Jagoda Dworek
Discursive reproduction of
racial attitudes, whitening
and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
Culture, Communication and Globalization
Aalborg University
May, 2010
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes,
whitening and whiteness dominance in media
texts in Peru
Number of pages: 601
Number of characters:147 000
Supervisor: Pablo Cristoffanini
Declaration of Authorship
I absolutely certify that this project is
the result of my own work.
………………………
Jagoda Dworek
1
The total page count includes footnotes and endnotes, but does not include the bibliography, the
appendixes, pictures, the table of contents and the title pages
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
Abstract
Key words: whiteness, whitening, consumerism, media, racism, Latin America, Peru,
discourse analysis, semiotics
Non-white countries constitute three-quarters of the planet (Probyn, 2005). Even
though dark skinned inhabitants outnumber the population, among them there still exists a
prevalent notion of whiteness superiority.. As far as approaches toward whitening differ
across the world depending on social milieu, contemporary trends and historical and
cultural heritage, the main question which constitutes the axis of further divagations is
what is the function of media texts in social construction (and reproduction of whiteness
dominance, whitening and racial attitudes) in the Peruvian social and cultural
environment Therefore, thesis aims to find out what impact mass media play in the
reinforcement and reproduction of the notion of whitening and whiteness dominance; the
purpose is to estimate in which direction the relation goes: does the media construct the
reality or the social reality affect and determine the media texts?
Realizing the prevalent importance of iconography in Peruvian social construction
(from the Nazca’ lines to recent advertisements) one decided to analyze the media texts’
(six sample advertisements’) influence, discursive reproduction of racial attitudes and
notion of skin color by and its consequences for the society. These advertisements are not
just about aesthetic preferences, but also, while considering in a wider context, reveal
implicit statements. These demand an active approach to the interpretation process.
It is essential to clarify the four key terms used in the paper, not only because of
their incidence, but also because of their importance. These terms are: racism,
whitening/lightening, whiteness/paleness and role of (mass) media and advertisements.
Separate section is dedicated for getting a deeper insight into Latin American (particularly
Peruvian) social structure. In Latin America issue of racism has always been sensitive and
complicated. The standpoint for this subsection is that every nation which through had
experienced the slavery period, couldn’t remain untouched by thorough scars. For
centuries all white was associated with civilization, development and refinement. On the
opposite all that had to do with darker people was stereotypically linked to barbarism,
laziness and primitivism. In consequence, a specific notion of docility and racial
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
exploitation has been established. Colonial representations are still alive which can be
seen in casta hierarchy (Reding, 2007:165). In Latin America person’s race (in a
symbolical way) can change to a big extent during the lifetime –from being Negro, to
being “cultural white” (González Manrique, 2006). Popular Brazilian proverb “el dinero
clarea...” (money cleans) (Reding, 2007:160) reveals the way of social promotion. That is
closely connected with consumerism – as the way in which Latin countries adopt
themselves to the dynamic world and global trends.
Regarding to methodological approach, one combined discourse analysis with
semiotics. This unique combination is a consequence of student’s assumption that
universal psychological structures in a certain sociocultural milieu take a certain form and
are revealed in the world of signs. Signs reflect certain set of implicit meanings and
underlying messages about the society. Student designed a three-step interpretation
process. First, she wants to conduct textual analysis of the image, applying five key areas
to discuss media text suggested by Selby and Cowdery. Secondly, Barhtes’ terms and
approach toward the interpretation process will be employed. After that, treating semiotic
analysis as a standpoint, one wants to employ DA categories and finally reflect achieved
results to sociocultual and historical contexts.
Thesis gives a detailed insight into Peruvian social construction and reveals latent
messages about the dynamics (expressed in notion of whiteness, lightening and whiteness
dominance) and directions of racial attitudes in the face of consumerism and
globalization. The paper in a logical way shows how advertisements reinforce the notion
of whiteness dominance by personalizing the ideology, referring to social and cultural
milieu, contrasting the myth of Western civilization with the discursive representation of
Latin legacy, reinforcing the twofold construction of the society (us vs them),
constructing self and social identity and setting standards for cultural whitening of
lifestyles and atmosphere.
Eventually, the paper gives the readers an analytical vision of the future trends and
further dynamics of the situation and the process of discursive reproduction of racial
attitudes in the region.
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
Table of contents
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 7
1.1. Problem Area ......................................................................................................................... 7
1.2. Reasons for Dealing with the Topic ...................................................................................... 8
2. Theoretical framework ............................................................................................................... 10
2.1. Racism ................................................................................................................................. 10
2.1.1. Colorism ....................................................................................................................... 12
2.2. Whiteness and the Whiteness Theories ............................................................................... 13
2.3. Skin Whitening .................................................................................................................... 14
2.3.1. Bleaching Syndrome .................................................................................................... 16
2.3.2. Gender .......................................................................................................................... 16
2.4. Stereotypes – Psychological Approach ............................................................................... 17
2.4.1. “Us” vs “Them” ............................................................................................................ 18
2.5. Tanning and the “Bronze Skin” Phenomena ....................................................................... 19
2.6. Mass Media (in the context of racism and whiteness dominance) ...................................... 20
2.6.1. Advertisements (in the context of racism and whiteness dominance) .......................... 21
3. Latin America societies (particularly Peru) ................................................................................ 23
3.1. Social structure .................................................................................................................... 23
3.1.1. Consumerism in Latin America .................................................................................... 25
3.2. Racism and Notion of Skin Color ....................................................................................... 26
3.3. Peru...................................................................................................................................... 27
4. Reflections About Method ......................................................................................................... 30
4.1. Methodology, Epistemology, Ontology .............................................................................. 30
4.1.1. Method.......................................................................................................................... 31
4.2. Semiotics as a Method ......................................................................................................... 32
4.2.1. Five Key Areas to Discuss a Media Text ..................................................................... 33
4.2.2. Linguistic Message ....................................................................................................... 34
4.2.3. Coded Iconic Message .................................................................................................. 35
4.2.4. Non Coded Iconic Message .......................................................................................... 35
4.2.5. The Rhetoric of the Image ............................................................................................ 36
4.2.6. Myth ............................................................................................................................ 36
4.3. Discourse Analysis as a Method.......................................................................................... 37
4.3.1. Power, Elites, Dominance and Control ........................................................................ 38
4.3.2. Surface and Deep Structures ........................................................................................ 38
4.4. Design of the Thesis ............................................................................................................ 40
4.5. Sample Analysis .................................................................................................................. 40
4.5.1. Sources ......................................................................................................................... 40
4.5.1.1. Advertisement and Discourse .................................................................................... 41
4.5.1.2. Advertisement and Semiotics .................................................................................... 41
4.5.2. Ethical Consideration ................................................................................................... 42
5. Analysis ...................................................................................................................................... 43
5.1. Empirical Data ..................................................................................................................... 43
5.1.1. Technique of Analysis .................................................................................................. 49
5.1.2. Why These Empirical Data Were Chosen? .................................................................. 49
5.1.3. What is Being Advertised? ........................................................................................... 51
Surface Structures........................................................................................................................... 52
5.2. Straight-forward Reading of the Image ............................................................................... 52
5.3. Models – Subjects of the Campaigns .................................................................................. 52
5.3.1. Ideal of the Beauty........................................................................................................ 53
5.3.2. Dress Code.................................................................................................................... 54
5.3.3. Non-verbal Communication ......................................................................................... 55
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
5.4. Composition ........................................................................................................................ 56
5.4.1. Distance and Notion of Purity of the Blood ................................................................. 56
5.4.2. Color Code ................................................................................................................... 57
5.5. Logo .................................................................................................................................... 58
5.6. Linguistic Message ............................................................................................................. 58
5.7. Audience ............................................................................................................................. 60
5.7.1. ‘Preferred Readers’ - Target Audience ........................................................................ 60
5.7.1.1. Gender and Age ........................................................................................................ 62
5.7.1.2. Mode of addressing ................................................................................................... 63
4.7.2. General Public .............................................................................................................. 64
5.7.3. Psychographic Variable ............................................................................................... 65
5.7.4. Lifestyle Marketing ...................................................................................................... 66
5.8. Producers and Manifestation of Colorism .......................................................................... 67
Deep Structures .............................................................................................................................. 67
5.9. Discourses Identified .......................................................................................................... 67
5.10. Myths and Rhetoric of the Images .................................................................................... 69
5.10.1. Myth of Whiteness ..................................................................................................... 70
5.10.2. West versus Indigenous ............................................................................................. 70
5.10.3. Whitening of the Atmosphere .................................................................................... 71
5.11. Vicious Circle ................................................................................................................... 71
5.12. Twofold Construction of the Society and its’ Discursive Reproduction .......................... 72
6. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 74
6.1. Prospects ............................................................................................................................. 76
7. Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 78
Table of figures, pictures and tables
Figure 1. Theoretical Location of the Concept of Colorism…………………………………….. 12
Figure 2. Three-step Method of Analysis..……………………………………………………..... 32
Figure 3. Model of Discourse Structures…………………………………...……………………. 39
Figure 4. Step-by-step Graphical Model of the Thesis Design …………..……………………... 40
Table 1. List of Sample Materials for Analysis……………………..…………………………….43
Pictures A1 – A6……………………………………………………………………………....44-48
Picture 1. the Logo………...………………………………...……………………………………58
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
1. Introduction
1.1. Problem Area
Non-white countries constitute three-quarters of the planet (Probyn, 2005). Even
though dark skinned inhabitants outnumber the population, among them there still exists a
prevalent notion of whiteness superiority. The point is that “their continued preference for
contrasting light skin is a testament to the impact of dominance upon human psyche”
(Hall, 1995: 180).
The thesis will deal with the issue of racial approaches, skin lightening and whiteness
dominance in media texts in Latin America, in the case of Peru. The paper will consider
the topics of racial attitudes and notion of skin color and its discursive reproduction by
and its consequences for the society. Approaches toward whitening differ across the
world depending on social and political milieu, contemporary trends as well as historical
and cultural heritage. The best example of this is the notion of “bronze skin” phenomena
in West Europe2. That causes a paradox with those of darker complexion seeking to be
whiter, while the fair-skinned population seeks to be darker.
As the standpoint, the student has applied discursive theories which are concerned
with the ways in which language, mass media and symbols influence meanings. In the
analysis, one examines ways in which discourses conducive whiteness as the invisible
norm and how perception is shaped by manipulation of symbols, (visual and textual)
messages and myths (Thompson, 2001). Emphasis will be put mostly on signs, thus
semiotics approach has been employed. The clue is to consider media texts and its
attributes (signs, textual messages, composition, colors etc), the meanings which these
carry and their impact on social and identity creation.
Basing on discourse analysis and semiotics, one wants to analyze certain media texts
from recent advertisements and promotional campaigns, as exemplifications of social and
psychological approaches and ideological tendencies. The point is that these
advertisements are not just about aesthetic preferences, but also, while considering in a
wider sociocultural and historical context, reveal implicit statements. By answering the
question about how Peruvian identity is articulated by consumption of sample
By „West countries” I understand all dominantly white countries – Europeans, Americans, Canadians, and
Australians
2
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
advertisements and campaigns, one wants to verify Johansson’s statement, which claims
that “White (...) is now also used to construct identity in a globalized culture” (Johansson,
1998:64). Thesis aims to catch the nature of racial dynamics (expressed in notion of
whiteness, skin lightening and white dominance) in Peruvian society in the face of
consumerism.
Regarding to certain media texts one wants to focus on the major question, which is
oriented around the category of dominance: what role do the images play “in the
development, reinforcement, legitimization, and hence reproduction” (Van Dijk,
1992:92-93) of whiteness dominance, whitening and racial attitudes? More broadly
one wants to find out what is the function of media texts in social construction in the
certain social and cultural environment and in which direction the relation goes: does the
media construct the reality or the social reality affect and determine the media texts?
One wants to explore how in Latin American societies, specifically in Peru,
through the sample promotional campaigns, notion of (skin) lightening and whiteness
dominance are created and articulated. Main goal is to estimate discursive reproduction of
racial attitudes in media texts in Peru. Thesis, in a wider context, divulge potential
meanings and functions of lighter skin in creating identity of “us” / “self” in opposition to
“them” / “others” and its relationships with class, gender and race.
Eventually, the analysis would give the readers the analytical vision of the future
trends and further dynamics of the situation and the process of discursive reproduction of
racial attitudes in the considered region.
1.2. Reasons for Dealing with the Topic
Carol Gracias, a famous Indian supermodel once commented to herself: “A
majority of people in our country are dark-skinned. And most products are targeted at
them. So, why do people want to use only fair girls in ads?’’ (Nair, 2003). That is the
question student3 was asking herself every time she was passing a huge billboard on the
corner of Salevery Avenue and San Felipe Street in Lima. The reason for dealing with the
problem is to get a better understanding of motives for whiteness dominance and implicit
messages about Peruvian and Latin American societies and get a better insight into their
values and social construction of whiteness in this particular context.
3
”Student” refears to the author of the paper
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
In the area of racism, colorism and skin color changing there are many studies
regarding Asia and Africa, and, comparing to that, there is a relatively small amount of
scientific reflections on Latin America. What is more, in sociological reflections about
race, “the issue of skin color tends to get short shrift” (McClain DaCosta, 2005:12). Thus
the aim is to complement the existing academic discussion.
Last but not least, one wants the thesis to be a provocative point that will give
readers a pause for thought about racism, colorism and dynamics in Latin American
societies (also in relation to European perception of skin tone –the fact is that in Europe
there is little reflection on racial issues, thus a deeper consideration is needed).
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
2. Theoretical framework
At the very beginning of the theory section it is essential to clarify the four key
terms used in the paper, not only because of their incidence, but also because of their
importance. These terms are: racism, whitening/lightening, whiteness/paleness and
(mass) media. Separate section will be dedicated for introduction into Latin American
social structure and racial issues (particularly Peru).
2.1. Racism
Racism is discrimination based on racial group. According to the MerriamWebster's Dictionary, it is a belief that race is the primary determinant of human
capacities and that racial differences produce an inseparable dominance of a particular
racial group. Racism is also the prejudice based on such a belief (Merriam-Webster's
Dictionary, 2010). Legal definition of racism, according to the United Nations
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, states:
the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction
or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which
has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or
exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the
political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life (UN, 1966).
Racism is much more than individual approach (Reding, 2007:158). Racism is an
effect of discrimination practiced by authority regimes of certain class defined by its
outward characteristics and cultural importance (in Latin America incidentally
characteristics of white Europeans). Racism is an excuse which justify despotic
dominance of ones over others (Reding, 2007:161). One has to realize that racism it is not
just a discrimination of Black, but also of Indians (Reding, 2007:169) and other ethnic
and racial groups. Thus, it’s not sharply outlined phenomena and its divisions are really
subtle. Racism is a social belief that some natural differences are associated with
existence or lack of certain capacities or features which are socially important and that
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
these differences are the base to establish distinct injustice barriers between social groups
which are called races (Berghe, 1971:29 in Reding, 2007:159).
Normative evaluation of one’s complexion tone is sometimes related to history of
racial domination (Herring & Keith in McClain DaCosta, 2005:13). Racism in academic
discussions is automatically associated with white dominance and supremacy. White is a
racial category which affects and shapes individual and social life. White is an indicator
of power which arrange the reality of racial experiences (Malik, 2007:13). Thus, notion of
a fair skin tone has to do with racial supremacy and colonial mentality. Fair skin and race
are roots for categorization and the hierarchisation of the society. Light skin is related to
privilege and access to resources and opportunities (Malik, 2007:8-10). “That’s in
addition to the obvious association between caste and intrinsic skin shade.” (Sepia
Mutiny, 2007).
According to this topic, Singer and Kimbles employed the term “cordial
racism”4. It can be defined as a cultural stereotype (Singer & Kimbles, 2004 in Boechat,
2009), revealed by culturally unconscious society members. This stereotype reveals in a
subtle form in social relations. It is not about cruel manifestations or direct persecutions,
but delicate, sometimes even unconsciously made and slightly noticed behaviors,
opinions and digressions. The cordial racism is distinctly manifested in social inequality
and concentration of incomes. Notably, this theoretical construct doesn’t concern just one
nation, but also other multicultural societies, Latin American included (Boechat, 2009).
Other author presents another typology of racism. There are two types of racism:
Anglo-Saxon and Latin. The former one is in its nature more fixed and defined to
concrete separated persons and places. The latter, concealed with social prejudices, is not
based on person’s origin but on one’s skin color (Boechat, 2009). That explains the fact
that there is a basic difference between understanding of race in U.S. and in Latin
America. This difference lies in dissimilar assumption: “in the U.S., racial distinction is
based mostly on individual’s genotype (ancestry), while in Latin America it is predicated
largely on individual’s phenotype (physical characteristics)” (Goldsmith et al., 2006:242).
However, recent surveys partly subverted this statement and show that racial distinction
in Latin countries depends also on individual’s ancestry and their racial identity
(Goldsmith et al., 2006:243).
4
which refers to typical for Brazilian society prejudices
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
Another distinction takes into account different levels of comprehension.
According to this criteria, there are two levels of racism. On the macro level, racism is
understood as a structure of ethnic group dominance and superiority, while on the micro
level racism is a daily discriminatory behavior and procedure (Van Dijk, 1992:98 ). The
former reveals itself on national level, when whole society is taken into account, while the
latter is inaccessible from the higher level of social interpretation – it reveals in basic
ordinary social situations and its presence lies in the sphere of individual interpretation.
2.1.1. Colorism
Racism is a general trend – it is about discrimination because of various
characteristics, both external (pheneotype) and latent (like beliefs, convictions). Thus,
within racism one can distinguish many divisions. Colorism is more specified and
sophisticated strain of racism, which focuses just on superficial aspects of human bodies
(such as skin color). Therefore, according to Goldsmith categories, colorism can be
identified with Latin racism (the one which focuses on person’s phenotype). Notion of
whiteness in Latin American countries is an example of colorism: supremacy is almost
automatically associated with lighter complexion, so external characteristic is an
indication of superiority.
Figure 1: Theoretical Location of the Concept of Colorism
Colorism, in its simplest definition, is a discrimination based on the skin tone.
Colorism is a more concrete form of racism, which is also defined as “discriminatory
treatment of individuals falling within the same ‘racial’ group on the basis of skin color”
(Herring & Keith in Yancey, 2004). The term usually is used for the phenomenon of non12
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
white persons discriminating by those who are lighter (not necessary white) within their
own ethnic groups (The Free Dictionary, 2010). There is a great importance that world
attaches to skin color (Henshel, 1971:734 ). Skin color has so much importance, because
it “is immediately and undeniably verifiable on sight” (Hall, 1995:176). It’s a feature,
which can not be hidden from others’ sight, and influences to an enormous extent a first
impression one is making and, in consequence, affects one’s self-identity. The standpoint
for this statement is that identity is not just how person sees himself but also how he or
she is seen by others. In this context another function of skin color is that it serves for
stratification – that means that it is a power which allocates people in the social hierarchy.
One brings this theme at this point (in relation to racism), because the desire for
the white skin can be explained in the context of colorism theoretical backdrop (Malik,
2007:3). Colorism signifies that lighter skin shades are favored and more desirable than
darker skin tones. Many cultures experience some kind of colorism in their ordinary lives
(Jones, 2004, in: Malik, 2007:5). Thus, in the thesis, term “Latin racism” will be
alternately applied with term “colorism”.
2.2. Whiteness and the Whiteness Theories
Whiteness
As it was said before, notion of a fair skin tone has to do with racial supremacy
and colonial mentality. Fairness of the skin is associated with wealth and desirability, is a
synonym of grace and nobility (Leong, 2006:167). Obtaining lighter complexion is
regarded as a social and economic step up (Luce & Merchant, 2003, in: Karnani, 2007:6).
The desire toward whitening affects all social classes in the central Africa region. White
skin is an sign of the status (Prensamujer.com, 2010). It is also an universal value (Hall,
1995:179). Whiteness
is a social and discursive construction (Moreton-Robinson,
2004:vii in Probyn, 2005) Whiteness is a normalized category, which is instinctively
“taken for granted and therefore invisible” and therefore not treated as a race (Thompson,
2001).
“Conceived of a legal or cultural property, whiteness can be seen to provide
material and symbolic privilege to whites, those passing as white, and sometimes
honorary whites” (Thompson, 2001). By symbolic privilege of whiteness, one means
notion of beauty and intelligence identified with whiteness, which in the same time in an
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
implicit way exclude blackness and darkness. It is not just Eurocentrism, because, besides
glorifying European-based values (whiteness included), it involves devaluation of nonwhites (Thompson, 2001).
Whiteness Theories
In the field of whiteness theory, whiteness is understood not as a biological
construction but as a social category. There are many differences in theoretical focus
toward whiteness. Thompson enumerates four main groups of whiteness theories:
- material theories – which are about whites that access tangible privileges;
- discursive theories –concerned with the ways in which language, mass media and
symbols influence meanings. These theories examine ways in which discourses
conducive whiteness as the invisible norm;
- institutional theories – which examine formal and symbolic systems and their
consequences;
- personal / relational theories, which focus ways in which privileging mechanisms
work in psychological or identity spheres. (Thompson, 2001)
In searching for the deeper insight into the problem of discourse reproduction of
skin lightening, whiteness dominance and racial attitudes, the student decided to approach
the research area from a second angle – that is to focus “on the way that taken-for-granted
perception is organized and shaped by manipulations of symbols and binaries”, such as
antonyms: white-good versus black-worse (Thompson, 2001). The point is to consider
media texts and its attributes (signs, textual messages, composition, colors etc) and the
meanings which these carry.
2.3. Skin Whitening
As a consequence of
mentioned above attitudes to skin color,
all sorts of
‘treatments’ for achieving a desirable skin shades or improving an undesirable one
(Leong, 2006:167) have been introduced. The standpoint for this and the following
subsection is the fact that skin color is changeable by known methods, “it can be made
significantly lighter or darker, using different approaches” (Henshel, 1971:734).
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
Skin whitening is a controversial and complex contemporary issue5, which is not
just confined to the culture of one sub-continent (BBC, 2007). Skin bleaching is a
prevalent trend, which can be noted, to the biggest extent, in Africa, Asia and South
America. According to some, whitening is not a discriminatory practice, but “an essential
categorizing mechanism” (Leong, 2006:177). There are plenty of reasons for skin
whitening which, to some extent, have to do with construction of one’s identity in a
multicultural society (Charles, 2003). As a result, in recent decades skin lightening
products are growing in popularity (Johnson, 2007). Following data seem to confirm this
statement:
-
According to the Harper’s Magazine “the number of new skin-whitening products
that have been introduced to Asian and Pacific markets exceeds one-hundred and
eighty-nine since 2002. The annual growth rate of fairness products market is
estimated on 10 to 15 % just in Asia” (Challapalli, 2002),
-
One- third of Hong Kong women have used some sort of skin whitening products
(Leong, 2006:169),
-
“Fair & Lovely”, the leading bleaching brand in Indian cosmetic market, has a 27
million loyal customer base (Karnani, 2007:3 ),
-
the most recent data (October 2009) from the In-Cosmetics, Asian skin whitening
market is worth 13 billions euro (Montague-Jones, 2009).
The potential of the market is even bigger. The industry has recently broadened its
scope and now directs its products not exclusively just for women, but also for males
(Sepia Mutiny, 2007).
Goon and Crave make a point that skin lightening customs are rooted in colonial,
cultural and historical contexts (Goon & Crave, 2003 in Malik, 2007:4). Leong confirms
this statement, saying that the whitening notion is conformed to the sociocultural and
historical context, “where ‘white’ people have consistently belonged to higher social
classes, both in the colonial era and now as expatriates” (Leong, 2006:172).
5
One has to realize that the history of skin bleaching cosmetics and trend toward changing skin color seems
to be as long as the history of the mankind. More than 3,500 years ago Charaka wrote about herbs and
recipes that could lighten the skin (Sinha, 2000). Skin whitening cosmetics were used in ancient time, for
example by the Roman Emperor Nero and Poppaea (Montague-Jones Bird, 2009). The point is that
nowadays skin lightening practices have taken an unbelievably rapidly growing and developing turn – skin
whitening is coming into the mainstream.
15
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
The other side of the coin is that there is an evidence that skin whitening products
have serious mental, physical and emotional health implications (Malik, 2007:3).
Bleaching products are costly and in many cases, cause pain and harm and may even lead
to irreversible health hazards (Baxter, 2000; Dussault, 2006). These cosmetics cause
itching, burning, blistering and darker skin patches, skin irritation or even skin cancer
(Dussault, 2006). The problem complicates the fact that poorest people are the most at
risk, because the less expensive the product, the more perilous it is (Baxter, 2000). Some
of these products, which are available on the market, contain mercury and hydroquinone,
the damaging substances (Jenkins, 2001), some whitening products contain steroids
(Dussant, 2006). But, regardless of its alarming consequences and despite of many action
and educational campaigns against, whitening in some countries, like Mali, has reached
epidemic proportions (Baxter, 2000).
There is no scientific backing of the claims and no evidence or medical study which
confirm that these fairness cosmetics really work. “No externally applied cream can
change your skin colour” (Sinha, 2000) .There is no documented benefit of skin
whitening creams nor medical studies which interchangeably substantiate its effects
(Karnani, 2007:7 ).
2.3.1. Bleaching Syndrome
Hall introduces a term “bleaching syndrome” in relation to African Americans
who attempt to internalize white skin “(...) and other dominant culture criteria as the ideal
point of reference for full assimilation into American society” – namely for attractiveness
and matrimonial selection (Hall, 1995: 173). Logically, darker skin is perceived as
disagreeable and threatening (Hall, 1995: 178). But the syndrome and the preference for
lighter complexion is not just a case of African Americans. Stigmatization of one’s
features, such as skin color, arises “anywhere in the world where domination is the
preferred model of assimilation”. Bleaching syndrome is a cultural phenomenon, which is
a way of reducing psychic conflict. It is a manifestation of response for cultural
domination (Hall, 1995:172 ).
2.3.2. Gender
The privileges of lighter skin are real, but have different forms, depends on many
criteria, one of which is gender (Herring & Keith in McClain DaCosta, 2005:12). This
16
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statement confirms Malik, who says that preoccupation with skin color mainly affects
women (more than men) (Malik, 2007:10).
Whiteness is regarded as a marker of high social status and femininity (Leong,
2006:172), which is a consequence of the fact that “woman are still being subjected to a
Eurocentric ideal of beauty” (Malik, 2007:15). The notion of skin whitening is deeply
rooted in woman’s psyche and self-concept. Desire to the lighten skin tone is a result of
the self-hate and low self-esteem (Charles, 2003). For dark women, the skin tone affects
self esteem, but not self efficiency (Herring & Keith in McClain DaCosta, 2005:12).
Some women, because of being darker, suffer from an inferiority complex (Rita Patel in
BBC, 2007). It is a peer pressure, especially man’s expectations, which push women to
whitening (Jenkins, 2001).
Another aspect in the discussion is that, for example in India, on the matrimonial
market, a potential bride’s fair skin is evaluated as a more desirable feature than her
higher education (Dhillon, 2007; Dussault, 2006). Fair complexion brings not only
professional, but also a romantic success. It is evident that notion of attractiveness, which
is tied with females’ beauty, has an impact on marriages and matrimonial market (Hall,
1995:173 ).
In a context of the gender worth to mention that these are media [because of its
popularity and accessibility] which have mostly set influential standards of the women
beauty (Seck, 2009, see: 2.6.). Mass media contributes to the perception of light-skinned
women as more attractive, moral and sexually desired that darker ones (Ntambwe, 2004).
Global culture spreads universal ideas of beauty, which, deliberately or not, impose
perception of whiteness and white dominance.
2.4. Stereotypes – Psychological Approach
Psychological approach is included in the paper as an explanation and elucidation
of the concept of racial prejudices. In the introduction student made a point that racism is
a multidimensional phenomena and the researcher who is going to explore it, needs to
realize that the phenomena is both rooted in historical and cultural heritage as well as in
psychological structures – every person has an imprinted notion of dominance and
superiority (which are displayed in a form of prejudices and stereotypes, inculcated in
every person’s mind), which - under some historical and cultural circumstances – take on
the form of racial attitudes. That is why racism is not a psychological universal
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mechanism which every person experiences in a common way, but it is a phenomena
which, in a particular sociocultural milieu is supported or strengthened by both linguistics
and signs (and its representations). That is why one wants to focus merely on two
approaches: discourse and semiotics, keeping in mind psychological consequences and
connotations of the problem. The thing is that, to properly understand the nature of
investigated area of discursive reproduction of whiteness dominance and racism, better
comprehension of the question of stereotypes is needed. Only in this way one can go into
the process of data collection and case analysis.
Stereotype is an incomplete, partial image of every phenomenon which is born in
mind, consistently and authoritatively passed form generation to generation (Scott, 2005).
According to J. Bystroń, stereotype is a common representation, particularly permanent in
the tradition and cultural heritage (Bystroń, 1980). Stereotypes occur in every culture and
social group. As Brown notices, stereotypes are embedded in our culture and are
“conveyed and reproduced in all the usual socio-cultural ways (...)” (Brown, 1995). That
means that stereotypes in some way have been inculcated in every person’s minds by
their social and culture group. Stereotypes are so deeply rooted, that constitute a basis of
one’s philosophy of life.
2.4.1. “Us” vs “Them”
Stereotypes are connected with “us” and “them” / “others” antonyms. “Other” is a
person who’s bearing distinct set of values and who is in some way different from us.
“Other” in many cases means “worse” than people and phenomena we are not familiar
with. A negative stereotype reflects the characteristics of “them”, and by comparing it
with “my” features it is really hard to overcome the barrier constructed on this base.
Another aspect is that the dichotomy “us” and “them” is a method for social
categorization, which involves self-categorization as a group where one belongs. By
defining the “other” is easier to define “us” – “us” group is described by contrasting the
features of others. The effect called in-group favoritism appears (Stangor, 2004). That
affects social identity and causes tendency to evaluate one's own group positively in
comparison to other groups. Usually the problem is deeper – a pattern of stereotype is not
neutral and a stereotype has a negative connotation. This kind of stereotypes is called
prejudices. Prejudices involve “some negative sentiment directed towards a particular
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group of people, or at least representatives from that group” (Brown, 1995). It is a way
of perceiving others as morally reprehensible.
2.5. Tanning and the “Bronze Skin” Phenomena
“As with skin lighteners, mass adoption of a skin darkener would raise both
aesthetic and ideological issues. (...) we have the longstanding paradox that it is
considered aesthetically attractive for a person to be dark (or ‘tanned’), yet if the
natural color is too dark the person encounters racial prejudice.” (Henshel,
1971:740 )
Question of acceptance for skin darkening and lightening, once readily answerable
(“no” for the former, “yes” for the latter), nowadays is much more problematic (Henshel,
1971:736 ). In the past century the ‘bronze skin’ phenomenon has developed in the West.
This phenomena represents a contrary (to what was said above) notion of celebration of
tanned complexion. Lighter skin shades, in Western societies originally signified
prosperity and until 60s had a strong connotation of an elite and luxurious standard of
living. Then tan became a symbol of attractiveness and good health (Leong, 2006:168). In
U.S. history dark skin has been associated with masculinity, “because of the eroticization
of African slaves” (Sepia Mutiny, 2007). The truth is that technology and practices of
darkening are more effective that these of lightening (Henshel, 1971:741).
Paradox
However, while ‘bronze skin’ phenomenon changed the perception of paleness in
the West, the deep-seated belief in the natural virtue of paleness still prevails in many
parts of the world (Leong, 2006:168). The paradox of skin whitening / darkening in an
international perspective is not just a black-white dilemma. It can be found in various
societies (Henshel, 1971:742). White people aspire to achieve a perfect tan while others
undertake many, sometimes risky practices in order to lighten their complexions (Merck
Chemicals;2010; BBC, 2007). Tan skin is considered attractive and desirable amongst
white, because it gives a message that a person is likely strong, healthy, well-off and leads
an active and healthy lifestyle (in: Cooper, 2009). Trend toward bronzing skin is
perceived as parallel in the opposite direction to the whitening trend. (in: Leong,
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2006:177) “(…) through the history of oppressions and privilege based on skin color
seriously complicates the analogy.” (Cooper, 2009)
2.6. Mass Media (in the context of racism and whiteness dominance)
Any media product is a sum of a great variety of elements, such as: economic,
political, legal, technological, artistic, institutional and cultural.
In Latin America cable TV and the Internet are new channels via which global
consumer culture is being promoted (Cristoffanini, 2006:106). Mass media are perceived
as an external factor which dictate standards of beauty. There is something like
‘westernized’ standard of beauty (Leong, 2006:168). As Sheetal Mallar said, adverts have
always preferred light-skinned, light-eyed girls. Perceptions of the ideal of beauty go
deeper than skin colour (Nair, 2003) - it is a complex phenomena which goes behind
superficial structures. Asians have been fed by mainstream media with the concept of
beauty which bases on the fair skin color, which for the majority of the continent is not
even natural for them (Hossain, 2008). The representation of a female beauty is usually
based on ‘fair woman’ model. It has to do with the color complex, which “is the legacy of
a jumble of issues, colonialism, class, and a Hollywood culture that exports a whiteskinned, blond-haired ideal” (Vanessa Jones, 2004 in Malik, 2007:11). If a foreign visitor
in any Latin country relies only on the impression which local TV, beauty contests and
public adverts make, he probably will conclude that the country is inhabited by European
offspring – whites and with European look (González Manrique, 2006). But mass media
affects not just tourists - radio, and then television, have played a function in production
of national identity in relation to the modern culture (González Manrique, 2006). “The
images in the media depict a color complex that crosses cultural boundaries causing a
widespread global phenomenon” (Purkaystha, 2005 in Malik, 2007:14). That means that
color complex should be considered in a global contexts.
Mass media are portraying fairness as a sign of what is adorable and as a standard
for prettiness and competency (Ntambwe, 2004). Talking about Thailand, Dr.
Phuchareuyot makes a point that movie stars are pale, thus there is an omnipresent desire
to imitate them. According to her, darker complexion is a stigma (Kim, 2009). Some
researches put the blame of the popularity of skin whitening products, which in some
countries have reached the stage of plague, on media and the ways in which they promote
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“whiteness” and “fairness” as an object of desire, pure and admirable and enviable (Kim,
2009).
2.6.1. Advertisements (in the context of racism and whiteness dominance)
“In Hong Kong, a casual walk around the city will reveal the presence of fairskinned models in most advertisements for expensive products. (...) The recent
surge of skin – whitening products and advertisements for them are also good
examples to illustrate the phenomenon” (Leong, 2006:168).
In advertisement text the signification of the image is intentional. Certain
attributes and signs are consciously used in order to transmit a certain, set a priori
message, which meaning was chosen in advance (Barthes, 1964:270). This
purposefulness is particularly important in discursive reproduction of racism and
whiteness dominance in promotional media texts, such as advertisements and public
campaigns. It is enough to take a look at images presented in Latin-American’ mass
media to realize that racism infiltrates national projects of identity creation and attempts
of identity establishment. It is especially noticeable in Peruvian advertisements where
media texts use racial types in promoting luxury products such as major appliances,
touristic services or cars (Reding, 2007:161). To tout to the products, advertisements are
usually expensively produced, featuring ultra-light celebrities or super models, “and
presenting (and mixing) both traditional and westernized visual signifiers to evoke
atmospheres of purity, cleanliness and sophistication” (Leong, 2006:169). There are many
textual and visual signs, that put together, convey the message of whitening. Written text
of advertisement is a manifestation of the presumption of the whitening (Leong,
2006:171).
But, basing on the case of Kenya, Jenkins claims that adverts are giving a wrong
message to women (Jenkins, 2001). Author notices the impact of the TV and celebrities
on the process of skin bleaching: “If people who are leaders of opinion bleach
themselves, you can imagine how deep the problem is” (Baxter, 2000). Recent adverts are
insulting when they equate lighter complexion with success and beauty. As General
Secretary of the All India Democratic Women’s Association says, these are “highly racist
campaigns”. According to Indian authority, adverts of lightening creams and these which
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promote and equate fairness with success have a critical impact on Indian youths, by
polluting their mind with a wrong image of the reality (BBC, 2004). Advertisements
serve a message: “be fair or remain in dark oblivion”. Adverts make women insecure
about their looks. These tactics are commonly used, not only by the cosmetic industry
(Sepia Mutiny, 2007).
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3. Latin America societies (particularly Peru)
3.1. Social structure
“Latin America offers a wonderfully complex racial and ethnic landscape for (...)
observers, so familiar in its Eurocentred civilization and organization, so alien it
its complicated multiracial social structure” (Lombardi, 1991:875).
The standpoint for this subsection is that every nation which through centuries had
experienced the slavery period in its everyday routine life, couldn’t remain untouched by
thorough scars. It has to do with the fact that Latin America is the product of the conquest
and colonization of the natives by white Europeans. Later the same Europeans imported
black slaves from Africa to work in plantations. These whites imposed their institutions,
faith, language and culture upon the conquered inhabitants of the New Land. Spanish or
Portuguese were the languages of civilization, Christianity the only real religion. Later the
ideas of Enlightenment established this process: reason, science, logic were the privileges
of white people. For centuries all white was associated with civilization, development,
refinement and so on. On the opposite all that had to do with Indians, Latinos and Black
people was linked to barbarism, primitivism, laziness, lechery, brutality. In consequence,
a specific notion of docility and racial exploitation has been established. The
representation of “explored slave” and “exploring lord” has been stereotypized and
remains present in the pyramidal structure of social classes [not only] in Brazil (Boechat,
2009).
Social structure in Latin American countries is very hierarchical. There is an
obvious racial hierarchy in Latin societies, which stays in contrary to the idea of equality.
That is the common social complex (González Manrique, 2006). High and medium-high
social class consist 20 to 30 percent of Latin countries population (Cristofanini, 2006:97).
There is a link between skin color and one’s social class. In Latin America issue of racism
has always been sensitive and complicated. Legal solutions couldn’t resolve the problem
of racism, partly because the casta system, which authorize the hegemony and
subordination, remains in Latin American minds. It constitutes a justification for the
social dependency and inferiority (Reding, 2007:157-158). It is a fact that power elites in
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Latin America, who regard themselves as descendents of European people, and consider
people with Indian or afro phenotype as others – worse ones, not belonging the same
“race” or ethnic group. Members of upper social classes get accustomed to consumption
of sophisticated goods and services (Cristofanini, 2006:96).
Roots of this stratification, which has a lot to do with person’s skin color, reach
the period of abolition of the slavery (Boechat, 2009). There is an affirmation of white
skin superiority, both in theory and practice (Sartre, 1949: 208 in Reding, 2007:167). The
paradox is that the perception of one’s skin color depends on the point of view: for some
person can be seen as black, while for others one’s complexion is seen as metis
(mestizo6). In Latin America person’s race (in a symbolical way) can change to a big
extent during the lifetime –from being Negro, to being “cultural white”. The relation is
that the higher on the social ladder the person is, the whiter the person seems to be (and
other way around) (González Manrique, 2006). Popular Brazilian proverb “el dinero
clarea...” (money cleans) [“libreme Dios de cholo con mando, de negro con plata y de
blanco calato” in Peru, “el dinero blaquea”(Reding, 2007:160)] reveals the approach to
and a way of social promotion. Even so, the mobility on the social ladder is party limited
to one’s skin shade (Boechat, 2009). Still omnipresent is the anachronistic stereotype that
no-white groups are in some way subordinate to them and their social promotion is
possible only through entertainment (music or sport) channels (Boechat, 2009). Indians,
blacks (and to some extent mestizos) are stereotypically seen as poor, ignorant and lazy
ones. In a consequence, in the public sphere (especially in high economics and politics)
there is no place for Indians and Negros (González Manrique, 2006).
There is a Spanish phrase “Buena presencia” – “good presence”, which refers to
being white or pretending to be such, is inseparable required in order to obtain a good
well paid job (“Buena presencia” is openly required in job offers). This discrimination
can be seen in both public and private spheres – even on the family level (González
Manrique, 2006).
Summing up – racism is a product of historical heritage of colonialism. Racial
discriminations and prejudices are rooted in historical injustice (Reding, 2007:164).
Colonial representations are still alive which can be seen in casta hierarchy (Reding,
Metis (mestizo) is a person, who is “neither White, nor Indian, nor Black”, thus mestizo is perceived as
racially and culturally distinct from indigents. (González Manrique, 2006)
6
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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2007:165). Inequality is also traditionally grounded (González Manrique, 2006). Racism
in Latin America reveals colonial patterns, and “clarity of the blood” keeps on being the
obsession (Reding, 2007:179).
3.1.1. Consumerism in Latin America
Another feature which has developed over past 30 years in Latin countries is
growing notion of consumerism and consumer culture (Cristoffanini, 2006:92). To be
more precise, consumerism in the context should be understood as material and symbolic
culture which is rooted in Western societies, especially in North America (Cristoffanini,
2006:106). Consumerism is one of the most symptomatic and prevalent aspects of
globalization. Western consumer culture manifests itself in popularization and global
adaptation of practices, customs and mentality (Sterns in Cristoffanini, 2006:92). That is
why nowadays culture, consumption and globalization should be regarded together.
In a wider context one has to mention that in Latin America consumerism was
preceded by and has became so popular partly because failure of Christian democarcy,
marxist and humanistic ideologies in sixties and seventies (of 20th century) (Cristoffanini ,
2006:94). At the turn of eighties and nineties fall on many transformations, referred as
“revolución silenciosa” (silent revolution) (Lavín, 1987, in: Cristoffanini, 2006:95) which
revealed itself in the attempt (made by international organizations dominated by U.S. and
local elites) to introduce the neoliberal ideology. One of its’ effects is origin of americanlike shopping malls.
Shopping malls in Latin America play twofold function: generate incomes and
provide goods, but also are key points in the creation of consumerism approaches, helping
a person in construction of his/her identity and social recogniction. The point is that the
Latin societies became to regard consuption as a ”estrategia de avance social y realización
personal” (strategy of achieving social promotion and personal realization)
(Cristoffanini, 2006:96). Shopping malls have became a central subjects of new trends
toward consumption and consumerism. That has brought social and consumer
consequences, causing changes in the spheres of cumtoms, values, lifestyles and social
construction (Cristofanini, 2006:96). In Latin countries shopping mall ”actúa como
anclaje de seguridad y compensación psicológica” (plays a function of anchor for security
and psychological compensation) (Cristoffanini, 2006:100). That is even more visible
when contrasted with disorder prevailed outside, on the city streets and poorer districts.
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Appearance of shopping malls in Latin America has changed social life too.
People, especially young, ”van para ver y ser vistos” (go [to the shopping malls] to see
and to be seen) (Cristoffanini, 2006:102). Therefore, there are two types of consumers:
first are the poorest who visit the mass “to see” and to peep the consumer lifestyles. Other
group consists of the upper class members, who fully use (or can allow themselves to use)
all possibilities and services offered by the shopping malls (Cristoffanini, 2006: 105). In
consequence the malls have to address their promotional campaigns and respond to both
groups. That makes the social hierarchy and division even deeper and more visible.
Malls popularity in the region is also an effect of the fact that in Latin America the
notion of attractiveness of goods imported from more developed countries have always
been high (Cristoffanini, 2007:101). Attraction to what comes from abroad (primarily
from Europe, nowadays mostly from U.S.) (Cristoffanini, 2006:107) and fascination with
Western items associate these products with “(..) libertad de elección, abundancia,
riqueza, consumo, modernidad, coolness, eficiencia, higiene, limpieza, productividad,
etc” (freedom of choice, prosperity, expensiveness, consumption, modernity, coolness,
efficiency, hygiene, cleanliness, productivity etc) (Cristoffanini, 2007:101).
Besides its socilogical consequences (changing mentality, culture and social lives
of cities’ inhabitants), shopping malls have considerably changed the cities’ appearance
themselves (Cristofanini, 2006:98). Thus, malls affect both the material and symbolic
spheres.
3.2. Racism and Notion of Skin Color
Worth to remember that Latin America has never been a bi-racial nation (as U.S.).
From the beginning of its creation, Latin American’ nations have been characterized by
crossbreeding of human races; Latin societies display all range of skin colors and skin
tone shades. That is why the skin color is treated as an indicator and determinant of one’s
position in the social pyramid (Boechat, 2009). For Venezuelans race is not an “onedimensional individual characteristic”, it is rather one of plenty attributes to categorize
people on social and economic scale (Lombardi, 1991:875).
The issue of the skin color in Brazil is in fact the problem of social classes
(Boechat, 2009). Ecuador, Bolivia, Venezuela and Peru sustain the confrontation between
white elites and poor original inhabitants, mainly Indian and mestizos descents (González
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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
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Manrique, 2006). In the entire Latin America the issue of racism is a taboo, which
generates anxiety and feeling of danger. Multiracial Latin societies maintain the reality
marked by lack of confidence. In the public sphere, racist ideology is unacceptable, while
the ideology is prevalent on the covered hidden level, not legally
recognized and
rationalized (González Manrique, 2006). Authorities officially claim that racial practices
and discrimination because of one’s skin color is not formally practiced (González
Manrique, 2006). On the one hand, in an everyday life discrimination because of the skin
shade is a common practice.
As a Peruvian Internet portal, which provides information on skin whitening,
reveals, skin is an indicator of one’s lifestyle, self-perception and self-care (Teledata
Peru, 2010). There is a noticeable trend of “whitening” of the public spheres (like
restaurants, clinics and even universities etc), which means that the more expensive the
place is, the more whites one will meet. These places are reserved for these of fairer
complexion (Boechat, 2009). Whiteness is a general universal ambition and common
desire which sometimes becomes an obsession. The goal is to become the person
“blanca-mestiza”. There are many advertisements of whitening cosmetics, plastic and
aesthetic surgeries and special whitening treatments. That reveals the scale of the latent
racism. Racism is especially notably revealed in jokes, where under the cover of irony,
social approaches and ideology are revealed and openly articulated (González Manrique,
2006).
3.3. Peru
Peru, because of its social and cultural history, as well as its geographical location,
is a complex case. Peru geographically is divided into three main areas: coast (costa, 3000
km of deserts, beaches and ferities valleys, where Lima is situated), mountains (sierra –
region dominated by Andes) and the jungle (selva, corresponds with Amazonia).
Historically, Inkas’ kingdom was situated in the mountains, with the capitol on the peak
Machu Picchu. Sierra is inhabited mostly by Indians and indigenous Latinos. Most
indgenas (people of indigenous decent) speak Quechua and live in the highlands, some of
native indias inhabit the Lake Titicaca region and Amazon (Benson et al, 2007:43). Selva
is inhabited by tribes and original tribal inhabitants. Afro-Peruvians and Asians inhabit
mostly along the cost and make up just 3% of the Peruvian population (Benson et al,
2007:43).
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People who are living in these two regions (selva and sierra) are darker, while
whites and mestizos are living mostly on the cost. It is because, during the time of
colonization, communication trails and commerce centers were located close to ports and
the ocean. These two groups (costa-population and sierra and selva inhabitants) do not
have much in common. Mentality and life styles are different: while coast people lead
more European lifestyle, those who are living on the East from the coast, conduct more
traditional lives. It is also connected with the industry and trade distribution – majority of
the national commerce and business is located in the coast area and urban centers
especially in Lima.
Peru combines two Latin American trends: on the one hand there is a problem of
black slavery and existence of their descendants in the society. On the other hand there is
an emerging issue of indigenous inhabitants – Indians. That is another reason why the
case was chosen: within one society many social problems can be identified. That makes
Peruvian society a good exemplification of Latin American social situation.
Thus, there is a wide spectrum of races and ethnicities in Peru. In fact a variety
and socioeconomical and cultural diversion in Peru cause a great fear (Reding, 2007:171).
Peruvian society can be called bicultural, because it consists of two approximately samesized groups: indigenous and these who are not natives (Benson et al, 2007:43). However
the second group is not unique and consists of mestizos, Black, Asians and others. In
Peru indigent inhabitants (which are Indians) consist 50% of the whole population
(González Manrique, 2006).
This division is especially well-defined along class lines (Benson et al, 2007:43).
Because of that, racial visible attributes are considered as markers of power and indicators
of appurtenance to social classes (Reding, 2007:172). In Peru, there still exists a sharply
outlined social classification, where indigenous inhabitants are allocated at the bottom of
the social ladder (Blacker, 2008). “The more affluent urban class is made up largely of
whites and fair-skinned mestizos (…) – the latter of whom refer themselves as crillos
(natives of Peru)” (Benson et al, 2007:43). Upper positions are almost rigorously reserved
for Spanish descendants. Rich are very rich, poor are extremely poor – in fact there hasn’t
been formed so called “middle class”. Political and economical power stays in hands of
not numerous elites groups of whites and mestizos limeños (residents of Lima) (Blacker,
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2008). Other half of the Peruvian population mainly consists of peasants (campesinos)
(Benson et al, 2007:43).
It is out of doubt that exclusive elite groups exist in Peru. Discrimination has
became the order of the day – among elites, conservative ideas about race persist.
“Nonwhite people are sometimes discriminated against, especially in upmarket bars,
nightclubs and discos in Lima; less so elsewhere” (Benson et al, 2007:43). For example,
some elite bars or restaurants in Lima and some exclusive clubs in provinces are wellknown of refusing admission to non-whites (Blacker, 2008).
Terms, such as “Negro”, “Gringo”, “Chino” or “Cholo”, which express disdain,
are commonly in use (Blacker, 2008). Indigenous inhabitant of Peru is called with
pejorative term “cholo”, which is a person of mixed racial origin, especially mixed
European and Native American ancestry (Reding, 2007:169). In Peru, relations between
mestizos - metis (persons of mixed racial ancestry, of mixed indigenous and Spanish
decents) and the others create stereotypes in many different spheres, which in all give a
complex picture of a multicultural and multiracial society (Reding, 2007:170). Peruvian
society is organized on the basis of antagonisms and binary meanings: up / down,
mountains / coast, which reflects itself in sociocultural hierarchy of the country (Reding,
2007:171). In Peru everyone is somehow socially classified. These stereotypes not always
are explicit, but are manifested in jokes and insults or are more openly are displayed in
mass media (Reding, 2007:172).
Lima, the capital of Peru, is a special example of social configuration. Because of
its historical background it is said that the city should be “as white as possible”, where
whiteness is a synonym of upper class and elite (Reding, 2007:173). Lima is not just a
political capital of the country. Lima is so special, because gives in an edge that only few
South American cities can only offer (Benson et al, 2007:85). Besides being just political
centre of the country, it is also, over seven-millionth melting-pot of peoples and races,
where extremely rich live next to awfully poor ones and where at the same time, in a clear
and obvious way, when ones are privileged, others are facing persistent prejudices and
discrimination. Lima is also a place where majority of the commerce and trade is
cumulated and where unusually clearly the distinction between European-like and native
culture and lifestyles is marked. All these factors make Lima a perfect example for
studying social and cultural dominance of racism.
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4. Reflections About Method
4.1. Methodology, Epistemology, Ontology
Methodology, understood as choices and arguments for these choices that the
person do to make one’s study scientist, is the most important part of the well done
academic paper. Within methodology two terms have to be specified: ontology and
epistemology. The former is a worldview, assumption about what is knowable in the
world. The latter is the answer for the question about how the knowledge is acquitted –
from where comprehension of things in the social world is derived.
Being aware of multiplicity of approaches toward discourse analysis, one
consciously has chosen the Van Dijk’s approach. Ontologically, this approach includes a
cognitivist vision of the world, which implies universal social structures. That means that
individual psychological reactions and mental states can be identified and understood.
Cognition is constructed of representations and symbols. Regarding to epistemology, one
assumes that there are fundamental principles or rules used to decide how social
phenomena can be known. There are some underlying social prejudices, stereotypes,
ideologies and believes which are reflected in the personal state of mind. Its
representations depend on sociocultural environment, historical heritage and tradition.
This epistemological assumption is consistent with the ontological position.
Regarding to methodological approach, one wants to combine discourse analysis
(Van Dijk’s approach) with semiotics. This unique combination of the two is a
consequence of the student’s assumption that universal psychological structures in a
concrete sociocultural milieu take a certain form and are revealed in the world of signs.
Thus, knowledge about social world can be derived from signs’ interpretation. The point
is that media texts (constructed by signs, visual and textual messages) reflect certain set
of implicit meanings and underlying messages about the society. Thanks to combination
of discourse categories (specific way of looking at media texts, terms such as
„dominance”, “elites”, “power”, “control”, „structures”) and semiotics categories (terms
such as linguistic, denoted, connoted messages, “myth”), media texts will be accurately
approached, and – hopefully - no significant conclusion and information will be omitted.
This way seems to be the most appropriate in investigation of discursive reproduction of
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lightening, whiteness dominance and racial attitudes by in mass media. Thorough
interpretation of media texts will tell us about the society in its‘ social and historical
context and social reasons which may affect the perception of skin color and propel trend
of changing the color of one’s skin in Latin America.
4.1.1. Method
Establishing methodological theme (semiotic in the context of discourse analysis)
and ontological and epistemological assumptions, one can move to election of more
concrete way of approaching the empirical material, which is called method. To approach
the text critically, a good understanding of a particular theoretical concept is needed. That
is why at this starting point a clear method from which to work has to be chosen.
Otherwise, when superficially looking at media records some details can be missed. One
decided on qualitative approach to analysis, because the problem of discursive
reproduction of racial attitudes, lightening and whiteness dominance in media texts is
multidimensional, complex and needs a wider interpretation, that statistical quantitative
methods assure. Thanks to employing qualitative methods, it is less likely to omit delicate
and latent nuances of the problem, specially in it’s sociocultural and political milieu.
Thus student designed a three-step interpretation process. First, she wants to
conduct textual analysis of the images, applying five key areas to discuss media text
suggested by Selby and Cowdery. Secondly, Barhtes’ terms and approach toward the
interpretation process will be employed. For both stages, special analytical tool was
designed (appendix 1). After this, treating semiotic analysis as a standpoint, one wants to
employ DA categories and reflect achieved results to sociocultual and historical contexts.
That seems to be the most appropriate and logical methodological approach to the
considered problem.
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Figure 2: Three-step Method of Analysis
4.2. Semiotics as a Method
From a cultural perspective, semiotics can explain meaning from signs. In general,
semiotic is a theory of the functions of signs and symbols. Semiotics is an approach to
analyzing semiotic modes (like visual images) and language in a critical way. According
to Van Dijk, surface structures are rank as semiotic (1992:103) Thus, semiotic is a version
of discourse analysis. On the other hand, roots of general discourse studies lie partly in
semiotics (Van Dijk, 1992:95). Thus, these two methodological approaches have
something in common – and that explains why these have been employed in the study.
Regarding to semiotics, more concrete method of the process of interpretation is
needed. Basing on prominent authorities in the field of semiotics - Selby and Cowdery,
and on the cultural theorist and analyst - Ronald Barthes and his ideas from Rhetoric of
the Image (1964) one wants to merge together and then adopt their models for
semiological analysis. By combining these two approaches implicit messages will be
revealed and deeper understanding of the problem will be assured. The point of this
procedure is that Selby and Cowdery ideas are rather technical, being a perfect tool in the
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first stage of skinning off the media text. What the authors suggest is a perfect glossary
and a guideline for interpretation of any media text. First step of analysis is mostly a
textual interpretation of the record, while second step is all about contextual deeper
elucidation. Because Barthes focuses on cultural phenomena as language systems, his
conceptual framework for studying word-and-image relations displays structural
characteristics. These two approaches at some point overlap with each other (as one can
notice by looking at designed research tool – appendix 1), but mostly complete each
other.
Student adopted Barthes’ standpoint, that images are polysemous (Barthes,
1964:274). That means that media texts contain many signs and because of that can be not
understood in desired way. Thus, to control freedom understandings, image producers
intentionally use special tools and procedures, which need to be exposed. That is why the
strategy of analysis is about deconstruction of the image: author suggests skimming off
different messages that the image contains, or – in other words - breaking the image
(understood as the system of signification) into three parts, that of the linguistic message,
the coded iconic message, and the no coded iconic message (1964:270).
4.2.1. Five Key Areas to Discuss a Media Text
It is essential to think about the media text in a critical and analytical way, so one
need to understand and use critical vocabulary and theoretical approach suggested by
Selby and Cowdery (Selby&Cowdery,1995:3-5). Five key themes to discuss any media
product are presented as follow. These are major areas in analysis of any media product
(Selby&Cowdery,1995:11). By applying these key terms one will be able to produce a
valid and discerning reading of the media text.
(1) Construction – “all media texts are constructed using a media language”
(Selby&Cowdery, 1995:4) and specific codes, which convey certain meanings and
information (Selby&Cowdery, 1995:4). It is because these codes are coming form
a cultural knowledge a group to which the media text is addressed possesses.
(2) The media text is read and perceived by the audience. Thus, none of media text
can be considered in isolation, without a rough consideration of people to whom
the text is addressed. The way in which people approach and read the text depends
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on many factors, such as: education, social class, political, religious beliefs, race
and gender (Selby&Cowdery, 1995:5).
(3) Narrative is an effect of manipulating and editing information together
(Selby&Cowdery, 1995:9). The form of the media text causes a particular
response to it, regarding to its characteristics and features.
(4) Another key area is this of categorization. The point is that the media text
provides certain amount of information which allows (or not) to allocate the story
the image is telling in the reality or fiction.
(5) The question of agencies should be also taken into the account while analyzing
critically the text. “The concept of Agency is wider than the question of who owns
and controls the media” (Selby&Cowdery, 1995:7). Many other issues are also
involved in the production of media text, thus should be also considered – such as:
political, cultural, financial or technological factors. By considering this wider
milieu, one moves from textual to contextual study.
4.2.2. Linguistic Message
In mass communication, linguistic message commonly appears in almost every
image (in the form of title, dialogue, comic strip etc.) The text is (to some extent) an
answer for the question: what is it? and it helps in identification of the scene and it’s
elements (Barthes, 1964:274). This first message is made up of all the words in the
advertisement. The linguistic message itself operates on two levels: denotational and
connotational. It serves as one of the techniques developed to fix the floating chain of
signifieds of the image. Texts stays in an complementary relation with the image, by
supplying meaning not found in the image.
Barthes comes up with two functions of the linguistic: anchorage and relay. With
anchorage, the text helps to focus one’s attention, in terms of identification and
interpretation and lets to choose an appropriate level of interpretation. The text directs the
understanding of the image, causing reader to avoid some signifieds and to receive others.
Thus, the text directs the reader to a message (ideology) chosen in advance (Barthes,
1964:274). In advertisements text linguistic message, as anchorage, plays a particularly
ideological role, directing the audience’s perception. Anchorage has a function of
selective elucidation – which means that is applied just to certain of image’s signs.
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Anchorage assures control of the use of image. Anchorage is commonly found in photos
and advertisements (Barthes, 1964:275).
In a system of relay, which is less common, text and image stand in a
corresponding relationship, what means that words are constitutive pieces of a bigger,
more general story, message is realized on a higher level (Barthes, 1964:275). Most
systems are actually a combination of anchorage and relay.
After reading out the linguistic message, we can move to a second, iconic
message. The message is of two types7.
4.2.3. Coded Iconic Message
(connoted / cultural / symbolic message)
The coded iconic message is the totality of all the messages that are connoted by
the image. Reading the image on this level requires a general cultural knowledge, it is a
symbolic message (Barthes, 1964:272), also called cultural message (Barthes, 1964:273).
This message consists of series of discontinuous signs. Coded iconic message is the
visual connotations derived from the arrangement of photographed elements. It should be
remembered that the order of these signs is not important; they are not linear. These signs
comprise the image. All together they form a coherent whole. Coded iconic message is
connoted (Barthes, 1964:273). One’s interventions in the photograph (framing, distance,
lighting, focus, speed) all effectively belong to the plane of connotation.
4.2.4. Non Coded Iconic Message
(Denoted, denotative / literal /visual message8)
The signifiers of this message are constituted by the real objects in the scene. The
signifiers have been photographed. The non-coded iconic message is the "literal"
denotation, recognition of identifiable objects in the photograph, irrespective of the larger
societal code. The knowledge needed to read this message is bound up with one’s
perception: The reader only needs to know what the image (photo/picture/graphics) and
objects(presented in the image) are. The non-coded iconic message is merely the literal
7
This distinction is not obvious, because the viewer receives at one and the same time the perceptual noncoded message and the cultural, coded message. This confusion in reading these iconic images corresponds
to the function of the mass texts (Barthes, 1964:273).
8
Selby and Cowdery’ categories, presented in subsection 4.2.1. focus mostly on this level, completing
understanding of the media tests and its’ literal description
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("what it is") reading of the photograph. Literal message is denoted (Barthes, 1964:273).
Message without a code means that the signifieds are constituted by real objects in the
prospect. This message corresponds with the letter of the image (Barthes, 1964:272). It is
also called perceptual message (Barthes, 1964:273). It is “what is left in the image when
the signs of connotation are mentally deleted” (Barthes, 1964:277). Denoted image
naturalizes the connoted message, especially in advertisements (Barthes, 1964:279).
Both literal and cultural messages share the same iconic core (Barthes, 1964:272),
thus it is essential to realize relation between the two. Literal non-coded message appears
as the support for the coded symbolic message. The literal iconic image in some way is
imprinted in the second - iconic, image. However, worth to mention that in the
advertisement image the audience never encounters a literal image in a pure state
(Barthes, 1964:276). The advertisement always conveys a second, implicit and deeper
meaning.
4.2.5. The Rhetoric of the Image
In addition to these modes of analysis, Barthes argues that attention must be paid
to the composition of an image. Composition is a factor which consolidates separate
signs into one image in an aesthetic way. There are four types of knowledge, which can
be applied in reading the image: practical, national, cultural, aesthetic, in order to identify
connotative signs (Barthes, 1964:280). Common domain of the signifiers of connotation
is ideology. The classification of these signifiers (called connotators) is called rhetoric,
thus rhetoric is a signifying aspect of ideology (Barthes, 1964:282).
4.2.6. Myth
Another category which can serve in the analysis of any media product is the one
of myth. As Roland Barthes claims, myths “are products of a process secondary
signification” (in: Leong, 2006:171), during which “visual signs (the signifiers) bond with
ideological, persisting assumptions and notions (the signifieds) to form new signs and
these are known as ‘myths’”. Myths preserve and strengthen the values of the major
ideology in the society. The myth is an analytical tool that can be used in the
interpretation of the advertisement discourse (Leong, 2006:171). Myth is constituted by
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communal associations – connotations, which are not personal but familiar for a group or
social circle.
4.3. Discourse Analysis as a Method
Regarding the topic of the thesis paper, one decided to employ discourse analysis
as a method of examination. The best justification of using this approach provides
Moreton-Robinson, who claims that whiteness is a social and discursive construction
(2004:vii, in Probyn, 2005). One wants to use this qualitative method, because there is a
great „(…) relevance of discourse analysis for our understanding of ethnic and racial
inequality”(Van Dijk, 1992:92). This method requires a multidisciplinary approach,
which involves several dimensions of the humanities. Examining the record from angle of
discourse analysis, gives more insight into intellectual and sociocultural conditions,
impacts and functions (Van Dijk, 1992:93 ).
What is Discourse?
Discourse is not just about verbal interchange of thoughts but discourse completes
the meaning of communication and bears a meaning itself. It doesn’t limit itself only to
communication processes. Discourse can be found not only in the use of spoken language
and verbal materials, but also in non-verbal materials: in written and sign multimodal
communication. Discourse is not just about words – it is also about styles, modes and
expressions of one’s perception. It is an inexpressible structure between visual signs, texts
and audience. In a social world person deals with many discourses, which all together
constitute the reality. Discourse is a mode of arranging knowledge, ideas and
understanding (Merriam-Webster, 2010). The point is that interpretation of social acts is
not an accidental one-off action, but a fixed structure, functional and understanding mode.
Discourse analysis is qualitative method, conducted due to understand the representation
and creation of meaning through visual signs, language and images in communication
processes. Discourse is the narration of the image – both what is being directly
communicated and what is being tacitly said. Discourse is an expression of the prevalent
ideology.
Discourse analysis has two purposes. It is aimed for a better account of (1)
structures and strategies of static and spoken sources, as well as of (2) its’ relations with
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sociocultural and historical context (Van Dijk, 1992:96 ). The point is that examining
discourse in relation to it’s specific sociocultural contexts is essential. Regarding to
discourse analysis the student wants to analyze (1) relations between discourse and
dominance, power and reproduction of racism (2) relations between visual and textual
messages (advertisements) and its context.
4.3.1. Power, Elites, Dominance and Control
The standpoint for the thesis is that visual language (as well as textual messages)
is unassignably linked with power. Discourse is an effect of conscious production - ones
are trying to communicate with others. This communication is, in some way, persuasion.
This dominance can have a subtle or more visible form. In other words – in every
discourse dominance and power are, to some extent, involved. When it comes to aesthetic
discourse, power and dominance are limited, but in the case of racism – the dominance is
evident.
Every discourse (text or talk) has to do with power and dominance. Every one is
determined by event models, context models and social cognitions, which are ideologies,
knowledge and attitudes (Van Dijk, 1992:99). Social power is demonstrated in social
control over other people – as far as mind control is the aim and result of discourse (Van
Dijk, 1992:100). Power and control are hold by certain superior groups, called elites.
Elites, in case of racial dominance, are those of dominant group, who have more power
and in consequence – more control over mass media and communication means (like
campaigns, advertising, publications, propaganda etc). This elite discourse takes place in
a top – down direction (Van Dijk, 1992:102). In a consequence, “People may be
controlled to act more or less voluntarily according to the interests or whishes of the more
powerful. That is, it may be much more effective to control minds of others through
persuasion – by making them comply out of their own free will” (Van Dijk, 1992:101).
That is, discourse gives an illusion of freedom of choice while pushing, in more or less
visible way, to do directed activities or to a certain way of thinking.
4.3.2. Surface and Deep Structures
One can distinguish two parts of discourse structures. One are surface structures.
Second type are deep / underlying structures. The former ones are associated with
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tangible, evident and more visible aspects of discourse, which means that these structures
can be experienced (seen, heard, read, smelt, felt) with senses and which are more direct
and explicit. Surface structures include: gestures, letters, graphic displays, words and so
on. The latter - deep structures, are connected with cognitive representations, mental
understandings and meanings (Van Dijk, 1992:103).
The relationship between these two types of structures is that underlying structures
are expressed by surface constructions. Surface structures play role of codes for latent
meanings of deep structures, thus surface structures “are crucial in the comprehension of
discourse” (Van Dijk, 1992:103). However, surface structures’ function doesn’t come
down to code deep structures. These structures might be a function of the social and
cultural context too – may be used for example to stress differences and inequality
between “us” and “them” (Van Dijk, 1992:106).
Figure 3. Model of Discourse Structures (basing on Van Dijk, 1992:103)
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4.4. Design of the Thesis
Figure 4 – step-by-step, graphical model of the thesis design
4.5. Sample Analysis
4.5.1. Sources
Media records let insight into the implicit messages that society hold (Malik,
2007:6 ). Advertisement is a form of media text (Selby&Cowdery, 1995:13). It occurs in
many contexts and spheres of social and private lives. Advertisement is a special form of
communication used in a newspaper, radio, direct mail, websites, billboards, posters and
TV. Advertising (understood as promotional operation) is one of elements of the
marketing mix9. It is a public promotion of some product or service (WordNetWeb,
2010), which appears in media and is addressed to general public (or certain groups of
population). In other words, it is a public notice which aims to inform potential
9
Marketing mix, also called“4P”, consists of four areas: product, price, place, promotion
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customers, “directed toward the general public or, in some cases, specific prospective
client groups to provide information about the time, place, contents, and arrangements of
an auction” (Glossary, 2010).
Use of advanced technology and advertising solutions, the competition between
agencies and consumerism approach make advertisements important sources and medium
of information which bears many messages and implicit meanings – about both the
audience and the agencies (so: about a recipient and a sender of the message). Its’
universality, accessibility and influence it has upon the public, make advertisements
particularly interesting records for analysis.
4.5.1.1. Advertisement and Discourse
Audience “use”, “engage in” and “participate in” most obviously spoken
conversation, but also in written communication (Van Dijk, 1992:115) – such as
advertisements. Advertisement is a specific type of discourse, because an interaction
between the audience and the record is not direct – the relation between two has an
intermediate character, which however doesn’t mean, that the discourse is less
“discursive”. Static, printed advertisement is a mean of communication, which makes it a
subject of discourse analysis.
4.5.1.2. Advertisement and Semiotics
Advertising’s messages go beyond what meets the eye. A successful
advertisement, being one of the communication forms, works best when appeals to the
needs and desires of the audience (Berger, 1988). Advertisement, as every image,
contains three messages: linguistic layer and a pure image, within which one can
distinguish non coded and coded cultural messages (Barthes, 1964:270). Thus,
advertisement consists of many signs and written texts, which are perceived by human
senses. In advertisement text the signification of the image is intentional. Certain
attributes and signs are consciously used in order to transmit a certain, set a priori
message, which meaning was chosen in advance (Barthes, 1964:270).
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4.5.2. Ethical Consideration
Eventually, yet importantly, methodology section needs to include some reflections
about ethical aspects of the study, especially when one deals with such a sensitive issue
like racial attitudes. Because of its’ pejorative overtone and social rejection for public
discussion regarding to the issue (talking about racism may suggest that it really exists,
what people touched by the problem try to decline), racism is a taboo, especially in Latin
and Asian societies. That is why, much caution has to be paid in analysis.
At this point, just before getting down to the interpretation process, one needs to
acknowledge weak points and secondly try to find ways to minimize or counterbalance
them by controlling for the effects they have on the research design. The fact that analyst
is a white European women may to some extent influence findings. That is why a self –
limiting and self controlling as well as a strong theoretical support are essential (and that
what one has tried to assure over previous 40 pages). Another, partly ethical, point is that
researcher once lived in Peru and thus, her findings will be based not only on material
analysis but also on personal perception of the topic, as well as her fellows’ (who were
indigenous Peruvians) opinions and reflections. In this way scientific objectivity was
shaken, but on the other hand a better understanding and in depth insight into the area has
been obtained.
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5. Analysis
Analysis is a long-lasting, multilevel process. It’s the most important stage of this
thesis paper, thus a lot of caution and focus have been devoted to the interpretation
procedures. It was an ongoing and multidimensional process which bore fruits as
presented below. In order to get a better understanding of the notions of lightening,
whiteness, racial attitudes and its’ reproduction on the discursive level, it was necessary
to take an in-depth look at Peruvian promotional campaigns. One conducted a structured
process of analysis, obeying as much methodological consistency and accuracy as was
possible. By applying discursive whiteness theories, ideas of racism and colorism, one
wants to uncover latent messages about Latin American societies mingled within
promotional campaigns and then reflect it to the societies’ complex historical, social and
cultural backgrounds. That will lead us to final conclusions regarding the problem area.
5.1. Empirical Data
One decided to analyze six images: these are examples of promotional campaigns
for two of the biggest and most prestigious Peruvian shopping malls, which are Jockey
Plaza (four images) and Larcomar (two images). These were operationally labeled as
follows:
Number
Image name
Producer
A1
“Mi mama”
Jockey Plaza
A2
“Soy mujer”
Jockey Plaza
A3
“Ojos”
Jockey Plaza
A4
“Fan”
Larcomar
A5
“Navidad Larcomar”
Larcomar
A6
“Navidad Jockey Plaza”
Jockey Plaza
Table 1. List of Sample Materials for Analysis
All these examples of promotional campaigns come from the Internet or private
collections. These images have been shown in Lima, in the form of posters and
billboards, as well as in the form of handbills and even online-available images. All these
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resources are recent – mostly from 2009 (A6 was taken in November 2008). This fact
confirms the actuality of the problem being investigated and its’ authenticity.
A1
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A2
45
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A3
46
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A4
A5
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A6
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5.1.1. Technique of Analysis
A well done analysis, to be reliable, has to be conducted according to consistent
and well-considered rules. That is why the analytical tool was constructed. Based on
literature review and previous studies from the scope of media analysis (from semiotics
and DA angles), student designed the table where all analyzed aspects are included.
(appendix 1). To facilitate the interpretation process and to assure a higher level of
reliability, another table has been created (appendix 2) and a special combination of
methodological approaches was constructed.
Three Steps of Analysis
In the analysis, after an initial stage of skimming the selected images, with respect
to methodological rules and strategies, one will move to a more complex level. Here, one
will pull out first conclusions, driven from straight- forward reading of the images (which
are in terms of Van Dijk are called “surface structures”) and try to pull out the deeper
coded messages secretly revealed in the campaigns (which are “deep structures”). That
will lead the student to final stage of the analysis process, which is this of reflecting
obtained in previous stages conclusions to wider sociocultural milieu and theoretical
background.
5.1.2. Why These Empirical Data Were Chosen?
The empirical material which is the object of the thesis was carefully selected. As
it is said, Jockey Plaza is “the newest, biggest, and best in Lima” American-style
shopping centre (Frommer’s, 2010). It isn’t situated in historical and touristic part of the
city (next to the Jockey Club of Peru at Hipódromo de Monterrico, at the intersection of
Javier Prado and Avenida Panamericana Sur) in the district of Surco, one of poorest parts
of the city. Plentitude of modern world-famous designer’ stores, entertainment options
(cinemas, restaurants, bars etc) and international brands make the visitor forget that he or
she is actually in Peru (Benson et al, 2007:121)10. This place reveals universal trends and
global aspiration of the country, showing at the same time, to some extent - “cordial
racism” in a way that only richer limeños actually actually have access to the mall and are
10
This is part of a larger process: the development of consumer societies in Latin America – see: 3.
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buying products. However, as the student found out, there are no restrictions, written
legal rules that keep others away from the place. To understand how the message is
passed to the wider society and to fully understand its’ meaning, one wants to give this
case a deeper insight.
In trying to achieve reliability and accuracy, researcher decided to widen the scope
of the study. To show that Jockey Plaza is not just an exceptional single case, but an
exemplification of a bigger trend, student wants to bring also another example – second
biggest modern department store in Lima, Larcomar. This mall is spectacularly located
and said to be the swankest shopping mall in the capital (Frommer’s, 2010) and even
“The premier entertainment centre in Latin America”(Yahoo Travelers, 2010). Larcomar,
in contrast to Jockey Plaza, is located in the very centre of the most exclusive district of
Lima, which is Miraflores. However, besides it’s accessible location, one will meet there
mostly tourists and upper class limeños. Analysis of Larcomar promotional materials will
compile the complex picture made by analysis of the former example.
There are many other reasons in favor of choosing accurately these media texts,
some of which are:
- Jockey Plaza is the biggest and the most famous shopping mall in Lima, thus, because of
its’ recognition, there are many adverts in several forms, that can be found all over the
city;
- The media texts are addressed primarily to women, and – as it was said before – it has a
stronger influence on their perception of whiteness and notion of racial dominance of
lighter skin color;
- Because of the campaign’s popularity, one can claim that it is a good example of
Peruvian society11;
- Pictures A3 and A4, as well as A5 and A6 have something in common - treat about the
same even (Christmas) or special loyalty program for fans (A4) or regular customers
(A3).
By pulling these images in pairs, some additional information about Peruvian
society in a context of analyzed problem of racism and whitening, can be obtained.
11
The student herself experienced the popularity of these campaigns; these were mostly issued when she
was in Peru
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5.1.3. What is Being Advertised?
Approaching the analysis one has to answer the question of what is offered by
advertisements. The answer to this - seemingly easy question, in the case of shopping
malls (not only Jocker Plaza and Larcomar) is more complex and demands more
consideration. The point is that American-style malls house a wide variety of smaller or
bigger stores, restaurants, service points, boutiques and so on - each of which offers other
concrete products or services. However, as a whole, the mall offers a “space” and the
“atmosphere” created by the compilation of hosted stores, decoration, music,
architecture, and –most important – people buying and visiting the place.
“Con luces, colores y sonidos que atraen los sentidos, con capacidad de generar
condiciones climáticas propias, con seguridad interna, con posibilidades de reunir
la familia, comprar, comer, entretenerse y pagar servicios, el gran centro
comercial desdramatiza la vida y crea un oasis alternative” (With the use of lights,
colors and sounds which attract senses, with the ability to generate appropriate
climate conditions, with assured security, with possibilities of gathering the
family, buying, eating, entertaining and paying the services, big shopping malls
disdramatize the life and create an alternative oasis) (Cristoffanini, 2006:100).
This atmosphere in fact can’t be seen. Thus, the malls offer also a certain –
consumer way of living. The American way of living and all that it means for people in
Latin America, Eastern Europe and Asia. Therefore, the item being advertised is not
actually tangible. It’s neither a product, nor a concrete service. However, for the use of
the thesis, this “atmosphere” and “lifestyle” can be operationally be called “service”, but
in fact this term is very broad – the mall cannot actually sell the service – it is an “added
value”. What the advertisement campaign offers is a lifestyle connected with creating
special needs and supply for special set of products and services – thus the campaign
appeals to lifestyle and it offers a concrete standard of living.
Employing promotional campaigns (such as those analyzed) shopping malls are
trying to win consumer interest and allegiance, perusing at the same time for concrete
way of living. As it will be shown below, campaigns are sophisticated and reflect upper
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feelings. Advertisements being analyzed use special connotations and symbols by
showing relation between concrete service features and abstract values.
Surface Structures
5.2. Straight-forward Reading of the Image
The scenes present simple, uncomplicated situations. One can see a young white
woman holding a red candle in both hands, which lightens her face and the whole picture
(A6), a young mother who gives a piggy back ride to a little girl and both are broadly
smiling (A1), a white woman who is looking somewhere and is not involved in the action
between audience and the message (A2),which gives an impression that it is accidentally
caught woman’s gaze. Another photo presents an extremely pale women who looks
directly into the lens – there is no action and thus the image is very stable and static, it’s a
face to face relation. In other sample one can see an Asian women, standing on the fuzzy
background and looks somewhere further(A4), or two young women sitting around the
table on Larcomar’s terrace overlooking the sea, both turn and look on the left (it’s out of
viewers’ reach), first woman smokes, table is set (coffee, cake, juices), they are in the
middle of lunch and conversation (A5).
These scenes don’t involve many props, are not crowded (mostly individual), and
on the first sight it can seem that, because of its simplicity, these images don’t convey any
deeper and more complex message. But nothing is more misleading.
5.3. Models – Subjects of the Campaigns
The main characteristic which all the advertisement being analyzed have in
common is that the campaigns are about concrete real persons. The images don’t present
still nature or graphical or sophisticated metaphorical abstractions. In each of these
images models act – producers didn’t use the technique called candid camera in showing
the scenes (even in the case of the A5 photo, which was taken outdoors, in the natural real
settings, models seem to behave in an unnatural artificial way). Everything is completely
designed in order to convey certain concrete meaning. In this context and by the target
receivers there is little place for ambiguity of meanings: the message is as directly as it s
only possible given (especially in the case of Jockey Plaza advertisements).
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Another thing which all sources have in common is that the models are young,
attractive, slim, and pale women. In one case both: a young woman and a little girl (about
four) are presented together – this is connected with the topic and relates to the specific
occasion for which the image was produced – it is about Mother’s Day. The image for
Larcomar Christmas (A5) presents two young women too. Otherwise, the rest of pictures
present only one model, usually centered within the frame. What is more, usually there is
no background articulated: behind the models’ back there is a plain setting, which
because of it’s colors, underline the contrast. These techniques convey a message of
individualism and self-focus, giving a notion of distinction. Models are subjects of the
campaigns themselves – decontextualization of them, background doesn’t convey any
message, serves only to emphasize the contrast (A1, A6), or to show the unity between
the subject and the background (A3). The subject in that particular case belongs to the
background, together with it makes a perfect composition and even illuminates it. The
technique employed shows that the white model belongs to the world, creating a perfect
unity with the environment.
The models are in the main focus of the photo, thus are mediums which convey a
certain message One deals here with a paradox that the campaigns, offering intangible
items (which are atmosphere and a certain way of living), are about concrete real persons
– that means that these services should be personalized with the concrete, substantial
person and their individual characteristics.
5.3.1. Ideal of the Beauty
These women can be described with the following phrases: blond hair (A1, A2,
A3, A6), beautiful wide white smiles (A1, A5), they smirk (A3, A4, A6) and big blue or
green eyes (A1, A2, A3, A5, A6). What’s more, all these figures wear neat (A1, A3, A4,
A5, A6) or strong (A2) makeup, present elegancy, symmetry and perfectness of human
body proportions. They possess all ideal European-like, supported by Hollywood and
Western productions and images, features (except A4). They set an ideal of beauty and
convey the direct message about their ideality to the public. The model is not a “man on
the street”, but she is in some way special (A2), time has stopped for a while (A6). This
surface structure doesn’t need any deeper consideration – the establishment of he ideal
Western splendor and glam is immediately spelled out. Therefore, this establishment of
the ideal of the beauty comprises the first layer, which is the automatic and instinctive
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reading of the image, thus available for the whole group of potential audience (both the
target audience and the general public - and those who actually see the image). Deeper
meanings and covered meanings need to be revealed in the intellectual process of
reflection and interpretation.
5.3.2. Dress Code
Some pictured models wear elegant, high-fashion outfits - especially in the case of
A5 - conveying the message of youth, elegance, expensiveness, joy, relaxation and
Western lifestyle and modern international look. Clothing gives a message of
exceptionality, elitism, high quality of life, elegance, feast, courtesy (A6), and
Europeanization of dressing customs: in the case of A1 image the family is wearing jeans
and polo necked sweaters seeming to say that their lives have an international dimension,
family leads a modern lifestyle. They are wearing colorful chullos, Peruvian style hats –
but in the context these hats look a bit ridiculous, giving a message that tradition is just a
decoration, is something additional to the modern lifestyles. This combination of different
cultures and traditions conveys the tension of postmodern style. These hats remind
tradition, roots in Peruvian culture – however this is a typical souvenir item, produced
mostly for tourists, so the potential (especially by the general public) reading could be:
these are tourists, foreigners, not-us, figures belong to the “them” social group. Girl’s
clothing in pink reinforces a modern, Western stereotype of a baby-girl.
In other cases the dress code is not visible (A2, A3, A4). In the case of pictures
where there is no dress code, that can suggest that clothes and dress code is less relevant.
Clothes are not the key to understand ing the message, it’s all about face – however, there
is no (or just a slightly) facial expression, thus it is all about skin color (the only visible
distinctive feature of the model) – thus the service offered should be identified with the
face’s shade (A2, A3). Model seems to be naked – that gives a feeling of purity and
natural look, associated with neutrality, naturalization of paleness (A3, A4). What is the
clue of these materials (A2, A3, A4) is the paleness of the model, her face color and
expression, not the outfit, which in fact is just a cover. What is more, outfit can be easily
replaced, changed, modified, but dowers and facial characteristics are not acquired –
rather to a major extent they unchangeable and naturally inborn.
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5.3.3. Non-verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication is a broad term which consists of many detailed facial
expressions, gestures, work of the bodies (body language and positioning/movement) and
interactions. By looking at the sample picture one notices that the actresses’ faces are
directed towards the lens (A1, A3, A6), bodies directed in other direction (A1), nonrelaxed posture (all), touch gives a sense of intimacy (A1), widely smiles, presenting
plain, white teeth (A1, A5), or faint smile (A6), blue eyes (A1, A2, A3, A6), delicate (A1,
A3, A4, A5, A6) or strong (A2) makeup, long blond hair (A6, A1, A3) and ideal fair
complexion (all). Smiles convey a message of happiness, carefree lifestyle. Touch shows
care and concern with the family gives at the same time an impression of carefree
childhood. Use of gesture of giving (A6) the light, makes her image and the whole picture
lighter, saying that lightness is a gift from the text’s producer.
Action line is horizontal (A1, A2, A3, A6) or diagonal (A4 and A5): from the
centre of the picture on the right (A4) or left (A5), to the place where they look, action
line in extended by subjects’ gaze. In some cases gaze is directed somewhere further (A2,
A4, A5), no facial expression (A2, A3 - stability, calm, prestige, gravity of the situation)
and no eye contact (A2, A4, A5). In these particular cases view-line goes out of the
picture (focuses on something what is out of viewers’ reach), to the future, which gives an
impression that the model is above the reality. When models’ gaze is directed to the left
(A5), somewhere over the picture (where the shops are, not on the beautiful landscape in
the background- ocean, cliffs), one can derive the message that what really counts is
shopping and the Larcomar special atmosphere.
In other cases (A1, A3, A6) model looks directly into the lens, eye contact– she’s
focused and looks directly at the reader, which makes her face look focused and serious,
which is associated with neat elegancy, coldness, it gives her an attribute of sublimity,
superiority. It is not an accidental gaze caught, she is staring at the public, provocative
look, which demands a deeper consideration and interpretation.
Use of ethnicity in Larcomar promotional campaign (A4) made the model and the
whole image special: the model is neither white, nor dark, so mixed ethnicity can be read
as provocation and evoke curiosity.
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5.4. Composition
Mostly one-dimensional, shallow focus was used. There is no in-depth
perspective, or multidimensional composition. The plainness of the composition serves
to emphasize the foreground – models and their features. Images A2 and A3 were
asymmetrically cropped. That suggests that there is a half of everything: the service
being offered completes the meaning, makes the reality total, whole, assures integrity
(A3).This composition is not structured, indicates conflict (A2) and tells that the whole
person as a person/human being is not important (her personality, characteristics etc) –
what counts is face and her skin color.
The relation with the public is complex: in two cases the contact with the public is
direct, the model seems to be a “men on the street”, there is no physical barrier created. In
other cases there is a barrier build by props (colorful bulbs A6 or chairs A5), by the light
tone used or by lack of eye contact and the action line.
5.4.1. Distance and Notion of Purity of the Blood
Use of props and camera angle create a certain impression of distance and
inaccessibility (A5, A6) or other way around - give a feeling of intimacy and availability
(A1, A2, A3). The fact that the natural or artificial barrier is set in the images (A6, A5)
makes the models untouchable prototypes. Distance created by bottom-line: sparkly balls
or bulbs in red and orange (A6) creates the barrier between the image and the audience,
makes the figure seem to be dominating over the line. This line gives the picture a dreamy
accent.
In the case of A1, there is no distance between figures and the audience, they are
standing almost next to us, thus – the audience should personalize and imitate the family
(presented as sample). Lack of distance is striking in A3 case – gives an extremely strong
feeling of intimacy, familiarity and no distance. However, cold colors create a barrier.
Thus the message is given directly, but the person is not available for all.
The image of mother and daughter (A1) gives the impression that all Peruvian
families comply with the model presented and all look like this. Two generations of
extremely pale beautiful females give a message that the purity of the blood is preserved
and the whiteness of the society is the leading social force.
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5.4.2. Color Code
Set of colors used do not give the pictures a realistic feel, they are more picturepostcard type of images. Two kinds of color modes were applied: in some cases use of
predominant sharp tones (A6) in some use of predominant light (A1, A3) and cold
colors (A2). In case of A6 the producer used “Christmas colors” - red reminds the viewer
of the warmth of family celebrations. Red is also a color of elites , which at the same time
plays a role in the Peruvian society. Choosing a light color code is a procedure which sets
lighter tones as a normal Peruvian color, which describes typical modern Peruvian
families and gives a feeling of normalization/standardization of whiteness. Extremely
pale complexion (A4) indicates purity. Subtle bright colors which shows milky-white
woman, the picture is very light and her face occupies the whole picture. Unnatural
illumination of the image conveys a message of dreamy atmosphere and sublimity (A3).
Some use sharp accents – like pink in the A1 image, this sharp accent directs ones
attention to whiteness of models and emphasizes the paleness of the subjects. Pink chullos
(A1) – is a visible accent, makes their look more explicit, distinctive, but when one
removes these pink hats, the picture is still readable, pink steals attention and directs the
focus to models’ faces. Whiteness is not just an individual value but a family feature.
Whiteness determines ones future and designs ones’ life path.
The A1 advertisement appeals to every woman’s preoccupation with their
childrens’ futures – the future seems to be (literally and figuratively) bright, associated
with elegance, modernism, joy of living. Appeals to emotional significance of kid’s future
and self-satisfaction and deriving pleasure from life, carefree family life, associated with
particular social positioning – no preoccupation with the reality (money or social
problems), future is seen in light colors (A1).
Cold primary colors (blue in A2) conveys a message of stability, stativity,
superiority and majesty. Colors used suggest sophisticated taste, and give smooth look of
the picture. Cold colors create low modality, so no-realistic feel which suggests high
quality. Highly unnatural shade of eye’s color, which conveys the message that this blue
has a second meaning, meaning of purity, computer graphic photo (A2). In the case of A5
set of colors is different: predominant colors are inter alia blue, green, yellow, white,
pink. This wide range of tones, models’ paleness is exposure by the back- and middleground, which suggests realism, however the effect is artificial. In A5 case one deals with
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smooth mix of pictures, pink pullover in centre of the image is also concentration of the
attention. Elegance, elitism and modernism are personalized with brightness (A2, A3,
A6). It is connected with notion of self-identity – the reader has a choice - he or she can
remain “in the dark” or realize his/her aspirations and join “bright side” (A6).
5.5. Logo
Jockey Plaza uses a specific emblem. The logo has a simple shape and is built
with basic colors. The logo consists of three gradual circles, smaller in bigger.
Pic. 1, the logo
This construction suggests progress and dynamics. In analyzed campaigns the
emblem, which is relatively small, distinguishes itself from the advertisement. It is placed
in the strategic place, playing function of a “dot”12, which completes the signification and
directs the interpretation. As the item being advertised is the atmosphere and lifestyle –
the logo can be interpreted as the button, which allows one to enter – the world of JP13
illusion.
There is strong corresponding relationship between text, logo and image, just
interpretation of the three at the same time gives a correct message. The item and the JP
emblem are of the same size, thus the “entrance” to the world of pleasure in fact direct
through the shopping mall (A3).
5.6. Linguistic Message
In all cases linguistic texts reflect to the scenes and the audience feelings. That is
what the designers want the audience to associate with the images. Texts play role of
anchorage, when the linguistic message is rooting the interpretation (A1, A2, A3, A6) as
well as relay - when text in the footer completes the image and the text above (A1, A2,
A5, A4). In A4 the producer speaks directly to you, no rhetorical figures are used - the
In Western culture people write from left to right, dot is placed in right bottom corner – that crowns the
meaning. The same happens with the logo – it is placed in the right bottom corner. Even it’s shape reminds
one of a dot.
13
JP – Jockey Plaza
12
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message is clear and obvious – text plays a clear role of relay. There is a weak connection
between image and texts – it is a commix-like style, so texts complete the picture (A5).
The most suggestive expression is used in A6 case. The texts claims: “Esta
Navidad iluminamos los sueños del Peru” (eng. “This Christmas we illuminate Peruvian
dreams”) This figurative type of language conveys a message that if one shops at JP, his
or her dreams will come true. This rhetorical figure, by appealing to human aspirations
and Christmas generates emotional response. Text has an overtone of wish and affirms
what is presented in the photo. Ellipsis is used – the producer doesn’t directly say what is
the clue, something is missing, but out of context one can conclude what is going on. The
text play a role of anchorage – it helps in interpretation and directs the process of
analysis.
Strong emotional connotation uses also A1 image – ”Mi major amiga es mi
Mama. Feliz Dia Mama. Se como quieres ser” (eng. „My best friend is my Mother.
Happy Mothers’ Day, Mummy, /And in a footer in two tones lighter foil:/ [JP] knows
who you want to be”).What can be derived from the first statement is that JP reinforces
family relations - kid is grateful for taking her to the mall and – in logical consequence for making her life easy and joyful (by using JP services). Here the friendship is
conditioned with material incentives.
However the message in the footer has much more importance: JP knows what
your ambitions are, and can assure you to realize your wishes. The expression “se como
quieres ser” – it’s ellipsis, something has been omitted, something is necessary to
complete the construction, but in the context the message is understandable – there is
something unsaid, a silent presumption that the receiver is not the one she/he wants to be.
“I know what you want to be” could be interpreted as the talk down to us, it is a
statement with an emotional appeal. The slogan employed by the mall roots the
interpretation, giving the impression that the reader wants to be like this white model – in
every dimension: both psychological and physical. The mall knows what your ambitions
are, and can assure you to realize your wishes. Thus, at the time of reading the media
texts, the audience is not what they want to be. This message appeals to both target
audience (to whom the product being offered is directed) and the wider public, by using
strongly suggestive expression, in comparison with the reality. As a consequence the text
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requires a certain emotional response: “I want to be the one from the picture” and JP
services assure you a better life and brighter future.
In A2 case, the phrase “Soy mujer, soy especial. Mes de la Mujer” (eng.” I’m a
woman, I’m special. Lady’s Month”) suggestively directs interpretation. The model is
already special, the ideal with whom every woman who comes to the center should
personalize. But – because of lack of eye-contact and the shot (from the bottom) it is not
possible to relate to the model – she is out of reach, one can only tend to achieve her
(social, cultural, economic) level. Text doesn’t provide information, but generates
emotional response and employs strong sexual connotation. Instead of plural “Ladies’
Month” the singular “Lady’s” is used, giving a suggestive notion of individualism and
emphasizing the model’s specialness.
With A3 - “Todo entra or los ojos” (eng. “Everything enters through eyes”) the
text immediately brings the connotation with greed - one gets what he or she wants, thus
should allow his or her eyes (which see just superficial cover, just the outside) dictate
your lifestyle (in contrary with A. de Saint Exupery: ”It is only with the heart that one can
see rightly; what is essential is invisible to the eye.”14 Text closely corresponds with the
image and directs attention to the model’s eye.
5.7. Audience
One can distinguish two groups of the audience. There is a difference between
general public (whole population of people who see the campaign) and the target
audience (which consists of those to who specified meanings and preferred readings are
directed and the items being offered are designed). However, campaigns deliberately
convey a certain meaning (in an appropriate, readable way) to both groups. This
universality demands use special techniques and rhetorics.
5.7.1. ‘Preferred Readers’ - Target Audience
The message directed to the target audience – these ones who actually use the
service being offered and who can afford it, can be called: “positive”. The overall
message includes the desirable readers into the exclusive group of customers and service
users. The mode of addressing and the way of audience positioning is precisely designed
– the goal is to nail the specific individuals. Therefore, because of its’ exclusive role, the
14
”The Little Prince”, chapter XXI
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campaigns appeal to particular audiences and require special features: educational
background, economical and social status.
Regarding to audience’s educational background and intellectual capabilities,
images are understandable mostly for mall customers, for those who know what kind of
place it is and what sort of service it provides (are familiar with the atmosphere and the
particular lifestyle) –advertisements don’t directly say what they offer (A6, A1, A2, A3).
The campaigns are aimed for those who have ambitions and dreams to fulfill (A6), for
these ones who feel special (A3). Campaigns are designed for those who have a wider
social knowledge (f. ex. know when Mother’s Day or Ladies’ Day are celebrated, ones
who understand Western values A1), who are capable of understanding the metaphorical
meaning of the text and image (A2, A3). Larcomar demands also open-minded attitude
and a good command of Internet, the A4 is directed to Facebook users thus younger
generations, who need a special additional motivation (as extra gifts), A5 calls to high
social interpersonal abilities, those who go to the malls not just for shopping, but also to
spend leisure time, to socialize.
In regard to economic status, campaigns, because of the exclusive nature of the
service being offered, are targeted for particular social groups: higher and intermediate
managerial, administrative or professional, supervisory or clerical and such15. Thus higher
economic status in required because of the fact, that potential customers, to whom the
advertisement is directed, have to afford the service and can not stand out from the other
customers population (A6, A3). That is related to item being offered: credit card – thus,
for those ones who can really afford the costs of the card, and just for them, sharp class
dimension (A3). Target group consists also of those who can afford costs of modern
lifestyle (A5), who are up-to-date with progressive modern trends, who feel special (A2),
who treat tradition as an accent, decoration, who want to imitate Europeans and
personalize Western values. The advertisement is designed for those ones who assure
their children this “Western” lifestyles and chances for the future, when their future is
bright – as actress’ complexion. The connotation is that modern mother has a modern
child, thus it is directed just for those who actually lead an expensive lifestyle (A1).
Campaigns present a sharp class dimension (A2, A6), reinforced by colors (dark
and bright pulled together), light concentrated in the center (which means that is more
15
Categories according to Selby & Cowdery, 1995.
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relevant)(A6). Advertisements are aimed to upper and middle - class social groups
(because of its location, quality and nature of service offered) –but as it was said, the
middle-class doesn’t really exist in Peru: the society is sharply divided itself, thus the
advertisement is in fact aimed mostly to higher social classes. Appeals to values of higher
social classes such as high aesthetical standards (A5). Image A2 is directed to those who
feel full of value liberated woman, who feel (or want to feel) superior in some way. The
social division is particularly strong in the case of A1 image - there is nothing Peruvian
about these figures (besides the hats). They do not personalize themselves with lower
Peruvian social classes (who mostly sustain traditional lifestyles). A5 gives a strong point
in the discussion too: members of lower social classes are in the background, somewhere
in Lima, upper class spend their free time in Larcomar, are not preoccupied with their
economical status, can afford this lifestyle, seem to look for the same social class
members (to keep the purity of race/social class). Larcomar campaigns in fact do not
explicitly say that the advertisement is directed to Peruvians, it gives an impression of an
international campaign, social class – middle and upper: those who deserve the bonus
(A4).
The campaigns, by using strongly suggestive expression, in comparison with the
reality, require a certain emotional response – preferred reading of the image by the target
audience should be: “I want to be like the one from the picture”. The services assure you
a better life and brighter future.
In the previous subsection, in regard to construction, one made a point about
physical barrier created by props, focus, lens type and camera angle. Here another kind of
barrier has emerged: because of the nature of service offered – the atmosphere as a
service can be understood just by those like subjects presented in the images, others
cannot actually access the service being offered – the advertisement creates an invisible,
metaphorical barrier, which, ironically is even harder to overcome.
5.7.1.1. Gender and Age
Theory section proved that gender plays a role when it comes to consumption and
purchase choices. The notion of beauty appeals far more to females. Attractiveness is
generally found to be much more valuable than any other single aspect a woman can
possess.
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The images appeal in some cases exclusively to women (A1, A2, A4), in other to
both genders (A5, A6 and A4 - for both women and men, the indicator here is not gender,
but economic position and strong correlation between status and paleness), but with
strong age dimension – younger generations (A4, A5), or rather well-off people, so
middle-age audience (A3), those professionally active.
However, something interesting is going on in the case of A5 image: it is
addressed directly to young women, but the message is also indirectly addressed to men
- Larcomar as a perfect place to meet nice-looking pale girls.
5.7.1.2. Mode of addressing
Advertisements encourage the audience what to feel and think about the service
being offered: it supports the notion of JP as an exclusive place, with modern and prospective services (A6). It directs people’s feelings in a way that they are superior (A2).
There are two techniques used in audience positioning: soft sell and hard sell.
Within soft sell information is given by implication only, information is communicated in
an implicit way (A2, A1, A5, A6). The service is not directly being offered – by showing
Jockey Plaza’s preoccupation with family and mother-daughter relations, the shopping
mall indirectly conveys the message that modern mothers should go for the malls’
services, in order to achieve the lifestyle presented on the billboard (A1). The media text,
by creating a familiar atmosphere, is warm, intimate, very personal – showing the
producer’s preoccupation with its customers’ family lives and the message has an
emotional appeal. It is reinforced by shot-size – which cerates a face-to-face situation
(A1). Implicit emotional appeal is readable when the advertisement makes women feel
inferior to the model, it affects their aspirations and stimulates their needs (A2).
Another technique of audience positioning is called hard sell – when service
advantages are directly communicated and information is interchangeably given. The
producer positions the reader by telling him or her that service is not for everyone –that
conveys notion of exclusiveness and uses rational arguments (A4).
In the case of A3 and A5 one can talk about mix of soft sell (implication) and
hard sell: service offered is special – first impression is given in a metaphorical way
(soft), but after a deeper consideration one can see that the producer actually uses hard
sell – by pointing explicitly to the benefits of the service: buy it and get what you want
(A3). In A5 on the one hand the receiver deals with hard sell - texts which surround the
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image, image plus short description plus price of the certain item (which could be a
Christmas gift), rational arguments. But on the other hand one can distinguish soft sell
technique: service is shown in the context: how the shopping mall should look like and
who we are looking for (A5).
In all cases the receivers are emotionally communicated. The audience is
addressed in a particular way: the advertisement acknowledges their sophistication, is
warm and intimate and creates a feeling of directness and exclusiveness of the message
(A6). Advertisements employ informative overtones (in the case of lady’s month) and use
affirmative statements (A2). Audience is required to be active, the target audience is
affected and involved in the advertisement, when it uses imperative suggestive overtone
(A4), the image calls for interpretation (A3). In other cases audience is affected but not
involved in the advertisement and the reader is passive (A1, A6). The producer talks
down to the audience and acknowledges one’s devotion and rewards for it (A4).
Eventually, the technique of dual mode of addressing is applied –that is when the media
text on the one hand is pushy, and on the other – gives an intimate message, which
acknowledges one’s exceptionality, uniqueness and elitism, thus uses both command
and statement (A5).
5.7.2. General Public
In the case of the wider group – the general public (which consists of all who
potentially can see the campaign), the advertisement conveys the message too. The social,
economic and educational background is not so strictly restricted. This message can be
called “negative” – it gives information about the nature of service and its’ exclusiveness.
The message plays a selective function, ordering society and reinforcing social
hierarchies.
Moreover, one has to be aware of the possible meanings which can be pulled out
from the image (not necessarily according to the producer’s intention). The chain of
“positive” meanings communicated in the images gives the ordinary reader of the media
text other signification, which is marginalized. The producer of the media text (because of
it’s social, economical, cultural or educational background) can even not be fully
conscious of these latent messages, which can also connote with coldness, domain,
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repression and alienation and negative supremacy and dominance of whites over Latin
societies.
5.7.3. Psychographic Variable
As it was said before, every media text appeals to certain psychometric variables
and provokes a psychological response. The standpoint is that society consists of people,
regarded not just as units, but as individuals. That is why advertisements appeal to needs,
self-identity and – in relation to that - construct a certain brand image.
Brand image in the case of A6 is particularly strong – JP as a place which
“knows who you want to be”, thus the service has a strategic meaning in process of selfidentity creation (A6). The brand image constructs the self identity when the following
condition is naturalized: it is natural that if you are young modern mother or if you are
whiter than others around, you will go for JP services – that can give you, besides
tangible products, emotional benefits, such as joy, higher social status and higher social
position in others eyes (A1). Brand image is created by the relation that JP takes care of
your child’s future, brand expresses one’s preoccupation with family and notion of
modern family lifestyle, elitism (A1). The brand is associated with ideal of women, who
want to reach the ideal of the beauty and feel special (A2), the producer presents an image
of expensiveness, it correlates with high economic status, and– consequently – with
paleness (A3), luxury (spa services offered for fans) when the advertisement says nothing
about the price or quality of nature of Larcomar shopping mall, but says a lot about the
lifestyle and appeals to self-identity and one’s aspirations, thus people choose the mall
because it expresses their sense of self identity (A4). Motivation to choose Larcomar is
not just the quality of the place (there are not many signs indicating the quality), but the
atmosphere and chance to meet other people, as presented in the advertisement (A5). The
billboard plays a role of an informal invitation: if you are not like them, do not come, it’s
not a place for you (A5).
Service gives a particular meaning associated with emotional importance of social
positioning and prospects for future (A6, A3). The advertisement appeals to the human
need for self and social acceptance, to ambitions and aspirations – service is related with
elegance, sophistication, a way to fulfill one’s dreams, making one’s life easier (A6)
tendency of neglecting traditional values (A1) and distinguishing one’s family from
others – adding the value of specialness, elitism and social division (A1, A5), associated
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with prevalent human need to socialize and to communicate with others, to personalize
and to rest (A5). Advertisement appeals to every woman’s need to feel special and
exceptional in males’ eyes (A2, A5). The message is clear – JP services can assure you
being special and can underline one’s feminity – that makes one’s chances on a
matrimonial and job market bigger (A2). Campaign emphasizes a need to meet every
whim (A3), associated with elegance, self-care and high self-esteem (A2). The preferred
reading of the text is: “I can afford the credit card – I can afford the item I want to buy, I
like, I identify myself with those who fulfill their dreams” – with visible focus on myself
– everything [“Todo”] which enters through eyes: everything which really counts is
tangible and can be purchased with (plastic or not) money - “Todo”, even paleness,
objectification of whiteness (A3). There is a clear association with human vanity and the
tendency to distinguish ones from others (A4), especially when self identity is
emphasized by the opposition us (fans) versus them (others) (A4).
5.7.4. Lifestyle Marketing
The technique of lifestyle marketing is about appealing in the promotional
operations to lifestyles, making items being offered part of one’s lifestyles, which
constitute and determine ones way of living. Images appeal to the fact that people desire
to belong and to personalize themselves with a particular group and thus, lead a life
according to this group’s determinants. This technique has been legibly applied in
analyzed media sources. Advertisements appeal to a modern family lifestyle (A1) by
creating an illusion of family idyll. The model acting as mother is concerned with the
family, shows preoccupation with her relatives. Message derived from the image seems to
say: “I have to assure the best future for my child, therefore I choose JP”. Target
audiences in the case belong to a particular group of people who have high aspirations
concerning their families, who are loyal to high standards (not traditionalists). Perfect
way of spending one’s leisure time and to strengthen bonds with the family is to go to the
place, which – by the fact of entering into – assures a higher economical status (A1, A5).
A non-traditional but liberated, brave, individualistic way of living is being offered.
Lifestyle offered in the advertisement is a higher level attitude to life, advertisement is
aimed to achievers, modern ambitious people, (not traditionalists)(A5). Advertisements
appeal also to focus on joy. Lifestyle being offered seems to say that “you can get what
you want, and everything you really want and need can be found in JP”. Thus the media
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text coveys the message of individualism, focus on self-satisfaction, for those whose basic
living needs are satisfied, who get more from life (A3). The service gives a chance to feel
more European, bringing them closer to the modern, Western lifestyle (A1, A5, A6).
When the scene presented in the photo is a casual situation (A5), the lifestyle
dimension is very strong: the scene offers a concrete way of living, of spending the free
time, dressing and talking – carefree way of living and consumerism.
5.8. Producers and Manifestation of Colorism
Both Jockey Plaza and Larcomar are Peruvian malls – thus, as a whole are not
parts of international mall chains (however stores and shops hosted are). The point is that
the malls’ owners and producers of the promotional campaigns are Peruvians – hence
belong to the same nation and ethnic group as the audience and general public. The
discursive practices identified bear the stigma of colorism, understood as more specified
and sophisticated strain of racism, which focuses exclusively on superficial aspects of
human bodies (such as skin color). What they are actually doing is discriminating practice
within the same ‘racial’ group.
Deep Structures
5.9. Discourses Identified
Analysis of the sample six images provide us with many discursive categories, which
are, to bigger or smaller extent, employed in the texts. Treating discourse as an
inexpressible structure between visual signs, texts and audience which in direct or more
metaphorical ways conveys a certain message and constitutes the perception of the
reality, student identified eight groups of discourses, which are:
-
(1) ambition and self-satisfaction, individualism;
-
(2) feminity;
-
(3) modernity;
-
(4) cultural whitening (of atmosphere and lifestyles);
-
(5) quality, high standard of living, elegance;
-
(6) symbolic power and dominance;
-
(7) exclusiveness, selectiveness, elitism – money, expensiveness
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-
(8) social stratification, social hierarchy, superiority, us versus them (which has to
do with stereotyped thinking)
Sample advertisements, in a discursive way try to reproduce a certain notion of
uniqueness and reinforce the concept of self-satisfaction (1). That is in contrast with Latin
legacy and values, which put the notion of collectiveness as a social importance,
especially in poorer social groups (Benson et al, 2007). The discourse stimulates the
audience’s ambitions, showing as a prototype Western life approach. That brings the
discourse of modernity (3) – discourse conveys the concept of up-to-date, open-minded
individual person, with a strong international dimension. The discourse of feminity (2)
can be also read out – individualistic focus on self-satisfaction of any female is a
manifestation of Westernized modern tendencies being adopted through the media texts.
Discourse of quality, high standard of living and elegance (5) has to do with the term
of “taste”. Taste is socially relative and is tied to one’s place in the class structure in the
society. Taste plays a distinctive function, because it unites (people who share the same
taste) and it separates (distinguishing people who have other tastes). Taste is a clear
stable signal which we send to other people.
Regarding to (6) category – discourse of power does not employ the common and
tangible attributes of power and domination, nor involve political supremacy. The
discourse conveys a “velvet” symbolic notion of power – by creating physical and
metaphorical barrier, the producer creates an impression, which is consequently
discursively reproduced in every Jockey Plaza image. This consistency in creating the
notion of symbolic power and dominance, confirms oneself in the conviction of its’
rightness and legitimacy.
As a result of (5) and (6), particular discourse of exclusiveness, selectiveness and
elitism emerged (7), which in consequence evokes the discourse of social stratification
and hieratic division of “us” vs. “them” (8). What is being indirectly said through the
sample promotional materials is that money and expensiveness are attributes of elitism
and therefore, in a metaphorical way, are factors which are whitening the lifestyle and the
image of the elite group. That strengthens social stratification, making division on “us”
(those who posseses the symbolic attributes of power) and “them” even sharper.
Discourses (3), (4), (5), (7) and (8) bring the term of consumerism, which affects both
groups of the audience. Images employ the discourse of material and symbolic culture
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which imitates the Western examples and adopts Western modern customs. Following the
consumer lifestyle one creates his or her social and personal identity, assuring social
promotion, and secondly – personal satisfaction.
These discourses take place within a wider discourse theme, omnipresent in all of
these discourses, which is racism. However the racial attitudes and connotations are
served in a subtle and almost invisible way, thus the student came up with the category of
velvet racism – communicated by implicit meanings. It is related to the term “cordial
racism”, introduced by Singer and Kimbles (2004 in Boechat, 2009). As it was referred in
2.1 section, cordial racism
is a delicate (even) unconsciously made demonstratios
revealed in behaviors, opinions and digressions which manifest persecutions on the skin
color basis.
5.10. Myths and Rhetoric of the Images
Treating myth as a communal expression of shared associations and a product of
secondary signification, one can distinguish the following areas: whiteness as a natural
value (A1, A2, A6), which connotes a bright future (A6) and Western civilization (see
4.4.1.1.). Whiteness sets a correlation between economical status and appearance (A3,
A4, A6) and thus orders the society (A5) by reminding social division and racial purity
(A1). One can identify also a myth self-satisfaction and notion of uniqueness (A3) and
white nymph (A6, A3), as a symbol/personalization of feminity as a value (A2, A4),
especially in the society determined by machismo16.
With regard to what was said above and the composition aspect, one can
eventually move to the rhetoric of the image, which is an aesthetic consolidation of
technical structures and meanings derived from secondary signification’ analysis. Images
rhetorically are about superiority of whiteness (underlined by use of light, colors and
models) (A2, A3, A1) connected with social stratification (A6) and division on “us” vs.
“them”, associated with one’s skin color (A4, A5), “whitening” of one’s lifestyle and
naturalization of whiteness (A3, A5, A1).
Defined as ”self-satisfaction and notion of uniqueness” (Merriam-Webster, 2010) and “"exaggerated
aggressiveness and intransigence in male-to-male interpersonal relationships and arrogance and sexual
aggression in male-to-female relationships” (Stevens in: Soong, 1999)
16
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5.10.1. Myth of Whiteness
The most significant is the myth of naturalization of whiteness, which sets white
as a standard. The myth of whiteness is related with the wider myth of Western world.
Both affect social and self-identity of every person. Whiteness is a social construction,
prevalent in analyzed promotional campaigns. Brings both material and symbolical
privileges: these campaigns appeal mostly to the latter one – feeling of superiority and
racial segregation and division.
Whiteness is a common desire and hence services being offered are means in
reaching/achieving, at least symbolically, the goal. Services being offered will not
actually bleach one’s skin, but will do it in a metaphorical way: giving intangible
indicators of superiority. These items give a special sense of uniqueness (instead of
common universality). The message is obvious and plays a dual function:
- gives the feeling of unusualness and exclusiveness of upper classes, and affirms
competences and legitimacy of their lifestyles;
- conveys message for poorer and lower social classes which seems to say: “you
don’t suit to the world being offered”.
In consequence it creates the antonym us vs them and in consequence enforces the
stereotypes.
Skin color is one of many indicators of belonging to the social class, but the most
diagnostic - superficial features are symbols of authority and social power. In Peru all
people are somehow classified (Reding, 2007:172) according to prevalent belief about
superiority among others. In the rationalized world everything has to have it’s cause and
reason. That is why whiteness constitutes, excuses and justifies social inequality and
social hierarchies. Whiteness is a perceptible feature which arranges the social reality.
5.10.2. West versus Indigenous
White models used in the advertisements connote, generally speaking, the Western
European world. West is contrasted with the indigenous local world. It is especially
articulated in the A1 image, where Peruvian chullos are used just as a dressy addition,
tradition is just a decoration, but doesn’t create a core of the modern lifestyles. Use of
myth of Western civilization culturally suggests whiteness, which is synonymous with
beauty and purity. Besides the external connotations, whiteness of the West connotes
also rationality – as far as the Spaniards were people of reason in opposition to the
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Indians, development, comfort, modernity, wealth. The opposition, in every dimension of
the meaning is what remains dark – indigenous. All these characteristics compose a wider
term, which is, using Barthess terms the myth of Western civilization. It is contrasted
with the myth of Latin legacy: connoted with darkness (both literally – darkness of skin,
as well as figuratively – darkness of future, regress, backwardness, underdevelopment).
5.10.3. Whitening of the Atmosphere
It is crucial to realize that in Latin America there is a relation that the more
exclusive an item is, the whiter the models are, who are offering it seems to be (Reding,
2007:161). Thus, keeping in mind what was said before – there is no one concrete item
being offered, but what these campaigns intend to promote is the atmosphere and the
certain lifestyle and atmosphere – as particularly exclusive. As Boechat says, “whitening
of the atmosphere” is a technique used in Latin America in public places, especially these
expensive ones (Boechat, 2009). This tendency is particularly visible in analyzed cases.
Whitening of the atmosphere in the wider social context is a manifestation of the Latin
tendency toward “blanquamieno de la raza” (whitening of the race) (Boechat, 2009).
Whitening of the race is an effect of commonly standing stereotypes of whiteness
superiority. Thus, what is basically offered and reproduced in media texts is cultural
whitening (instead of skin whitening).
5.11. Vicious Circle
Vicious circle is a metaphorical expression which describes a situation when each
problem creates another and the solution of one difficulty in a chain of circumstances
creates a new problem and increases the obstacles which aggravate the original problem
(The Free Dictionary, 2010).
The antonym us vs them evokes prejudices and social stratification. Basing on
analyzed media texts and on one’s own experiences, one can conclude that in Peru this
antagonistic relation has became a vicious circle: the more sources reproduce and racial
attitudes of whiteness domination and whitening culture, giving the whiteness the leading
role in setting social relations, the stronger social stratification and power of the myth of
whiteness and superiority of Western civilization is.
Another dimension of vicious circle is that prevalent use of myth of whiteness
confirms rightness of social divisions in the context of consumption. Consumption
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determines social position, this position in the consequence determines the consumption.
That has to do with consumerism and its’ social and psychological roles. The market
plays a role of the arena for social division – this is where social division overlaps the
ideology. Notion of clarity of the blood – ideology and social construction overlap.
Other aspect of the situation is that the glorification of whiteness goes parallel
with devaluation of darker skin shades and what was called above as “Latin legacy”. The
more Western values are glorified, the more backward Indian value system, culture and
heritage seem to be. That in consequence evokes the feeling of inferiority. That is a clear
indicator of social duality (see 5.11. – subsection below).
In past times superiority was an attribute of (Western) conquerors and their
cultures. Nowadays the whites are in power too: Western tourists are the enormous force
which drives the economy and markets and constitutes an example which propels
Peruvian consumption. Thus whiteness dominance outlasts although it has evolved.
As it was said, Peru, especially Lima is a melting-pot that consists of many ethnic
groups. These campaigns are not aimed just against one specific racial/ethnic group, but
create a barrier (both physical and metaphorical) that divides society into two categories:
“us” (ones to who the products are addressed, these ones who actually are going to
buy/use the item being offered) and “them” (others, the general public). However, images
are aimed at both the aimed group), the broad group of “others”, which assembles all,
who, according to one-dimensional division, are pushed on the Latin legacy side.
5.12. Twofold Construction of the Society and its’ Discursive Reproduction
The twofold construction of the society is seen both in metaphorical way (as
discursive reproduction) and well as in tangible way. What is more, this dual construction
of the society is historically and traditionally (Reding, 2007:171). It is obviously seen in
media texts, inter alia in advertisements and promotional campaigns. Even the fact that
one can distinguish two groups of the public to whom the advertisements are directed
(first one: these ones who actually are going to buy/use the item being offered, second
group consists of those ones who read the opposite message: the place and the item is not
for you, keep away from the place). Elites are identified with mestizos, and in opposition
to the group of “others”. This sharp distinction of us versus others is imprinted in
Peruvian minds and reinforced by discourses which take place in media. The
advertisements being analyzed are manifestations of common beliefs and at the same time
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reinforce the notion of social duality. This is another expression of so called vicious circle
in which Peruvian society currently finds itself.
Establishing the borders is a reaction for recent tendency toward pauperization and
social disorganization (Reding, 2007:174). That on the one hand creates social inequality
and on the other hand disable people from social mobility and gives a legitimization and
strengthens the twofold social construction and gives the sense of stability. These borders
are sharp and are becoming even more acute in the face of prevalent threat of soiling the
purity of the race. That in a consequence affects the sharpness of social distinction in a
discursive mode.
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6. Conclusions
Twofold interpretation process: identification of discourses (using discourse
analysis approach) and myths (employing semiotics’ categories) gave a strong basis to
draw final conclusions. Discourses identified and myths which have been recognized are
consistent and hence entitle the student to answer the questions, which consist the axis of
the paper. Combination of semiotics and DA has shown that in analyzed cases discourses
narrate the myths – and reinforce the meanings, creating an ideological background for
its’ influence.
In the the Peruvian social construction, iconography, from the Nazca’ lines to
recent public advertisements, plays a prevalent role. Images (nowadays and ever since)
pass a very strong message, which, because of legal efforts for assuring political
correctness and formally avoid racial statements and attitudes, are verbally and obviously
forbidden. In a consequence, some messages can not be explicitly verbally said. That is
why producers go for a more subtle ways of conveying messages. These demand active
approach to the interpretation process.
One deals here with a paradox that the campaigns, offering intangible items are
about concrete models – that means that this services should be personalized with the
concrete person and her characteristics. The fact that models are young, attractive, slim
pale women and possess ideal European-like, supported by Hollywood and Western
productions and images features, directs our interpretation.
This observation confirms the statement that Latin racism implies latent
discrimination. That can be called emotional racism, not ideological one (González
Manrique, 2006). Racism is not just the ideology which establishes somebody’s relations
with others. It also affects person’s relations with himself (González Manrique, 2006).
That has to do with next conclusion.
Proccess of the interpretation corroborated also the fact that approaches toward
whitening differ across the world depending on social and cultural milieu, contemporary
trends as well as historical heritage – in the case of Peru messages have a strong
emotional overtone and appeal to exclusively Latin values and lifestyles, called in the
paper as “Latin legacy”. Discourses reinforce the general myth of Western civilization
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and its’ components and make them a part of the ideology and social construction, where
Latin legacy is indirectly connoted with stigmatization. Myth of whiteness has been
naturalized to a high extent, becoming an unconscious value which arranges the society.
The power is in hands of Peruvians and they are who induce this discoursive
discussion and who deliberately give the certain message to the receivers. Producers of
the promotional campaigns belong to the same nation and ethnic group as the audience
and general public. That is why one concluded that the situation can be regarded in terms
of colorism. Power doesn’t employ the common and tangible attributes of domination,
neither involve political supremacy. The discourse conveys a “velvet” symbolic notion
of power – by creating physical and metaphorical barrier, the producer created an
impression, which is consequently discursively reproduced in images. Producers use
many techniques, more or less sophisticated, to convey the message. The use of models
and special settings (colors, light, props, lens), connected with use of specific language
and place of logo reinforce the overall discursive reproduction of racial attitudes and its’
narration of everyday life situations.
Analysis confirmed also the claim that Peruvian society is organized on the basis
of binary meanings where target group of consumers is contrasted with the group of a
wider general public. Campaigns convey both positive and negative messages: this
universality demands use special techniques and rhetoric. Analysis confirmed that sharp
distinction on (superior) “us” versus (stigmatized) “others” is imprinted in Peruvian
minds and reinforced by discourses which take place in media. That opposition is
particularly dangerous when it comes to the situation when the producers deliberately
discriminate other Peruvians, addressing to them, via open media texts, strongly racial
barbed concealed meanings and arousing strong inferiority complex related to their darker
skin tone. Whiteness is a perceptible feature which rationally arrange and puts the society
in hieratic order. The way in which the psychic conflict and stabilization is assured by
appealing to one’s skin tone and creating on this base social distinction is a manifestation
of bleaching syndrome, where skin color is a mean of symbolical domination. The
advertisements being analyzed reinforce the notion of social duality. This is another
expression of so called vicious circle in which Peruvian society currently finds itself. That
confirms the statement that in Peru all people are somehow classified (Reding, 2007:172).
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Rhetoric of the image is connected with notion of self-identity – the viewer
remains “in dark” or joins “light side”, where the future seems to be (literally and
figuratively) bright. One can derive tangible advantages as well as emotional benefits,
such as joy and higher social position in others eyes. Images appeal to prevalent human
need to socialize and to personalize themselves with a particular group and thus, lead a
life according to this group’s determinants.
Regarding to the process of whitening, one concluded that what is being bleached
in the sample texts is not skin – models are not whiter Peruvians, but naturally whites,
who comply Western ideal of the beauty. One deals here with cultural lightening of the
atmosphere and life-styles, two key factors which affects the construction of self and
social identity. That consists a part of a wider process which is called consumerism.
Whitening of the atmosphere is a dynamic process which goes in two directions: media
texts in general reinforce racial attitudes and create social world and at the same time are
being reinforced by them and conditioned by social reality. Cultural whitening is a
source of power and is a way in these countries adopt themselves to the dynamic world
and global trends.
To sum up – discourses and myths (being manifestations of prevalent social
ideology) stay in contrast with the popular statement that : ”It is only with the heart that
one can see rightly; what is essential is invisible to the eye”17. The media texts play a
significant role in the in the development, reinforcement, legitimization, and therefore
reproduction of racial attitudes by showing the ideology, referring to social and cultural
milieu, contrasting the myth of Western civilization with the discursive representation of
Latin legacy, reinforcing the twofold construction of the society (us vs them), constructing
self and social identity and setting standards for cultural whitening of lifestyles and
atmosphere.
6.1. Prospects
The notion of whiteness and its’ discursive reproduction go trough permanent
changes. Hence, one wants to close the paper with a theoretical divagations about
17
”The Little Prince”, chapter XXI
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prospects and potential dynamics of the situation in the Peruvian and, generally speaking,
Latin societies.
Yancey adduces historical facts which confirm fluidity of notion of whiteness.
Yancey shows, “that some ethnic Europeans, such as Russians, Poles, and Italians, who
were not considered white in the early twentieth century, have now become part of the
white population”(in: Qian, 2004:195). Similarly, this process can nowadays or in a near
future embrace other nationalities and ethnic groups. Asians and Latin Americans, in face
of a process of changing the definition of whiteness, will eventually implement a white
racial identity. It will be caused by phenotypic similarity between Latinos and whites
(Yancey, 2003, in: Golash-Boza, 2003:434-5). In a consequence, whites will remain a
majority group and continue to occupy high posts (at the stratification hierarchy). That is
the hypothetic situation which has to do merely with Latinos in U.S. This group is
culturally and historically distinct from indigenous Peruvian Indians. The basis for
whiteness domination is different, too. Therefore it is more likely to happen in case of
U.S., than
in case of Peruvian society. However, analysis confirmed that what is
happening now in Peru is a tendency of naturalization of whiteness and setting it as a
natural and desirable value, thus this scenario may eventually, in remote future come true.
Another option is that, if notion of supremacy of whiteness and racial inferiority of
indigenous Latinos grow stronger in the future, new white Latin ethnicity will be created.
Latinos share with Europeans the same basis of language, religion, ethos, culture, law, art
and imagination (Santos & Hallewell, 2002:67). This new ethnicity may emerge on the
intersection of Latin bequest and Western legacy – then the cultural whiteness of the
group will be the leading force (Nabuco, 1993:39, in: Santos & Hallewell, 2002:67).
Without no doubts, social changes are essential for building the common Peruvian
ethnical and social identity. The vicious circle has to be aborted and one can safety say
that for politicians and social leaders it is the most emerging task to do. There is an urgent
need to revise omnipresent stereotypes derived from prevalent ideology. However, it’s a
complicated process, because, as Lippmann refers, integration and disturbance in the
created stereotypes could be compared to the attack at the foundations of one´s world
(Lippmann, 1965).
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