRACT
Pollution from densely populated and often under serviced settlements is perhaps one of the most important pollution problems facing developing nations. It is known to have severe impacts on both community health and on the quality of nearby water resources. However, this is perhaps one of our most intractable problems. Pollution from poor areas is typically underlain by a complex interaction of social, political and institutional problems. Often, and especially in South Africa, the problem may also relate to a history of deprivation and misuse of the services. As such, this problem has not often been successfully and sustainably addressed.The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) embarked on a project, funded by the Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development (DANCED), to develop approaches for managing the water quality effects of settlements.
This paper describes the site specific participative problem identification process adopted.
This process is based on a generic understanding of the causes of pollution, which is then expanded by interaction with the community. The paper also describes the successes of this
‘structured-facilitated’ process in several test cases.
KEYWORDS
Pollution; developing communities; participative problem solving; sullage; solid waste; stormwater; sewage;
INTRODUCTION
Pollution from densely populated settlements is perhaps one of South Africa’s most important, but also most challenging problems. It has its roots in the socio-economic and political conditions in the settlement, and is affected by South Africa’s history of deprivation.
It affects not only the downstream water users but has its most important impacts on the community itself.
Managing the pollution from densely populated settlements is essential, as not only is it aesthetically unacceptable and detrimental to the environment, but is also a serious health hazard. According to the World Health Organisation poor water quality and failing sanitation is the leading cause of death in developing nations. The AIDS epidemic exacerbates the problem by decreasing the community resistance to disease. All spheres of Government therefore bear enormous costs in treating the associated diseases. In addition, pollution of the water resources means that downstream costs of water run to millions each year. It also adds another burden to already undercapacitated local governments. Previously South Africa has

concentrated on treating the symptoms instead of striving for a balance between prevention and cure.
The South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry therefore approached the
Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development (DANCED) to fund a study for the development of a national strategy to manage the water quality effects of settlements. Phase I of the study commenced in June 1997 with a bridging phase to refine the strategy between
May 1998 and January 1999. The objective of the study was not only to produce a document but also to test the product and then update where necessary and so phase II of the study commenced in January 1999.
THE APPROACH ADOPTED
Edition one of the National Strategy (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry,1999) highlights the approach taken to address the problem of pollution from settlements.
The reason for going for the approach that was taken came from the enormity of the problem.
Stakeholders did not know where to begin, however, it was noticed that there were generic problems but that they were also site specific. It was therefore decided to develop a method that would aid the community in identifying their own problems. The approach would however be structured around the generic problems. This was done by breaking the problem of pollution down into four waste streams viz. sewage, solid waste (litter), stormwater and sullage (grey water), making it easier to deal with.
Pollution problems result from the physical breakdown or lack of or underdesign of waste services most often associated with inadequate, or poorly functioning, services. These physical causes of water quality problems include inappropriate sanitation for the density of the settlement, no facilities to dispose of sullage, sewer blockages due to inappropriate design, and poor design of solid waste removal services. Encroachment onto, and destruction of the riparian zone, also impacts on the water environment and can be considered a physical problem.
The physical causes of pollution are however, situated within the social and institutional environment within the settlement. These exacerbate or directly cause the physical problems.
Important institutional concerns are a lack of funds within the Local Authority to address the problems, a lack of capacity to maintain the services, and the diversion of resources to other priorities. Social issues include non-payment or illegal use of services, vandalism and a lack of awareness with respect to the proper use of the services.
Pollution in settlements must be managed by addressing all three of these components. This requires addressing the physical factors which contribute to the problem, usually by direct intervention within one of the four waste streams, as well as the underlying institutional and social issues, usually by softer intervention options like capacity building and education
However, each settlement is unique and in order to identify the pollution problems and their root causes, the approach taken was to promote structured dialogue with the community, local authority and service provider. The process used has been termed the structured facilitated process, is similar to the PHAST and RRA processes, and involves extensive questioning around each waste stream until the root causes of the problem are identified.
From these questions and answers a problem tree can be prepared. An example problem tree can be seen in Figure 1.

BUSH TOILETTING
SOLID WASTE
CLOGS PUMPS
VIP’S FULL
CAN’T BE EMPTIED
NO SERVICE
PROVIDER
SEATS BROKEN
VANDALISM
COMMUNITY PUTS
WASTE IN PITS
NO PAYMENT
LACK OF
OWNERSHIP
Figure 1. An example of a problem tree
Once the problem tree has been drawn up interventions can be considered. However, before the root causes can be considered, the physical problems must be solved. In the above example, the toilets should either be emptied and seats repaired or replaced before dealing with the underlying causes of putting litter into the toilet, and taking ownership and payment for services.
As a whole the approach used yields management practices aimed at both the physical issues and the root causes both in the community behaviour as well as in the institutional capacity.
The process of interaction itself yields results irrespective of the outcome.
DOES THE APPROACH WORK?
The following examples from two of the test cases indicate the success of the approach.
The Nylstroom Test case
The settlement of Phagameng is situated in the town of Nylstroom, upstream of the Nylsvley
RAMSAR site.
The problem tree developed for the solid waste problem in this settlement is seen in Figure 2.
Pesticides and litter were polluting the Nyl River. The reason for this being that a canal flowing past the settlement was being blocked by litter thrown into the canal. Stagnant water caused the outbreak of mosquitoes and pesticides were then used to eradicate the mosquitoes.
Litter was thrown into the canal as there were no skips or bins. In order to deal with the physical issues, a once off clean up of the canal was undertaken by members of the community and bags collected by the local authority. Skips were purchased and strategically placed and awareness campaigns could then be run to deal with the social and institutional issues.
POLLUTION OF THE NYL RIVER

PESTICIDES USED
IN CANAL
STAGNANT WATER
LITTER DUMPED INTO
CANAL
LITTER AND DEAD
PLANTS CLOG CANAL
NO SKIPS/BINS LACK OF
AWARENESS
NO PROTECTION OF
BANKS
Figure 2. Solid Waste problem Tree for the settlement of Phagameng, Nylstroom.
The question to ask is whether this is a sustainable solution. To date it appears to be working.
The community is using the skips and the local authority is now emptying them routinely. The canal is also being cleaned on a monthly basis by the local authority and community members living along the canal are held responsible for any litter in their area of canal.
Regular site visits and photographs have indicated that the community and local authority are working together to improve and sustain the solid waste problem.
The Kliptown Test Case
The Freedom Charter Square informal settlement in Kliptown is one of the oldest settlements in the Gauteng Province and is the site of the historic signing of the Freedom Charter, one of the founding documents of the African National Congress, at the Congress of People on the
26 th
June 1955.
The community of Freedom Charter Square is an integral society in an area west of Kliptown station and railway, bordered by the Klipspruit on the west. There are an approximately 2700 dwellings with an estimated population of over 15 000. Originally brick houses with services, i.e. water supply and pail-type sanitation were the only houses in the area but in the 1980’s these services became inadequate when the area became more densely occupied by informal residents. Typical dwellings are now informal with cladding of a variety of sorts and densely packed with pedestrian lanes between houses. There are a few unsurfaced roads through the area, some of which were the original roads of Kliptown. The Local Authority has provided an estimated 252 fibreglass type bucket system toilets and standpipes are located throughout part of the area to supply water.

Apart from the inadequacy of the number of standpipes and the locality of them, there is a complete lack of drainage facilities for the water from these taps. Household sullage is discarded into the roads, and washing occurs in the streets at the taps.
Photographs showing women doing washing at a standpipe with pigs digging in the same sullage stream and a typical fibreglass bucket system toilet.
Drainage from the standpipes is onto unpaved roads and puddles, and channels form in these roads as the water travels over the surface down to the Klipspruit. The water is polluted with soap, dirt, food waste and animal faeces and there is the possibility of leakage from the chemical toilets into these streams. Analysis of the sullage has indicated values of faecal coli as high as 600 000/100mℓ. There is therefore a health danger as well as an access problem for the elderly and small children across the streamlets. Some attempt has been made to put in storm pipes and channels where access is required over the channels. The channels nevertheless suffer blockages, especially at the lower end at the Klipspruit.
The water flows into the reed beds in the Klipspruit and spreads out within a few metres of entering. Due to the lack of toilets bush toiletting is evident and there are signs of pollution and mud and smells emanating from the banks of the spruit.
Before the start of this project water meter readings in the settlement were not being taken however, the Local Authority was approached and meter readings were taken in order to ascertain the volumes of potable water entering the settlement. It is presently in the order of

120,7 m
3
/d. Considering the activities taking place with respect to the standpipes being used, an approximate volume of 90.52 m
3
/d of polluted water reaches the river daily.
Chemical and microbiological analyses were done on the sullage streams and Table 1 indicates the loads of pollution.
Table 1. Average pollution loads entering the Klip River from the Freedom Charter Square informal settlement.
Analysis
Typical Faecal coli/100ml
COD (mg/l)
Suspended Solids (mg/l)
Free and Saline Ammonia (mg/l)
Conductivity (mS/m)
Ortho-phosphate (mg/l)
Sodium (mg/l)
Sulphate (mg/l)
Fluoride *(mg/l)
TDS (mg/l)
Average
3020 – 600 000
62
59
34
110
1.9
96
112
0.24
660
Load(kg/d)
-
5612.2
5340.7
3077.7
-
172
8689.9
10138.2
21.72
59743.2
Considering ammonia, which has a Target Water Quality Range (TWQR) of < 7μgN/  in terms of the South African Water Quality Guidelines for aquatic ecosystems (DWAF, 1996), the importance of redirecting the sullage stream is very clear. A biological nutrient removal plant will discharge ammonia concentrations of well below 1mg/l. Taking this into consideration, the load of ammonia presently being discharged to the river on a daily basis is equivalent to that of a:
 3 Ml/d STW discharging an ammonia concentration of 1mg/l (special standard)
 30 Ml/d STW discharging an ammonia concentration of 0.1mg/l – achieved by
BNR plants working well
 300 Ml/d STW discharging an ammonia concentration of 0,01mg/l – achieved by BNR processes achieving complete denitrification.
While the load of phosphate being discharged is equivalent only to a 344 m discharging at 0.5 mg/l or a 172 m
3
3 /d STW’s
/d STW’s discharging at 1mg/l the contribution it may have on the nutrient enrichment in the resource should not be minimised.
Diversion of this pollution source was therefore essential, not only in terms of the ecological disaster but also in terms of the community’s health.
The Solution to the Sullage problem. The suggested intervention included the installation of concrete aprons, grids and wash troughs at 50 points of 50mm drain pipes from central taps as well as some 100mm diameter collector pipes. Stormwater pipes of 200mm diameter would be used under drives, roads, and in other areas where there is otherwise a stormwater problem.
In order to involve the community as much as possible members of the community were trained on site in trench digging, laying of PVC water pipes as well as concrete handling and placing for the construction of the wash slabs.

Photographs showing community members being trained in trench digging and concrete throwing.
Photographs showing trenches being dug and pipes laid and covered.
The construction of the wash slabs and connection to the sewer is expected to be complete before June 2001 and community members will then take responsibility for maintaining the system to ensure sustainability.
Another important aspect of the project that will help to ensure sustainability is the running of awareness campaigns. Once again the community have been trained so that they are able to run workshops just inviting certain speakers when necessary. While the construction carries on the workshops are being held to capacitate the community in the reasons for installing the drains and how they should be used and maintained.
MONITORING OF THE PROJECT
As mentioned previously monitoring of the test cases is also very important and various options are being used which include:
 Quality of water resources being impacted by the settlement


Quantity of water/sullage being discharged to the river in terms of load
Workshops

Number of workshops held



Who was involved

How many people (approximately) would the workshop have reached either directly or indirectly?
Photographic monitoring

Ongoing at the specific bad spots identified
CONCLUSIONS
A number of issues are considered to be critical to ensure the sustainable implementation of procedures to manage the water quality effects of settlements. Of great importance is the balance that must be found, on the one hand to protect the water resource and on the other hand to rapidly develop, service and upgrade settlements.
The basic approach recommended is that the levels of service, management practices and interventions should be appropriate for the size and density of the settlement, and for the receiving water class. In this respect care should be taken not to recommend services that will not be maintained or operated effectively – this is however still a very controversial topic. Management in any settlement must focus on the physical, social and institutional factors that contribute to the water quality effects of dense settlements and on the processes that result in the production and delivery of waste in settlements, and on the relevant waste streams.
The structured-facilitated process should be used to determine which management practices, services and interventions are viable for the settlement and essential to this is dialogue between the DWAF, affected communities and local and provincial government.
Capacity and awareness building, and community participation is critical to the sustainability of the management practices. In many cases little or no physical intervention may be needed, and management could focus predominantly on the “softer” issues, however, a holistic approach to the problem in terms of both physical interventions and capacity and awareness building is critical.
REFERENCES
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. (1999). Managing the Water Quality Effects of settlements. The National Strategy. First edition. Policy Document U1.1.
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. (1996). South African Water Quality Guidelines,
Volume 7, Aquatic Ecosystems.
First Edition.