Diploma in Travel and Tourism
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LEARNING UNIT
TITLE
PAGE
1.
Introduction to Ecotourism
2.
Ecotourism Principles
20-29
3.
Ecology & Its Key Concepts
29-47
4.
Environmental Management
48-57
5.
Protected Areas
58-75
6.
The National Parks of South Africa
76-91
7.
The Community
92-99
8.
Culturology
100-118
9.
Partnerships
119-128
10.
Ecotourism Principles & Local
Communities
129-141
Tour Guiding & the Natural
Environment
142-148
National Responsible Tourism
Guidelines for South Africa
148-164
Appendix I
Appendix II
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LEARNING UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO ECOTOURISM
KEY OUTPUTS FOR THIS UNIT
After studying this unit you should be able to:

identify the key South African role players in Ecotourism

explain the meaning of Ecotourism

explain why South Africa needs Ecotourism

understand what Natural Resources are, and how they should be managed

understand the need for Environmental Economics (= Resource Economics)

outline the four major study areas of Ecotourism.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Ecotourism in South Africa
People from all over the world travel to South Africa for the sunshine and to enjoy nature,
and there is a growing move towards more and more of these tourists to become
known as “Ecotourists”. This is not only a South African phenomenon but also a global
trend that means that for South Africa to grow its Ecotourism we have to maintain a
competitive edge globally. Right now times for tourism in general are difficult because in
the last few years it has become clear that security and disease (e.g. Sept. 11th and SARS),
and other matters (e.g. rates of foreign exchange, pricing structures, personal safety, rip-offs
by restaurants and/or hotels, etc.) can radically affect all of the tourism industry. Impacting
both on the destinations, the numbers of people travelling (or rather NOT travelling), and the
kind of people travelling (backpackers, people on packages, etc.).
Because South Africa is renowned for its
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good weather

beautiful and diverse coastline

superb scenery
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friendly and hospitable people from a diverse cultural background

for its abundance of wildlife and excellent National Parks
South Africans have the advantage of having their country being a prime destination. But we
have to be acutely aware of all threats to all tourism to maintain and grow the industry, and
more particularly the Ecotourism industry.
1.2 A Brief History of Ecotourism
Ecotourism is not new. Travellers have been going on safari (a Swahili word meaning “to
travel”) in Africa for at least two centuries. Many of Europe's great naturalists of the 19th
century “safaried” the continent (mainly through East and southern Africa) identifying and
naming plants and animals, and popularising Africa's vast diversity of nature. While at the
same time “opening up” the interior with “missionary zeal”. In the 20th century these safaris
became much more popular. Initially the visitors were either hunters, explorers, naturalists,
writers and/or film makers. They publicised and interpreted their “Africa”, and these early
“Ecotourists” laid a firm foundation for the modern Ecotourism industry. By the mid-1900s
growing numbers of people were coming to Africa to see and experience for themselves
what the continent had to offer.
A definition of “Ecotourism”
The term Ecotourism is comparatively new, although the concept is much older. There are a
number of definitions of the term, but perhaps the most comprehensive is that created by the
American-based Ecotourism Society, which describes it as; "purposeful travel to natural
areas; to understand the cultural and natural history of the environment; taking care
not to alter the integrity of the ecosystem, while producing economic opportunities
that make conservation of natural resources beneficial to local people”. This definition
fits neatly into the South African context, catering for the need for conservation of both the
cultural and the natural environment, and for sustainable economic development particularly for the benefit of “local people”. The South African definition, as formulated by Dr
G.A Robinson when he was CEO of SANParks in the 1990s, is very similar and essentially
reflects the same values with a somewhat different emphasis:
(1) “the protection of living and non-living natural resources,
(2) the promotion of appropriate and environmentally sensitive development, and
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(3) the contribution to the goals of achieving social justice and enhancing the quality
of life and stability - especially for the communities in the immediate vicinity of
protected area”.
The international definition of the word Ecotourism implies far more than merely a natureexperience. The term environment in its broader context has come to include the diverse
community activities and cultures of a country's peoples, as well as all the natural
resources (including biodiversity). Ecotourism, therefore, implies tourism practices that
benefit all concerned parties (all people and all of the environment) - rather than benefiting
some and neglecting others. The South Africa definition puts more emphasis on people as
the key role players. To ensure that Ecotourist activities meet all the requirements in the
definition there are a number of prerequisites that must be met to ensure that Ecotourism is
sustainable. SOME of the most important are listed below:

Proper planning before development

Sustainable use of resources. This means that there must be no negative
impact on either the environment and/or local communities (people)

Economic viability of all tourism products must be ensured, with significant
economic benefits flowing to local communities

The developers must be held responsible and accountable for the environment on which their business is dependent

The tourism industry and tourists must be properly regulated.
In South Africa a new element, Afro-tourism or African tourism, is being introduced into the
definition of Ecotourism. This refers particularly to the study and enjoyment of the diversity of
the cultures present today, and is essentially a marketing ploy.
2 SOUTH AFRICA AS A PRIME ECOTOURISM DESTINATION
The theme that underlies all of South African Tourism's marketing activities for South Africa
as a prime destination for the Ecotourist is:

“Discover South Africa, Rediscover Yourself”
South Africa has a number of advantages in favour of being a prime Ecotourist destination
and these are:
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2.1 National Parks
Ecotourism in South Africa probably begins with the country's network of 20 National
Parks, representing just about every biological zone or natural environment in the country.
Apart from the National Parks there is also a network of marine reserves, other protected
areas, and game reserves (with many of the last run by local or provincial authorities, and
private enterprise). Many of the National Parks, mountainous regions, and coastal areas
feature National Hiking Trails (for which South Africa is famous), presenting an opportunity
for serious Ecotourists to walk “into the wilderness”.
2.2 Ecotourism Partnerships
Ecotourism initiatives countrywide are fully cognisant (or should be) of the need to involve
neighbouring communities. There are many highly successful partnerships adhering to
these principles, ensuring that local communities benefit directly from such projects and
development - either through direct partnerships or through a commitment to plough a profitshare back into the community.
2.3 Culture
The cultural side of Ecotourism is also extremely important, and many of the local cultures
and traditions are accessible to tourists. There are many tribes and/or ethnic groups in South
Africa, and there are no fewer than 11 official languages (12 if one includes “Sign”).
Very old cultures such as the San or Bushmen, living in their age-old traditional way, are
unfortunately becoming difficult to find. Anyone fortunate enough to actually witness the
lifestyle of the San or Bushmen is in fact witnessing the lifestyles of Homo sapiens, as it was
hundreds of thousands of years ago.
2.4 Local Cultural Specialities
South Africa has one of the biggest Indian communities outside India, both Hindu and
Muslim. The Afrikaner community maintains many of its pioneer traditions, some of which
have become firm features of South African culture. There is also a small, but vibrant,
Chinese community as well as other European cultures such as Greek, Portuguese,
German, etc. So South Africa is particularly rich in cultures, both indigenous African and from
overseas.
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2.5 “Adventure” Tourism
Within the framework of Ecotourism lies the concept of Adventure Tourism. These are
tourists seeking new avenues of exploring and experiencing their surroundings. Because of
South Africa’s vast diversity these niche markets are well represented, and we need to cater
more cleverly for this market. Amongst other activities available in South Africa we find:
Extreme water sports such as:

diving, including snorkelling or scuba - not only around the coastline but also in inland
waters

rafting and canoeing - there is some of the world’s best river rafting, canoeing, and
kayaking available on South African rivers

yachting and power boating - both at sea and on inland waters is becoming
increasingly popular

South Africa is world renowned as a windsurfing destination

surfing and/or parasailing/gliding are sports that are also well catered for in South
Africa, and the world surfing championships are often held here.
Terrestrial activities such as:

Vehicle safaris, especially 4x4 trails, are becoming increasingly popular and these
can be found in many different natural environments around the country. In keeping
within the Ecotourism framework every effort is made, and should be made, to avoid
environmental damage and lessen the impact of this activity

Cycling - both road and mountain biking are growing in popularity. There are many
organised cycling events, as well as trails that may be done at any time

Cross-country running and orienteering
South Africa also has many other advantages over most African countries because we offer
modern infrastructure such as:

A sophisticated transport infrastructure (road, rail and air)

A readily accessible international financial and banking system

A wide range of accommodation facilities - ranging from the best world standards
to hiking huts, camping safaris, and private B&Bs

Restaurants that also serve takeaways to international standards, and of many
cuisines
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International shopping venues and locations where African arts and crafts are
readily available - where our different cultures may be experienced and where we
cater for discerning tastes

Advanced medical facilities.
3 THE FOCUS OF ECOTOURISM
In the past much of the focus of Ecotourism was on the natural environment. Thus
Ecotourism came to incorporate other forms of tourism such as “Nature Tourism”,
“Wilderness Tourism”, “Low Impact Tourism” and “Sustainable Tourism”, to name some.
More recently “culture” has also been included in Ecotourism, and the diagram below is an
attempt to encapsulate the five fundamental elements of Ecotourism today:
TOURISM
Mass tourism
(= conventional, largescale tourism)
Cultural
Alternative forms of
tourism
Educational
Scientific
Adventure
Agri-tourism,
and/or Farm
Tourism
= Ecotourism (sometimes incorrectly referred to as “Nature Tourism”)
Figure representing the five contemporary components of Ecotourism.
4 KEY ROLE PLAYERS
Ecotourism involves a large cross section of professionals. It is in fact a joint operation
of caring and creative people who combine their experience on many different levels.
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Each role player has an important function in the development, operation and marketing
of Eco-tourism, and of Ecotourism destinations.
The KEY role players in any Ecotourism activity are:

The authority (such as the State, a local authority, and/or an owner [if the land is
privately owned] from whom permission to operate must be obtained)

The tour operator (a registered company and/or individual who brings in the
Ecotourists)

The local community (the people who live adjacent to and/or in the area of
operation)

The tourists (the individuals who use the facilities and who are the clients of the
operator, and/or those who use the facilities themselves).
It is important that all these role players adhere to a strict set of guidelines or values to
ensure that all the criteria are met (see those discussed in the INTRODUCTION).
The Strategic Framework for Tourism Development in South Africa, compiled by South
African Tourism and The Development Bank of S.A., emphasises the values of:

equitable socio-economic benefits for all participants and communities

community involvement in decision-making and levels of responsibility, and

economic and resource sustainability - which requires the balanced management of
renewable Ecotourism resources (both human and natural).
5 NEW ASPECTS OF ECOTOURISM RELEVANT TO SOUTH AFRICA
Today Ecotourism in South Africa has also come to include ‘tourist participation’ in all
aspects of the operation. This means that the Ecotourist should not only experience all the
natural aspects of Ecotourism, but they should also be exposed to (and involved - where
feasible) with aspects of local community life. Thus the Ecotourist should have an integrated
and holistic experience, a truly South African episode.
Important experiential aspects include such things as:

Ethos–bonding. This implies that the Ecotourist wants to do more than just travel and
participate in activities such as hiking, snorkelling and/or viewing wildlife, etc. – in fact
the entire spectrum of outdoor activities that is part of “the African Experience”. The
Ecotourist also wants to get “involved”’ or “participate” in local community matters
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and/or interact with “locals” in some way. They want to gain insights into the needs
and daily life activities of local people, and to better understand their cultural values.

Exposed to the New Democracy. A complete change has occurred in South Africa
with regards to a new and emerging democracy post-1994. To be exposed to this
new stage and process of development in South Africa’s history is of interest and
enlightening to many Ecotourists. They are particularly interested in aspects of the
“peace and reconciliation” process, and how family values and personal freedoms
have changed.

Natural and Cultural Diversity. South Africa has been marketed as “A World in one
Country”. It not only has a rich diversity of wildlife and scenic splendour, but also an
unusual mix of different cultural and ethnic groups, each with their own language,
food, religion and customs. This excites foreigners, as the conservation of cultural
diversity is now a recognised global issue.
Surveys of South Africa’s most popular features reveal that these are:

scenic beauty which is consistently voted South Africa’s most popular attraction

followed by its year-round sunny climates

rich heritage of wildlife, and

fascinating cultures.
6 WHY DOES SOUTH AFRICA NEED ECOTOURISM?
6.1 Upliftment
The range of outdoor activities and scenic beauty is only a part of the picture. Given the
realities of rural poverty and under-development in South Africa, Ecotourism activities can
contribute to the upliftment of rural communities.
South Africa’s biggest current challenge is the battle against poverty. There are two preconditions required before poverty can be adequately addressed:

There must be political stability

There must be economic growth and development
Political stability and economic upliftment are mutually dependent.
6.2 Rural Poverty
Some of the poorest people in South Africa live in densely populated rural areas, often
adjacent to highly valued natural areas. Much of this land is marginal for farming and
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ecologically fragile. An estimated 16+ million people live in such rural areas, four-fifths of
them live under the “Household Effective Threshold’ – the minimum on which a family of five
can subsist. Of these 13 million people suffer deprivation to some degree or other, and some
nine million are landless.
Rural poverty in South Africa cannot be turned around by agricultural development
because:

There is not enough suitable agricultural land to do so, and

Many individuals in rural areas prefer not to be involved in agriculture as a means
of livelihood
Ecotourism presents one of the only viable opportunities to generate a livelihood for these
people and, significantly, in a less destructive and more productive manner.
Helping uplift
“This is an ancient tale of two men talking, one from Heaven one from Hell. The man from
Hell lamented. “It is indeed a wretched place, we are hungry all the time.”
“You mean there is no food in hell?” the man from heaven enquired.
“Oh there’s food – we sit at banqueting tables with the most sumptuous food our eyes could
behold spread out before us. However, we are made to eat with knifes and forks a metre
long. No matter how hard we try, it is impossible to put food into our mouths.”
“In Heaven”, the other man began, “ we too sit at a banquet table and we too are made to eat
with knifes and forks. But ours are two metres long.”
“It cannot be,” said the first man in disbelief. “If we cannot feed ourselves with knives and
forks a metre long how in Heaven’s name do you feed yourselves with knives and forks that
are twice the length?”
“Ah, but that’s the point, my friend,” the man from Heaven replied, “we do not feed ourselves,
we feed each other.”
Anon
6.3 Development of Game Farms
Large parts of South Africa are semi-arid and rainfall is unpredictable. As such these areas
are not suited to sustainable agriculture. Privately owned game farms can prove to be a
lucrative and environmentally sound form of alternative land use in these areas. Thirty five of
the world’s best-known and privately owned game lodges exist on the three million hectares
of land between the Sabie and Olifants Rivers, adjacent to the two million hectares
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comprising the Kruger National Park. However, part of the problem is that the rural poor do
not have access to land of sufficient size to start game farms, thus the redistribution of land is
a key political issue that needs to be addressed with urgency and diplomacy.
6.4 Job Creation
Total tourist arrivals in South Africa for 2001 were 5.78 million. In 2002 the total amount of
foreign tourists to South Africa increased by 11.3%, and there was a further increase in 2003.
Thus the tourism sector is a key South African industry that is growing, and has the potential
to grow much more. For every eight tourists in South Africa one job is created. In South
Africa there are an estimated 740 000 people (South Africa yearbook 2000/2001) employed
in the tourist industry, about 4.5% of the work force. Crime levels (often caused by
unemployment) can directly affect all tourism and, therefore, can have a major negative
affect on our whole tourism industry. Other problems also affect tourism, so it is vitally
important for the State to address any issues that negatively affect the whole industry.
Around the world tourism provides one in every 14 jobs, injecting nearly US$ 4,494 billion in
foreign exchange into the international economy every year. Nearly 500 million people
around the world go on holiday every year – and every person buys consumer items for the
trip before leaving home. They then travel to their destination and use accommodation, they
eat, drink and enjoy entertainment, and buy gifts for those at home as well as for themselves.
7 RESOURCES
What are our key tourism resources?
Our natural resources are soil, water (marine and fresh), air and all living things (including
our ethnic/cultural mix of people), that is our total South African environment and all that is
embodied in it. As humans we are involved in the management of all these resources
through cropping, ranching, forestry, fisheries, water quality management and supply, soil
conservation, wildlife management, air quality control (pollution), economic activities, and a
host of human pursuits, etc. What is vital for our future is that we look after these resources,
and this is called conservation (= the wise use of resources, or the sustainable use of
resources).
The three main objectives for the conservation of living resources are:

To maintain essential ecological processes such as recycling of nutrients and
purification of water (= the maintenance of life support systems) for human develop-
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ment and survival (a group of living things and the physical environment in which they
live together is known as an ecosystem)

To preserve genetic diversity. Apart from the protection of endangered and vulnerable
species, this forms the basis of breeding programmes for the protection and improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals. Scientific progress (like the
development of new medicines) and the security of many industries utilising living
resources are also dependent on genetic diversity, and

To ensure the sustainable utilisation of species and ecosystems (mainly fish, wildlife,
forests and grazing lands) which support millions of people as well as many
industries.
Resources can be “ used” and/or “abused” in the following ways:

Exploitation. South Africa with our superb wildlife and scenery should be a prime ecodestination. If we lose the wildlife, or turn wildlife over to crops, or simply fill the land
with people, we will be killing the proverbial “goose that lays the golden egg”. It is said
in some quarters that we cannot afford to spend too much money on conservation
when so many people are living in poverty. However, the destruction of the resources
from pollution and over-exploitation also endangers development and human life AND
CREATES POVERTY. So one could well ask the question “can we afford to not
conserve?”

Under-utilisation. There is also the danger of under-utilising our resources. If we fail to
develop our resources sufficiently OR SOUNDLY we may not be able to provide an
acceptable standard of living for all members of our society, and in this turn could
result in great social unrest, economic collapse and political upheaval

Over-development. We may overdevelop where the demand forces large-scale
development, which all but destroys the environment. Ecotourism is not a responsible
alternative if it degrades the environment.
8 MAIN AREAS OF ECOTOURISM STUDY
There are four major areas of focus within the Ecotourism Industry. The people involved in
the industry are:

tourism planners and marketing personnel

natural resource managers

resort owners

conservationists and tour operators.
It can be argued that South Africa has unlimited needs and limited resources. Ecotourism
has the potential to be a lucrative venture, but to reap the benefits we have to understand
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Environmental Economics. The real tough question is, “how do we maximise profits from
limited resources in a sustainable way?”

Ecotourism planning and management. An Ecotourism venture should operate both as a
successful business and be managed in a manner that minimises its impact on the
natural environment, while at the same time maximising public awareness.

Effective business and marketing for Ecotourism. Ecotourism business owners and
operators must balance the financial and/or business needs of their operation with the
need to maintain high ethical and environmental standards. They face the challenge of
incorporating the conservation ethic into all aspect of their business - from the product
itself, to the transfer of business skills to local communities.

Infrastructure design and use of low impact technology on Ecotourism. An effective
Ecotourism manager must know how to:
 Design an Ecotourism resort that enhances the natural beauty of a fragile
environment without damaging it
 Provide visitor comfort without polluting natural waterways, generating large amounts
of non-recyclable waste, destroying habitats of indigenous flora and fauna, and/or
using non-renewable sources of energy
 Incorporate educational and interpretive materials into the site that will increase the
visitors’ understanding and appreciation of local environments and culture.

Ecotourism for the benefit of conservation and communities. This offers a unique
opportunity for those responsible for raising awareness and appreciation of South Africa
ecosystems, and indigenous cultures, both within South Africa and overseas. Ecotourism
has attracted much attention from governments, conservation groups, private industry
and local and indigenous communities. And as such it can provide the economic and
social incentives needed to preserve areas of great ecological or cultural importance. In
certain cases Ecotourism can be used as a tool for nature conservation and provide
employment for local communities. The Ecotourist can also be educated to have a strong
conservation ethic. One, therefore, needs to carefully consider the costs and benefits to
areas where Ecotourism ventures occur.
9 STATUS OF ECOTOURISM IN SOUTH AFRICA
There is a growing awareness of environmental, social and economic responsibility among
the members of the tourism industry. Parties that are directly involved in a nature-based
tourism experience, such as the National and Provincial Parks, as well as private game
reserve owners, are now including the concept of involving and benefiting local communities
in their mission statements. Similarly the need for thorough planning it is being emphasised
publically and, for example, it is now generally conceded that mining in ecologically sensitive
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areas can have a major long-term negative environmental impact. Conservation and the
careful management of scarce resources is increasingly becoming a National priority.
REVISION EXERCISE
Multiple choice questions
1. Ecotourism is:
5. Rural poverty refers mainly to the
a) Limited to nature lovers
fact that:
b) A growing trend throughout the world
a) millions of South Africans live below the
c) Appealing to people who will want to
escape from the rat race and city life
d) attractive to surfers
Household Effective Threshold
b) there is massive unemployment
c) we are not attracting enough tourists to
e) restricted to bush-walkers
South Africa
d) that there is political instability
2. Not altering “the integrity” of the
environment means:
6. Building flats high up on the slopes
a) using the environment to provide
of Table Mountain would be an example
of:
Ecotourist destinations
b) sustaining the environment for future
use
a) exploitation
b) under utilization
c) contributing to the economic welfare of
local people
c) over-development
d) poor planning
d) having good partnerships
e) A and B
f) C and D
3. Ethos-bonding means:
a) learning more about African cultures
7. Ecotourism is all about:
b) becoming physically involved in
a) maximising profits
activities and experiences
b) developing partnerships
c) learning more about the new, free South
Africa
c) proper land-use planning
d) travelling cheaply
d) none of the above
e) people and places
4. An African safari means:
8. Ecotourists are the:
a) Swahili for “living in Africa”
a) rich and famous in Africa
b) going to the National Parks
b) visitors from the West
c) enjoying African wildlife
c) a wide cross-section of people
d) travelling in the African bush
interested in culture and nature
d) young back-packers travelling the world
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Discuss

The importance of having an accurate definition of Ecotourism

Is “Adventure Tourism” synonymous to Ecotourism?

How important is it to the SA Ecotourism industry to indulge/take part in “new
aspects” of Ecotourism?

Why it is important to understand the main areas of Ecotourism study
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LEARNING UNIT 2
ECOTOURISM PRINCIPLES
KEY OUTPUTS FOR THIS UNIT
After studying this unit you should be able to:

define responsible and sustainable Ecotourism

explain how Ecotourism in South Africa can be promoted

understand some of the basic principles for Ecotourism development

list the main advantages of Ecotourism

assess an eco-experience by using the ten commandments of eco-travel

be aware of what rural people understand as the ‘New Big Five’.
1 RESPONSIBLE AND SUSTAINABLE ECOTOURISM
Responsible Ecotourism is sustainable - which means that it integrates economic, social, and
environmental considerations within a sustainable system. A sustainable system is one that
survives and continues to function over a long period of time (many decades at least). Being
sustainable means using only enough of the earth’s resources (air, water, soil, minerals,
animals and plants) to meet our needs, and conserving enough of these resources to meet
the needs of our children, their children after them, and so on. But the sustainability of the
earth’s resources as listed above, is not a complete list of what must be conserved. There
are other non-tangible items like the maintenance of a beautiful landscape, peace and quiet
(no noise or light pollution), and a host of human values like culture, religion, and aesthetics
that also need to be considered.
1.1 What is Sustainable Ecotourism?
Listed below are a number of things that make Ecotourism more sustainable. The list
is by no means exhaustive as each operation may and can have unique experiences
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and/or values, so try to add to this list if you can! Therefore, to have sustainable
Ecotourism operators/guides must strive to:

Be informative as possible. Travellers not only learn about the destination,
they learn how to help sustain its character while deepening their own travel
experiences. Residents learn that the ordinary and familiar may be of interest
and value to outsiders.

Support integrity of place. Destination-savvy travellers seek out businesses
that emphasise the character of the locale in terms of architecture, heritage,
cuisine aesthetics, ecology, etc. Tourism revenues give added value to those
assets. A value that the locals may not have previously acknowledged.

Ensure that benefits flow to local residents. In Ecotourism it is essential,
and makes good long-term business sense, to employ and train local people,
buy local supplies, and use local services. The more the locals benefit from
the operation the more they will support the activities, and the better they will
conserve the assets.

Conserves resources. Environmentally aware travellers favour businesses
that have active programmes to minimise pollution, waste, energy
consumption, water usage, the use of landscaping chemicals, and
unnecessary
night
time
lighting
(i.e.
companies
that
demonstrate
environmental awareness by their actions).

Respect local culture and tradition. Foreign visitors who learn about and
observe local etiquette (including using at least a few courtesy words in the
local language) feel a greater empathy with the experience. Local residents in
turn who learn how to deal with foreign expectations that may differ from their
own also appreciate the additional knowledge.

Not abuse the product. Stakeholders who recognise that development
pressures can deplete resources, and apply limits and management
techniques to prevent the "loved to death" syndrome can gain respect. Thus
businesses that co-operate to sustain natural habitats, heritage sites, scenic
appeal, local culture, etc. are perceived as GOOD businesses that are
environmentally sensitive.

For quality, not quantity. Communities need to measure Ecotourism
success not by the sheer numbers of visitors, but by the length of stay, money
spent, and quality of experience. More is not necessarily better as every site
has a maximum carrying capacity, which should not be exceeded, because if
the carrying capacity is exceeded then the resources become depleted.
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To give unforgettable experiences. Satisfied, excited visitors take new knowledge
home and send friends off to experience the same and/or similar things they enjoyed
- which provides continuing business for the destination.

Offer a “romantic” experience. Africa has many ‘romantic” things to offer such as
pre-historic paintings, the African night sky, a unique rhythm of life, etc. One has to be
careful of not being too contrived by offering “un-romantic” experiences like overcommercialised “traditional villages”, bad cultural experiences, etc.
1.2 The Principles of Sustainable (Responsible) Ecotourism
From the list above, and from the additional points that you may/will have added, it is clear
that to have sustainable Ecotourism there are a number of basic principles that must be
followed in order to achieve the levels of responsibility required to enjoy a sustainable
operation. What these principles achieve is “ to make everyone from government, to the
man-in-the-street, aware of the importance of the environment and the resulting Ecotourism”. The principles of Sustainable Ecotourism are that:
1. All resources should be respected and every effort must be made to use them
sparingly
2. Education and training of all parties concerned - local communities, the Ecotourists,
government and industry - is key to success
3. Participation by the Ecotourist should be encouraged at all levels and in all sectors
4. Value adding by all parties and at all levels is essential for success
5. Partnerships between all parties involved in the venture should be promoted
6. Ethical and moral attitudes, and responsibility towards the natural and cultural
environment, should be promoted by all concerned with the operation
7. The long term benefits of the resource, to the local community, and to the operation
must be enshrined (benefits may be economic, scientific, social, cultural, ethical or
biological)
Ecotourism operations should/must involve big business (external partners) in the form of
people and investment for development, but it must also involve local communities and
individual entrepreneurs.
Comprehensive training programmes at all levels of the Ecotourism industry are vital, and
the quality of this training and the resulting services that are offered must be of the highest
standards. These standards must also be maintained and improved over time, and this
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requires the implementation of a monitoring and evaluation programme. For Ecotourism to
succeed there must be a high level of co-operation on the local, regional, national and
international fronts, so that everyone benefits to the maximum. This co-operation must also
extend into the field of marketing.
2 MASS TOURISM AND DEGRADATION VS ECOTOURISM AND
CONSERVATION
Mass tourism is the bulk movement of people on the basis that their collective buying
power drives prices down. It is often cheaper for this category of tourist to holiday outside
their own country, than it is to holiday inside their home country. Traditionally this kind of
tourism was very popular, and it still is for certain clients, and for some reasons is gaining
popularity once more.
Mass Tourism and negative impacts
In Kruger National Park large bus liners at kills often block viewing and belch diesel
fumes over microbuses and cars. This problem could perhaps simply be addressed by
designating “special” routes where buses have priority. The logistics of this would have
to be carefully planned, but such a plan could overcome a recognised problem.
Table Mountain receives more than 600 000 visitors per year by cable car, and many
more thousands who climb the Mountain. Being one of the natural wonders of the world
the value of the Mountain is inestimable as a recreation site for local and foreign
visitors alike, both for its unique fynbos species and its aesthetic beauty. Traversing
the Mountain becomes a ‘pilgrimage’. The continual presence of all these people
together with a lack of a comprehensive environmental policy continues to take its toll
on the fragile ecosystem of the Mountain.
In terms of Ecotourism it should be remembered that one tourist spending a hundred dollars
is worth much more that 10 tourists spending 10 dollars each. Thus one focus of Ecotourist
destinations is to maximise the financial benefits from a smaller number of people – without
compromising the value of the destination. This is a simple concept, but in reality is more
complex to implement. For example, Eastern markets are now requesting an Ecotourism
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experience but prefer large tour groups for language/cultural reasons. Rather than lose
foreign earnings we must now try to cater for these groups because tourism creates jobs,
even if this demands more facilities and puts added pressures on the sustainability of
resources. With careful management it is possible to offer a quality Ecotourism experience to
large groups of people, though there will always be some compromises because small
groups are able to have experiences that are impossible to give/offer to large groups. The
key is careful planning.
All over the world there are places and situations where ‘special areas’ are being
bombarded by human impact to the extent that they are being stripped of the very beauty
and assets that draws these hordes of tourists to them in the first place. This is true for many
ecosystems and great historic cities of the world – unsustainable utilisation can only lead to
exploitation and destruction.
3 PROMOTION OF ECOTOURISM IN SOUTH AFRICA
Ecotourism has tremendous potential in South Africa. It must, however, be remembered that
it is essentially a service industry. You have to be acutely aware of your market’s needs
and market aggressively to them to be successful and more importantly, to maintain market
share.
Every year millions of people from the “developed world” head for an Ecotourism
experience/adventure in one or more of the global biodiversity hot spots. They visit these
areas as participants of well marketed and expertly conducted ecotours. However, much of
their valuable currency remains in their home country from whence their tours are organised.
This is a real problem for those countries that are being visited and are providing the
Ecotourism experience. Countries where there are real needs to increase their foreign
earnings and standards of living. It is essential for South Africans to break into these niche
markets, but this is not easy. The marketing of these tours is highly professional and
intensely competitive. Without a hard-hitting and effective marketing strategy we in South
Africa will not attract the wealthy, information-hungry and resource-friendly clientele who
support these ecotours, and earn most of the money for ourselves. To develop a
sustainable Ecotourism industry we need to:

Provide local communities with strong incentives to participate in and benefit from
the industry

Provide appropriate training in Ecotourism principles and service standards at all
levels
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And most importantly launch aggressive and effective marketing strategies that
will ultimately maximise local profit share and capture the lion’s share of the global
Ecotourism market.
4 ADVANTAGES OF ECOTOURISM
Ecotourism is the fastest growing sector in the international travel industry.
The main advantages of Ecotourism are:
1. it provides an excellent source of foreign exchange that can be used by the
governments of developing countries to finance economic growth and
development
2. Ecotourism and its associated activities is a better form of land use than most
agricultural pursuits, especially in arid and semi-arid areas
3. It is a form of economic development that can, if managed correctly, spread
revenue to the poorest strata of marginal rural communities. In South Africa it can
be a source of restitution for disadvantaged rural communities
4. It is an ‘industry without chimneys’ (that is can promote economic growth without damaging the environment) while assisting social and economic development
5. Ecotourism is a ‘peace industry’ because it promotes respect for other cultures
and can only safely occur in peaceful areas
6. It can also promote business partnerships between the private sector,
conservation authorities and residents located in, or adjacent to, wild areas
5 SOME BASIC PLANNING PRINCIPLES FOR ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT
For the successful establishment of Ecotourism destinations we have learned from
experience that there are certain planning principles that must guide the development. Some
of these are:

Apply strict conservation measures to the natural area used for Ecotourism to
protect the flora, fauna and ecosystems, and any existing archaeological or historic
sites, and local culture

Establish carrying capacity standards so that there is no over development of
tourist facilities, or overuse of the environment – ensuring that the resource is not
depreciated

Develop small-scale tourist facilities in environmentally suitable locations with
locally based designs, use of materials, energy saving devices and proper disposal of
waste material. Large scale developments are much more difficult to establish in an
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environmentally friendly fashion. Develop a visitor centre with exhibits about the site
and local conservation attractions should also be developed.

Prepare and distribute Ecotourism codes of conduct for Ecotourists and tour
operators, and closely monitor the application of these codes

Provide well trained tour guides who will give accurate information to Ecotourists to
educate them on matters of biological diversity, conservation management
techniques and requirements, observe good conservation behaviour during tours, and
give them a great introduction to social values

Integrate local communities into Ecotourism development by providing them jobs
and income.
6 THE TEN COMMANDMENTS OF ECO-TRAVEL
From the point-of-view of the Ecotourists themselves they need to understand, or be
taught/encouraged, to:

respect the frailty of the earth by realising that unless they are willing to help in the
preservation of unique and beautiful destinations they will not be there for future
generations to enjoy

leave only footprints, take only photographs! No graffiti! No litter! Do not take away
souvenirs from historical sites and natural areas

make their travel more meaningful and educate themselves about the wildlife,
geography, customs, manners and cultures of the region they. Take time to listen to
the local people

encourage local conservation efforts

respect the privacy and dignity of others, for example, inquire before
photographing people

not buy products made from endangered plants or animals. Generally these
include items made from ivory, tortoise shell, animal skins, feathers, and even wood,
though in some places these products are produced sustainably so request permits in
prior to purchase

always follow and keep to designated trails, do not disturb animals, plants or the
natural environment

learn about and support conservation-oriented programmes and organisations
working to preserve the environment (i.e. encourage local conservation efforts)

Whenever
possible
walk
or
use
environmentally
sound
methods
transportation
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Patronise those (hotels, airlines, resorts, cruise lines, tour operators, suppliers, etc.)
who use energy sparingly (or better, use energy obtained from renewable resources),
and who practise environmentally friendly conservation practices when it comes to
the use of water, take care to recycle, deal safely with waste and toxic materials and
are aware of the need for noise abatement, have community involvement
programmes, and that provide experienced, well-trained staff dedicated to strong
principles of conservation

Encourage organisations to subscribe and adhere to environmental guidelines
For Ecotourists to be able to establish the genuineness of a proposed Eco-tour operator the
Ecotourist should check the following procedures and practices:

Research their destination before leaving, so as to be informed of what are the
social and environmental problems facing your host nation or community

Show respect for the people and area by knowing something about their language,
culture, beliefs, and social behavioural norms

Get some background on your tour operator to discover whether he is really
conservation orientated and practises what they preach

Be aware of your impact on the area. How will your presence impact on the local
ecosystems. For example on a cruise ship ask what the company does with its waste
at sea

Know where your money goes and how much of the money you spend will benefit
the place you visit. What does your tour operator or resort do to support the local
environment and/or local community-based projects

Employment practice. Does, for example, the establishment you will be staying at
employ local people, and do they merely fill menial roles with little opportunity for
advancement? Ask questions about the provision of education, homes and basic
services like clean water and health for employees and their families

Make others aware by being prepared to lobby politicians, the media and
environmental /conservation groups to draw their attention to issues of importance

Buy carefully and be sure you are helping indigenous economics by buying local
products and services. Do not buy curios and mementoes without knowing the source
of the material used and whether they have been legally and sustainable obtained
(for example Bali has a flourishing giraffe carving industry that is under-cutting African
carvers)

Support a conservation agency by joining or contributing financially

Question your lifestyle and ask yourself whether your lifestyle at home has any
negative affects on the area you are visiting? If so, what can you do to change it?
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There are surely a number of other things you can add to the list that are place and person
specific. What are they?
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REVISION EXERCISE
Multiple choice questions
1. To establish the genuineness
of a proposed Eco-tour,
checks should reveal that:
a) the destination earns a
good foreign exchange
b) respect is shown to local
people
c) the Ecotourism revenue
helps the rural economy
d) all of the above
e) none of the above
4. Many Ecotourists are stressed city
dwellers wanting to get back to their
roots and have an African
experience. How would you
describe what they are looking for?
a)
b)
c)
d)
5.
2. How are game parks
developed?
a) an industry, which can
promote economic growth
without damaging the
environment
b) an industry, which
promotes respect for one
another’s culture
c) an industry, which is
focussed on the marginal
rural communities
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Which of the following
statements are TRUE?
a) mass tourism is tourism for the
masses
b) mass tourism drives
prices down.
c) mass tourism is not suitable for
the African Market.
d) mass tourism has positive
economic impacts
e) all of the above
f) A and B above
a) by changing farm
boundaries
b) by adding or changing the
animal species present
c) by including the sale of
African crafts and industries
within its borders
d) B and C above
3. What does the term ‘peace
industry’ mean?
a romantic interlude
an un-romantic interlude
a Survival Mode Experience
an opportunity to learn.
6.
In the principles of sustainable
tourism and Ecotourism:
a) the overall environmental
quality should be maintained
b) a high level of tourism
satisfaction is optional
c) partnerships are difficult and
optional
d) only business training is
important
e) Ecotourists should be offered a
“full” experience.
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LEARNING UNIT 3
ECOLOGY AND ITS KEY CONCEPTS
KEY OUTPUTS FOR THIS UNIT
After studying this unit you should be able to:

briefly explain the meaning of ecology and related terms

identify the seven South African biomes on a map

identify the World’s Floral Kingdoms (one whole Kingdom is limited to South
Africa – The Cape Floral Kingdom)

understand the various study areas of ecology

be aware of what natural resources attract Ecotourism.
1 DEFINITION OF ECOLOGY
1.1 The Meaning of Ecology
Ecology is a relatively new concept. A German biologist named Ernest Haeckle in the
late 1800s first used the term “ecology”. The word ecology is derived from two Greek
words - “oikos” meaning house, and “logos” meaning study. Translated the word
ecology means to “study organisms in their houses”. The most general definition of
ecology is - the study of the relationships of plants and animals with each other,
and with their environment (which is their house or HABITAT).
Ecology is thus broadly regarded as the study of the structure and functioning of nature
and, therefore, includes all the inter-related interactions that occur in nature.
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1.2 Objective of Ecology
The objective of ecology is to study how organisms live in their native (natural)
habitat. Organisms are directly dependent on their environment for all their life support
systems. The organisms interact on and in this environment, as well as with all the other
living things that surround them. This inter-acting system is called an ECOSYSTEM, the
size of which can be small or large depending on the system being studied (a mossy rock
on a forest floor, or the Indian Ocean).
1.3 Biotic and Abiotic
There are basically two elements in ecology, and broadly speaking in the world around
us, these are namely
1) the biotic, and
2) the abiotic components

Abiotic relates to the non-living elements of the world: i.e. rocks, water, air, etc.

Biotic relates to the living elements of the world: i.e. plants, animals, etc.
When studying ecology one can either study the ecology of a single species, which is
called autecology, or more generally ecologists study communities with a mix of species,
this branch of ecological study is called synecology. Thus autecology incorporates the
study of, for example, aspects of the lifecycle of an organism, feeding methods,
behavioural patterns, etc. Synecology on the other hand is the study of different groups
of organisms that function as a unit in a community - and here ecologists study the interactions and processes that support the functional requirements of the system (which is
what we basically see when we look around us at the natural world).
It is important to remember that ecological studies need not apply only to open fields
and/or natural systems, but also to urban areas. Most ecologists are interested in
observing and measuring change that occur in systems, and more specifically changes
that have been imposed on the system – most often by human activities.
Ecology is, therefore, a basic division of biology, and because it relates to all living
matter it is almost impossible to practically differentiate clearly between plant and animal
ecology. Ecology is about how one action influences another, or how the ecosystem in
general is impacted. A simple example is given below to clarify our understanding:
Any influence in the environment has an influence on an organism, and vice versa. For
example, antelope graze on grasslands, recycle what they do not metabolise as dung,
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which provides nutrients for the soil that promotes further grass growth. This is a simple
cycle (or a FOOD CHAIN) and is vitally important to both antelope and plant life. If a
drought occurs (abiotic factor) no rain arrives, thus the grass does not grow and the
antelope (biotic factor) cannot get enough food and cannot recycle enough nutrients to
promote further growth. The antelope may die as a result of the drought and the plants
may stop growing because they have no water and/or nutrients, and as such the whole
environment (house) is affected.
The important point to remember in ecology is that everything is connected (or, better
still, INTER-CONNECTED). Biotic and abiotic factors have a reciprocal relationships they influence one another.
1.5 Holistic
The term “holistic” is often used in ecology. And lately in most ecological contexts holism
relates to the view that encompasses the whole environment and all the organisms
that live in it (= the ECOSYSTEM – sometimes also referred to the “WEB OF LIFE”,
being the inter-connected and inter-related interactions between all the abiotic and biotic
components in the landscape). The landscape that can be viewed as being extremely
large, as for example the whole Amazon Forest or Amazonia, or it can be viewed as
extremely small such as the mossy growth on a log in the Amazon Forest. This is simply
a matter of scale definition.
1.6 Habitats
Ecology is thus based on the study of the habitat (the HOUSE) of the organism. A
habitat is a geographic area that can support a particular organism. A habitat is
circumscribed by the organisms inhabiting it, i.e. The Amazon Forest is the habitat of
many Rain Forest trees and associated flora and fauna, and a moss covered log on the
Amazon Forest floor is a habitat dominated by mosses, small invertebrates and fungi.
Another example is that of a seal which cannot function in a desert since it is an aquatic
animal (mammal) that inhabits the ocean. Though seals breed on land and along the
Namibian coast in desert conditions. For example, the seal colonies north of Swakopmund. Even though a habitat has limitations it can vary dramatically in size, from many
millions of hectares in a rain forest, to a few square centimetres on a log, it is a matter of
human definition/perception that defines the size/scale.
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2 LEVELS OF ECOLOGICAL STUDY
Ecologists study the world on three different levels:

Population – meaning the individual species level

Communities – at the level where many species occupy the same or very similar
space or habitat, and interact with each other in a variety of ways

Ecosystems – where many communities occur and interact with one another
3 CARRYING CAPACITY
This is a key concept in ecology. The concept of carrying capacity originated in the
1950s, when ecologists generally realised that habitats could not support increasing
numbers of individuals without these individuals beginning to compromise/impact the
ability of the habitat to sustain the population indefinitely. Central to the concept is that
environmental factors set limits on the population (= the numbers of individuals) that
an area can sustain. Or in other words the carrying capacity is the largest size of a
population that can be supported by a particular habitat. This can be calculated
using a complex formula that takes into account all the limiting factors. The result will
be a certain number of animals, or people, which a habitat, or an ecosystem, can
‘comfortably’ sustain in perpetuity (even under adverse conditions, such as extreme
drought or when rangelands are razed by fire and all the grazing is lost). When these
limits are exceeded the quality of the environment suffers (i.e. degradation occurs, which
could be manifest by soil erosion or loss of biodiversity, etc.), and ultimately the ability of
the environment to support that population is compromised. Thus under natural
conditions the population declines (either slowly or catastrophically – and because we
are technologically capable we humans can devise short term solutions to such
catastrophes). And it is worth noting that “ecological time” is measured using
evolutionary time-scales, thus “short term” means a good few years, medium term
means tens and hundreds of years, and long term means more than 1,000 years. We
are extremely fortunate here in Africa that our ecosystems are well buffered against
many human impacts, thus they are fairly resistant to change – which is good and bad
(bad because we may not be readily aware of the damage we are creating until it is too
late).
What is most relevant to the Ecotourism industry is that there are three main elements to
calculating Ecotourism carrying capacity:

Biophysical (= ecological) - are those factors that relate to the natural
environment
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Ecotourism
Socio-cultural - primarily being the impact of Ecotourists on the host population
(including cultural aspects)

Facility - which relates to the quality of the visitor experience
4 BIOMES OF SOUTH AFRICA
There are a few slight variations of the definition of the term biome, but the most
comprehensive definition is:
A Biome is a unit of classification for a naturally occurring plant community
(the plants of which have a similar structure, being all grasses or all trees).
Biomes usually have a recognisable associated faunal assemblage (animals
adapted to the particular conditions of the biome). And all these plants and
animals occur under similar micro-climatic conditions within a certain geographic zone.
Thus each Biome consists of a distinctive combination of plants (and animals), and each
is characterised by a uniform vegetation structure, a similar climate, and occupies a
restricted geographical range. South African examples are the Succulent Karoo that is
semi-arid, with most rain falling in spring and autumn (as opposed to the Nama Karoo
which is also semi-arid but the rainfall is mainly in summer). The vegetation of the
Succulent Karoo is largely comprised of succulent-leaved and succulent-stemmed
shrubs, and the characteristic faunal component was Black Rhino, Springbuck, and
others. The Succulent Karoo occurs on the western plains of South Africa, and on the
coastal plains and rolling hills of the hinterland (though the topography in the north can
be rugged – e.g. the Richtersveld). While the Nama Karoo has patchy summer rainfall, is
dominated by small-leaved, tough shrubs with a seasonal grass component, and the
faunal component is typified by small antelope including Springbuck and Blesbuck.
Geographically the Nama Karoo is confined to the inland basins and the topography is
flat with flat-topped hills and even low mountains.
Biomes rarely have sharp boundaries, as they comprise large landscape units that
typically grade into one another at the boundaries.
South Africa has seven major terrestrial biomes (= terrestrial ecosystems):
1) Forest - a community of mainly evergreen trees with a closed upper canopy
and several layers of trees and shrubs in the understorey. With woody and
herbaceous climbers, and a ground layer of herbaceous plants and ferns and in parts an abundance of epiphytes (mainly ferns and some orchids).
Occurring mainly where the rainfall is more than 900mm/year and where there
is often low cloud or mist that brings additional precipitation. And in South
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Africa forest generally occurs as small isolated patches along the south and
eastern escarpment (reaching its maximum extent at Knysna). One estimate
is that there are over 17,000 patches over 5ha in area (thus the forest patches
are essentially islands in a matrix of other vegetation).
2) Thicket - a unique South African biome comprising a dense tangle of often
spiny, woody, deciduous and evergreen (and even succulent), small trees and
shrubs often in deeply incised river valleys, on steep mountain/hill-sides
generally on scree (= rocky patches), and on some coastal dunes. Occurring
from the winter rainfall area (Saldanha Bay in the west) to the summer rainfall
area (as far north as KZN, inland of Richards Bay) and not occurring too far
inland.
3) Grassland - as the name implies, it is dominated by grasses. And in South
Africa these are mainly of the tussocked or tufted kind (also some times called
bunch grasses). They are generally restricted to the uplands and the interior
plateau in the eastern parts of the country, where the rainfall is more than
some 600mm/year - but less than 1,000mm/year. Rainfall is seasonal and
summer dominated, and lightning strikes are a common feature causing fires
which are thought to be an integral part of the ecological processes governing
the distribution and maintenance of these grasslands.
4) Succulent Karoo - as the name implies, is dominated by succulents. These
are all small, generally scattered bushes with either succulent leaves and/or
stems. The biome occurs in the winter dominated, semi-arid western lowlands
of the country. This is another uniquely South African biome that also has a
big component of annuals, which flower profusely in spring if there have been
suitable conditions in the preceding seasons. These spring flowers have
enormous Ecotourist potential, as there is nowhere else on earth where there
is such a profusion of spring flowers.
5) Nama Karoo - is a perennial shrub dominated and also uniquely southern
African biome that is restricted to the semi-arid interior. The countryside
consists of large plains with emergent hills and ridges, and in good seasons
there can be a conspicuous grassy component.
6) Savanna - is a mainly deciduous tree dominated community with a grassy
understorey. Many of the trees are thorny (mainly Acacia spp.), though there
are a great number of other tree species (possibly a total of some 400-500
species). This is the so-called “big game” country of South Africa, and
because the rainfall is generally less than 600mm/year it is not suited to
cropping.
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7) Fynbos - is a uniquely South African vegetation type that comprises a low to
medium height heathland vegetation dominated mainly by Cape Reeds
(Restionaceae) and ericoid-leaved plants (tiny rolled leaves usually <5mm
long). Fynbos occurs mainly on the nutrient poor soils of, or derived from, the
sedimentary rocks of the Cape Mountains, and on calcareous soils
(particularly on the Aghulas plain and coastal limestone hills) - in the winter to
all year round rainfall zone (thus from Vanrynsdorp in the north and west, to
Port Elizabeth in the east and south).
According to Acocks, who described and mapped the Veld Types of South Africa in the
late 1940s, South Africa actually has 72 different major Veld Types, and a team of plant
ecologists currently finalizing a vegetation map of South Africa have identified and
mapped well over 300 major vegetation units. For our purposes, however, the recognition
of the major South African biomes is sufficient. Worthy of note is that as one moves north
the biomes are fewer and more extensive, and that in the south and east of the country
there is a good deal of complexity that relates to steep topographic, geological variation
(and hence soil), and climate gradients. It is this complexity that makes South Africa one
of the most biodiverse countries globally. This diversity at a global level is today referred
to as megadiversity. And it is interesting to note that there are only 17 nations that
possess more than two thirds of the earth’s biological resources, of which South Africa is
one. And in terms of plants and animal species at risk (from extinction), as much as 80%
of the world’s most endangered biodiversity is found within these megadiverse countries.
These countries are also home to a major portion of the planet’s cultural diversity.
NOTE: Two maps of the Biomes of South Africa have been included on the following
pages. The first map has been taken from the Department of Environmental Affairs and
Tourism’s website. Because the map on the website is in colour and is printed in blackand-white in this text, it is not always easy to distinguish between the grey scales.
Therefore, a simplified sketch map is also included for clarification.
These Biome maps are followed by a simplified Vegetation Map of South Africa. It is
clear that some vegetation types (mostly more than one) match the Biome boundaries.
For the Learners’ purpose it is good to note the similarities and differences, and to ask
questions where interpretation is difficult.
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5 WORLD FLORAL KINGDOMS
Worldwide plant geographers recognise six Floral Kingdoms. These are regional areas
(all cover more than one country with one exception) where, because of the particular
distribution of certain plant species, genera and families, the flora can be recognised as
unique from that covering other and even adjacent areas. The map below shows this
distribution. What is of note is that one Kingdom, the Cape Floral Kingdom is by far the
smallest (covering <1% of the land surface of the world), AND is the only Floral Kingdom
that is confined to ONE country. Thus the southwestern and eastern part of South
Africa, basically from about Vanrynsdorp in the north and west, south and then east to
about Port Elizabeth, is where this Kingdom occurs. For Ecotourism, and biodiversity
conservation, this makes South Africa unique (compare also SA Biome and Vegetation
Maps).
Since global biodiversity conservation has become a major conservation focus in the last
decade biologists have started mapping biodiversity hotspots. Again South Africa has
more than its fair share of hotspots and the map below indicates the location of the major
hotspots. Again it is the presence of such hotspots that attracts global Ecotourists.
Responsible Ecotourist guides who are familiar with where these hotspots are and what
makes them unique are in demand to lead specialised tours. Thus it is to your advantage
to know what floral and faunal occur in the Cape Floral Kingdom, and the various
Biological Hotspots (of the 17 world-wide hotspots three occur in South Africa and are
the Fynbos, the Succulent Karoo and the Tongaland-Pondoland region – no other
country has three hotspots within its political boundaries –thus South Africa is TRULY
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UNIQUE!). On the map the Tongaland-Pondoland hotspot is shown as separately named
areas, Maputaland (= Tongaland) and Pondoland.
6 OTHER ECOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
6.1 The Biosphere
The Earth and all living organisms make up the biosphere. Thus Biosphere Ecology is
the study of the largest and nearly self-sufficient global biological system, because this
includes all of the earth’s living organisms interacting with the physical environment
AS A WHOLE.
6.2 The Environment
The meaning of the word environment has a number of different interpretations because
different professions use the word differently. The reason for this is the “the environment”
has become an over-used concept because it is fashionable to be “environmentally
sensitive”. Some examples of what “the environment” can mean are:

the house, suburb or place where we live
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the city and environs being a “unit” managed by a municipality, and depending on
the professional discipline if
1.
architects are referring to the environment they will mean the built part
2.
horticulturalists will mean the garden/green part
3.
medical doctors will mean any number of things depending on their own
speciality
i)
thus an epidemiologist may mean a whole geographic area
ii)
a pathologist may be referring to water quality or another health
risk area
iii)

a paediatrician the school/home of children, etc.
simply the countryside or veld out there, especially to an agriculturalist or game
ranger

to a sociologist it may be the people and their culture, etc.
In ecology the environment usually refers to the abiotic components of a system
and any biotic factors that impact ecological processes. It is usually those elements that
are “natural” that are considered to be environmental.
6.3 Defining Natural History
Natural History is the interdependency and interaction of plants and animals (the
biotic component) and objects in nature (the abiotic components), which can be
observed and recorded. The Ecotourism guide must have a thorough understanding of
this subject.
For example, plants depend on grazing (eating grass) or browsing (feeding on the
foliage/flowers and or fruits of small shrubs or trees) animals, which provide a “natural
stress” for renewal and growth. Animals provide nutrients by way of their waste products,
whilst the decaying remains of the animals (and dung) and plants provide
“compost/fertilizer” and maintain the decomposers in the system. Thus, there is a
dependency and interaction between animal and plants and the soil, all of which are a
part of “natural history”.
This is very important to humans because our survival as a species depends on these
basic relationships. It is the awareness of the importance of the natural world and its
fascinating life interactions that motivates the Ecotourist. And today human cultural
diversity has been added to and incorporated in this topic.
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A “natural history tour”, therefore, requires the services of recognised specialist tour
guides. In South Africa we have many academics and specialist tour guides that are
under-utilised. A list of registered specialist tour guides is available from THETA on
request.
NOTE: At the back of this manual there are two appendices each of which contains
additional information of relevance to Learners once they prepare to enter the workforce.
These are APPENDIX I: TOUR GUIDING AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT and
APPENDIX II: NATIONAL RESPONSIBLE TOURISM GUIDELINES FOR SOUTH
AFRICA.
7 ADDITIONAL USEFUL PESOURCES
7.1 Natural History Museums
Natural History Museums are extremely useful and informative. They also help to fill in
the blanks that could not be observed first hand in the bush and/or in nature reserves.
They can make what is imagined come alive. The exhibits are realistic, world–class
and enhance the natural perception of our heritage.
They should be used and/or
recommended on every tour.
The Natural Science Museum in Durban and the South African Museum in Cape Town
are two particularly good examples.
7.2 Conservation organisations
The projects and activities of non-governmental conservation organisations (NGOs) like
the Wildlife and Environmental Society of Southern Africa (WESSA), the
Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) and the Botanical Society of South Africa
(BotSoc) are of great interest to Ecotourists, and the young entrepreneur would do well
to become ‘involved’ in one of the organisations on a voluntary basis. This involvement
can result in obtaining good ideas and valuable contacts when starting an Ecotourism
venture.
7.3 Publications
Useful publications include:
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 The Outhere Adventure Guide is published annually and gives information on
Ecotouristic adventures, ideas, services and safety. It also contains contact lists.
 The Tourism Blue Print provides a comprehensive listing of tourist attractions in
South Africa’s nine Provinces as well as detailed maps.
7.4
Magazines
Magazines such as:

Veld and Flora (published by the BotSoc)

Africa Wildlife (published by WESSA)

Africa Geographic

Africa Birds and Birding

Diversions

Great Outdoors

Getaway and

Vision (published by EWT)
Offer excellent articles for Eco-tour guides and operators.
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REVISION EXERCISES
Multiple choice questions
1. Ecology can be defined as:
c)
Community Ecology
a) the study of plants and animals
d)
Autecology
b) the study of the structure and
e)
Synecology
c) people in nature
6.
Which
d) a major climatic-vegetation zone
statements is TRUE?
function of nature
a)
2. The
study
of
all
populations
of
the
following
The study of Natural History is to
assess the interdependency and inter-
occupying a given area is known as:
action of plants and animals, and objects
a) Physiological Ecology
b)
b) Community Ecology
service of a specialist guide
c) Ecosystem Ecology
c)
d) Population Ecology
tourist overnight, but are usually confined
A Natural History tour requires the
Regional Guides may accompany
to provinces
3. The most important type of reserve
in term of Ecotourism is:
d)
Natural History is the study of
human cultures
a) a National Park
b) a Transfrontier Park
7.
Carrying capacity is:
c) a Specialised Nature Reserve
a) all the plants and animals in an
d) a Biosphere Reserve
ecosystem
b) all the animal populations in a Park
4. The following are examples of
c) all the Ecotourists that visit Kruger
food chains:
Park
a) the study of bees and wasps
d) the maximum sustainable biota of
b) the study of grasses and shrubs
an area
c) the study of herbivores and carni-
e) all organisms that can be sustained in
vores
an ecosystem
e) the study of grass, cows and milk
8. There are six Floral Kingdoms
consumption
worldwide, and only one in S.A. It is:
5. The ecological study of all the
a) the Cape
earth’s living organisms is known
b) the Palaeotropic
as:
c) the Antarctic
a) Population ecology
d) none of the above
.
b) Biosphere Ecology
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LEARNING UNIT 4
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
KEY OUTPUT FOR THIS UNIT
After studying this unit you should be able to:

understand the purpose of environmental management systems

explain what sort of decisions ecologists make

understand the concept carrying capacity even more thoroughly

describe different environmental management procedures

explain the ISO 14001 as an environmental standard

distinguish and explain different classes of environmental problems.
1 INTRODUCTION
Government has identified inadequate environmental management as one of the main
limitations of the Ecotourism industry in South Africa. Ecologists play a key role in the
environmental management process and South Africa has good ecologists, many of
them world-renowned. There is also more than adequate legislation in place to ensure
sustainable management, and the new Biodiversity legislation strengthens this even
more (visit the DEAT website for a complete and continually updated list of all relevant
environmental legislation). The main impediment to sustainable management in South
Africa is the lack of proper policing and implementation of the legislation. This essentially
comes down to a lack of political commitment. It will only be when the South African
electorate is properly educated, and is able to ensure government does the job expected
that things may change. Global pressures, such as global climate change and increasing
awareness by more and more people, may also hasten the day when we start to really
care about environmental conservation matters seriously. The ultimate conservation
victory will be when all South African citizens not only understand but implement proper
conservation actions on a day-to-day basis. Alleviation of global poverty is impossible
without sustainable use and management of all our resources.
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1.1 Managing Environmental Impacts
There is an intimate reciprocal relationship between Ecotourism and the environment.
Many features of the natural and built environment are attractions for Ecotourists, and
Ecotourism can help achieve improved levels of protection - as South Africans begin to
value their natural and cultural resources. Ecotourist facilities and infrastructure
constitute one element of the built environment (whether these are in urban and/or rural
settings). Ecotourism development and Ecotourist use of resources can generate both
positive and negative environmental impacts. For sustainable Ecotourism development it
is essential that the environmental quality of the Ecotourism areas is not compromised –
this is important for both the residents and the Ecotourists.
Many types of environmental impacts can and are generated by Ecotourism
development and Ecotourist use of resources (and the environment). If Ecotourism
is well planned, developed and managed, negative impacts can be mitigated and positive
impacts emphasised. Appropriate Ecotourism development can:

Help justify and pay for the conservation of important natural areas and
wildlife, including marine environments (in the section on Culturology the
conservation of culture will be discussed, as this is another South Africa attraction
to Ecotourists)

Help justify and pay for the conservation of archaeological and historic
sites

Help improve the overall environmental quality because tourists like to visit
places that are attractive, free of graffiti and clean (not polluted)

Help improve infrastructure, which can also contribute to better environmental
quality

Increase local environmental awareness because when residents observe
tourists’ interest in conservation they realise that by protecting the environment
they are protecting an asset.
If Ecotourism is not well planned, developed and managed, it can generate several types
of negative environmental impacts including:

Water pollution resulting from improper waste management of sewage and solid
waste systems of hotels and other tourist facilities. Water pollution includes
pollution of rivers, lakes and dams, and coastal water (one of the main causes is
from sewage and ground water seepage of waste materials)
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Air pollution resulting from excessive use of vehicles in Ecotourism areas, and
inadequate exhaust systems on these vehicles

Noise pollution resulting from Ecotourist activities and Ecotourist vehicles
including aircraft movements

Vehicular and pedestrian traffic congestion generated by Ecotourists at
popular attractions and facilities

Unattractive landscapes resulting from several factors such as:
1. poor design of Ecotourist facilities
2. badly planned layout of facilities
3. inadequate and inappropriate landscaping of facilities
4. poor use of large and ugly advertisement signs
5. obstruction of scenic views by infrastructure development (such as powerlines, telecommunication towers, buildings, etc.)
6. Inappropriate urban and regional planning

Littering of landscapes by Ecotourists and defacing of features by graffiti and
vandalism (the popular/unpopular ban of plastic bags has had a huge positive
impact already)

Ecological disruption of natural areas and disturbance of wildlife by overuse
and misuse by Ecotourists, and by inappropriate Ecotourism development.
Coastal, marine, mountain and desert environments, all-important types of
Ecotourism areas, are particularly vulnerable to ecological damage. In coastal
areas, for example, onshore development may increase erosion and runoff with
sedimentation into the coastal waters, which smother and kill reefs. Another case
in point is the siting of roads, a topical example being the proposed new toll road
on the Wild Coast

Damage to archaeological and historical sites by overuse and misuse by
Ecotourists, and by inappropriate Ecotourism development. South Africa has a
particularly rich and well researched pre-history, and but one example of huge
damage that has and is still being caused is to coastal shell middens that are a
common and prominent feature of the whole South African coast

Environmental hazards such as erosion, land slippage, damage from high
waves, flooding, earthquakes, etc. And land use problems resulting from poor
planning and poor environmental understanding by engineers. Another key South
African concern is wild fire that can destroy habitat and infrastructure.
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1.2 Environmental Management Systems
Part of South Africa’s legislative framework is that we have excellent environmental
legislation (and the environment is also enshrined in our Constitution). The white paper
on Environmental Management Systems (EMSs) was published in 1993. It aims to set
out a policy with regard to meeting national environmental guidelines in accordance with
government policy and commitment on all environmental matters. The following
statement is drawn from the white paper to illustrate this policy:
“South Africa should rigorously pursue economic development, subject to
maintaining the services and quality of environmental resources, and the setting
of affordable environmental standards for all sectors of the economy”.
In this document the Government tries to streamline its functions and to encourage the
private sector to also adopt management styles that are as environmentally friendly as
possible. Thus it is incumbent on all developers (government and private sector alike) to
ensure that any development is environmentally sound. And this is achieved by following
EMS guidelines.
2 THE FUNCTION OF ECOLOGISTS
2.1 What Ecologists Do
An Ecologist is a professionally trained scientist who is at the top of the decisionmaking pyramid when it comes to all environmental matters. There are ecological
experts in many different fields from fresh water and marine ecologists, to terrestrial
ecologists with expertise in very diverse fields from megaherbivour management to
pollution control and bio-remediation procedures, and others who have expertise in
archaeology (to mention a small cross-section). The Ecologist(s) are responsible for
collecting, analysing and collating, and finally presenting data - before making
recommendations regarding development prior to a decision being taken of whether to
proceed, modify the plans, and/or abort the project.
Thus before any development can take place the Environmental Management Act
and Environmental Impact Assessment regulations must be adhered to. Ecologists
are also employed in industries where Environmental Audits are regularly performed.
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Thus prospective entrepreneurs should be familiar with the steps necessary to start an
Ecotourism venture, and know how to comply with the relevant environmental standards.
3 THE PURPOSE OF ENVIROMENTAL EVALUATIONS
Environmental management require evaluations to:

Aid decision making by providing objective information on the environmental
results of actions, plans and projects

Provide sound and comprehensive data to inform and direct development

Analyse plans objectively to make sure that the greatest good is attained and
negative effects are minimised

Propose solutions to problems that may arise between the role players

Communicate information as to the positive and negative effects of the
development proposal to both decision makers and all interested parties
4 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES AND STANDARDS
4.1 Applicable Environmental Standards
If an entrepreneur wants to start an Ecotourism venture, or any other land development,
South African law requires a formal investigation. This is known as an Integrated
Environmental Management Procedure (IEM)
4.2 The Integrated Environmental Management Procedure (IEM)
The IEM process is intended to ensure that environmental considerations are efficiently
and properly integrated at all stages. It consists of a checklist of environmental
considerations in a time sequence, allocating checks at all phases from conceptualisation
to implementation. Thus all possible consequences are taken into consideration and all
results monitored.
There are four stages in the development of any proposal:
1 Develop the proposal
2 Assess the proposal
3 Make the decision
4 Implement the decision
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Only proposals that have significant impacts on the environment require a full impact
assessment. This is the formal investigation required by law. However, not all proposals
have a significant impact on the environment so they do not all require a full impact
assessment. Specialists have to make the decision whether an impact assessment is
required or not (because this “judgment” on what is considered “significant” cannot
always be deemed objective, there is room for corruption/dishonesty – so the whole
process has to be very carefully monitored and it must be completely transparent).
The IEM Process is designed to ensure that the environmental consequences of
development proposals are understood and adequately considered in the planning
process. The IEM process aims to resolve or reduce any negative impacts, and to
enhance the positive aspects of development.
The ecologist will be in the forefront of the assessment and will consult with a
number of specialists like geologists, biologists, meteorologists, etc., etc. for advice and
information. Finally the ecologist(s) will make a decision based on all the findings and
advice obtained. The bigger the development the more careful all the experts consulted
have to be.
4.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
An environmental impact assessment is a scientific evaluation of the environmental
change that is most likely to take place as the result of a development action.
The IEM Procedure determines whether an impact assessment is undertaken or not.
Provision is made for an initial assessment to establish whether a detailed assessment
should be made. If it is clear that the development will have a significant impact, a full
EIA will have to be done. An EIA has the following components:

Scoping. This determines the extent and the approach to the investigation. The
proponent (the person or group who want the development to take place, and the
relevant authorities and interested or affected parties, determine which
alternatives and issues should be investigated.

Investigation. The investigation is guided by decisions during the scoping phase
of the project. It is intended to provide the authorities with enough information on
positive and negative aspects for them to take a decision.
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Report. All parties will have established particular requirements for the report
determined during the scoping.
In less developed countries like South Africa where the main concern (especially of the
rural population) is for food, shelter and security, environmental concerns are of lesser
importance. Thus poverty alleviation and environment/biodiversity conservation are
intimately inter-connected and both need to occur in tandem.
The environmental effects of a project are analysed by EIAs. The results are evaluated
in the following ways:

Long term ecological criteria

Aesthetic consideration and

Scientific \ educational interests.
4.4 The ISO 14001
This is an international standard for environmental management systems.
ISO
14001 was designed to be applicable to any organisation - whether small, medium or
large, in a first world or a developing economy, whether in the public or private sector, in
industry and/or or the services sector.
By implementing this standard and an environment management system, it means that
all activities which could have an impact on the environmental are:

Identified

Carried out under controlled circumstances

Regulated by targets are set for all improvements.
For a company to implement an ISO 14001 environmental management system top
management must define an environment policy.
5 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Humankind is totally dependent on planet earth for all their needs, and thus to plan
responsibly is essential. We need to take a wide and holistic view on all environmental
problems. These environmental problems arise from human actions that damage the
interrelationships between people and nature. We have FOUR classes or environmental
problems with each needing to be solved by a different approach.
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5.1 Degradable Wastes
These consist of:

the pollution of water by organic wastes

the pollution of air mainly by products of combustion, for example factory boilers
and vehicle fumes

thermal pollution

noise.
The current method of reducing these impacts is essentially by dilution and dispersion.
The problems are, however, serious and we should be acting against them using legal,
economic and societal (environmental action groups) frameworks, and not simply putting
off the day of reckoning.
5.2 Persistent Wastes
These consist of:

Heavy metals (Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, etc.)

Manufactured products such as pesticides (e.g. DDT and many thousands of
other chemicals), plastics, etc.

Nuclear wastes with a long half-life
These are all removed from the biosphere, the thin layer around the earth in which all
living organisms exist, very slowly. Dilution and dispersion of these wastes is already
recognised as not being the answer because they pose serious threats long term by
accumulation, in the environment and in animal food chains (a food chain is the
movement of energy and nutrients from one feeding group of organisms to another in
series that begin with plants and end with carnivores (flesh eaters), and detritus feeders
(bacterial and fungi feed on fresh or decomposed plants and animals).
Technological answers are not yet readily available to neutralise these waste
products, thus existing methods of disposal (treatment) must be rigorously
controlled. These wastes are a very serious problem and currently disposal methods do
not take adequate account of very long term time-frames/concerns.
5.3 Reversible Biological and Geophysical Impacts
These include agriculture, road building, and open cast mining operations in large stable
ecosystems. These activities can deprive communities of basic services such as
clean water and thus lead to a poorer quality of life. Time, planning and money spent
on this area of degradation can and will reduce negative impacts.
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5.4 Irreversible Biological and Geophysical Impacts
Changes in world climate and weather resulting from certain factors like global warming,
ozone depletion and acid rain all present major global problems, which could deplete one
of the earth’s resources to the point of extinction. These impacts could well lead to the
extinction of animals, plants and fragile ecosystems sooner than later. Certainly the
year 2050 is generally considered to be of vital importance for humankind.
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REVISION EXERCISE
Multiple choice questions
1. Ecologists study the world on
different levels which are:
5. The earlier spraying for malaria
mosquitoes and tsetse flies in the
a) populations
Okavango Swamps using DDT is
b) communities
today considered:
c) ecosystems
a) Degradable waste
d) all of the above
b) Persistent waste
c) Reversible Biological Impacts
2. The Carrying Capacity is:
d) B and C above
a) a formula
b) environmental factors that limit
6.
South Africa has better
environmental legislation than:
growth
c) the largest population that can
a) Russia
be supported by a habitat
b) China
d) all of the above
c) India
d) Nigeria
3. Developing and assessing the
e) Brazil
proposal, making a decision and
f)
all of the above
implementing it is part of:
a) an Environmental Impact
7.
Assessment
Air pollution in South Africa is:
a) not a problem
b) the ISO 14001
b) a major problem
c) integrated Environmental
c) better than in Australia
Management Procedure
d) worse than in Santiago, Chile
d) Carrying Capacity
e) worse than in Bangkok
Which is True?
4. The ISO 14001 is:
a) An International standard
8.
b) An environmental management
Africa do not:
system
Ecotourism activities in South
a) disrupt the behaviour of wildlife
c) Both of the above
b) have no impact on people
d) None of the above
c) are the main cause of water
pollution
d) increase the risk of malaria
Which is True?
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LEARNING UNIT 5
PROTECTED AREAS
KEY OUTPUTS FOR THIS UNIT
After studying this unit you should be able to:

explain the objectives for conservation areas

describe the IUCN categories of protected areas in South Africa

evaluate the background to these categories

distinguish between various categories of internationally recognised protected
areas (e.g. Peace Parks, World Heritage Sites, Biosphere Reserves, and
Ramsar Sites)

have an overview of protected area legislation

appreciate the role and efforts of voluntary conservation organisations.
1 INTRODUCTION
The World Conservation Strategy drawn up by the International Union for Conservation
of Nature (IUNC) states:
“Conservation has evolved from being anti-people and anti-development
to the point when even the designated protection areas are now recognised
as offering major sustainable benefits to society on the condition that human
intervention is conducted in harmony with the retention of biological diversity.”
In South Africa, where poverty is rife, this approach makes sense. Protected areas
ensure biodiversity so that species and ecosystems can survive. Humans in turn are
dependent on these ecosystems for their survival.
Worldwide there are more than 102,102 protected areas covering almost 18 million km in
124 countries.
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2 CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES FOR PROTECTED AREAS
The IUCN has identified the following primary conservation objectives for protected
areas:

To maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems

Preserve genetic and biological diversity

Protect aesthetic values and natural ecosystems

Conserve watersheds and the production of run-off water

Control erosion, sedimentation and soil depletion

Maintain air quality

Protect the habitat of representative, as well as rare and endangered species

Provide opportunities for Ecotourism

Provide opportunity for research, education and monitoring

Contribute to sustainable use systems and eco-friendly development

Protect natural and cultural heritage

Retain future options
Indigenous local communities are included in these objectives as the conservation of
cultural heritage is now an essential part of the protected area concept. The advantage of
the protected area options listed above is that where an area is strictly protected human
pressure can be redirected to places which can carry more human pressures.
3 IUCN CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTED AREAS
3.1 Why the IUCN has Criteria for Classifying Areas?
This helps in:

Legislation

Planning management strategies and making management decisions

Controlling the type and intensity of use

Justifying the benefits claimed for the protected areas policy.
Having different categories of protected areas permits flexibility in management, allowing
for a swing away from national responsibility to provincial, non-governmental
organisations (NGOs), and private landowners themselves.
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3.2 South African Protected Areas (Marine and Terrestrial) in the IUCN
Framework
There are five IUCN management categories each with their own management
objectives. These are:
Category 1
Category 2
IUCN NAMES
Scientific Reserves
S.A. EQUIVALENTS
Special nature reserves
Wilderness Areas
Wilderness Areas
National
Parks
and National Parks
equivalent reserves
Provincial or Regional Parks
Nature Reserves (either regional or
provincial)
Category 3
Natural and/or Cultural National Monuments
Monuments
Botanic Gardens
Zoological gardens
Natural Heritage Sites
Sites of Conservation significance
Category 4
Habitat
and
Wildlife Private Nature reserves
Management Areas
Category 5
Protected
Indigenous State Forest
landscapes Protected natural environments
and seascapes
Natural resource areas
Scenic Landscapes
Urban Landscapes
The INCU categories mentioned above can be explained as follows:
Category 1: Scientific Reserves and Wilderness Areas are lands that are usually
owned and controlled by government, foundations or institutes. They usually contain
fragile ecosystems or fragile life forms, and/or are areas of significant biological
diversity, and/or areas that conserve genetic resources.
These areas are largely free from human intervention. They are available for scientific
research, environmental monitoring, education and non-mechanised, non-disruptive
forms of Ecotourism. Wilderness areas are large areas that protect the “pristine” natural
environment and is said to contribute to our physical and spiritual well-being. The
definition of “Wilderness” in the USA is an area as described above. In Africa, the cradle
of humankind, there are no areas where humans have not had an impact on the biota
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over evolutionary time, and the USA definition of Wilderness is not appropriate for Africa.
Unfortunately the USA and Western European countries dominate the thinking in the
IUCN (they also provide most of the funding to the IUCN), and we, as Africans, need to
redefine Wilderness as appropriate to our continent.
Criteria for selection and management: These areas have some outstanding and
representative ecosystems, features and/or species of plants and animals of scientific
importance. Many of these areas are generally close to the public because they are
highly sensitive to human impact. Size is determined by the area required to ensure the
integrity of the system and to accomplish the management objectives to ensure
protection.
These areas are usually best controlled by governments, foundations, universities or
conservation agencies.
Category 2: National Parks and Equivalent Reserves are defined as relatively large
outstanding natural areas managed by a nationally recognised authority. They are
proclaimed to protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems. National Parks
also:

Protect ecosystems for this and future generations

Prevent exploitation of the area (e.g. Coal mining in the Kruger National Park)

Prevent urbanisation

Provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific, educational and tourism opportunities
Equivalent reserves (selected state, provincial parks, or tribal council parks) are defined
as outstanding natural areas managed by a state or provincial government, a tribal
council, a foundation, or other legal body which has dedicated the area to long-term
conservation.
All Category 2 areas are protected for their spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational
and tourism purposes, and visitors enter with these special conditions in mind. They
contain one or several entire ecosystems that are not materially altered by human
exploitation or occupation (again the westernised definition).
Criteria for selection and management. These must be relatively large areas
containing representative samples of major regions, features or scenery, and where plant
and animal species, geomorphological sites and habitats are of special spiritual,
scientific, educational and recreational interest. They contain one or more entire
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ecosystems that are “not altered by human intervention”. The area must be managed in a
natural or near natural state. People enter the park under special conditions, for instance
for spiritual, educational and recreational reasons. Sport hunting is not generally
considered a compatible practice in National Parks (by Western criteria), although this is
changing in African parks as a more viable alternative to culling.
Category 3: Most countries have natural and cultural features of special scientific and
educational value. Natural features are spectacular waterfalls, caves, craters, volcanoes,
sand dunes and other scenic attractions, as well as unique species of fauna and flora.
A natural monument is defined as a natural, or natural-culture feature, which is an area of
outstanding and unique value because of its inherent attributes.
Cultural features are archaeological sites and indigenous heritage sites and can include
other national monuments (of historical significance), botanical and zoological gardens,
natural heritage sites, and other sites of conservation significance. The scenic, scientific,
educational or inspirational importance of these sites gives them the right to be protected
for educational and scientific use, and public enjoyment. The uniqueness, rarity or how
representative the features of these monuments are need not be in the same league as a
National Park, nor do they have the diversity of National Parks. The area only needs to
be large enough to protect the integrity of the site, thus they are generally rather small by
comparison to National Parks.
Criteria for selection and management. Ownership or management is usually by
central or other government agencies, non-profit trusts, and/or corporations as it is
essential to ensure their long-term protection. At present individual land owners,
corporate timber and paper companies have registered Natural Heritage sites. Criteria for
selection and management are size and diversity, but are not critical factors.
NOTE: The South African National Monuments Act, No 28 of 1996, protects all rock art
sites. Anyone found guilty of removing or damaging rock art paintings or engravings can
be fined up to R10 000, or be imprisoned for two years, or both.
Category 4: Habitat and Wildlife Management Areas are areas where humans may
intervene and manipulate the systems to ensure the natural condition necessary to
protect significant species, groups of species, biotic communities, and/or physical
features of the environment. Scientific research, environmental monitoring and
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educational use are the activities related to the sustainable resource management of this
category.
A variety of areas fall in this category all of which need the protection of nature and
survival of species. The size of the area depends on the habitat requirements of the
species to be protected, and may include nesting areas, marshes (wetlands), lakes,
estuaries, forests, and/or grassland habitats, fish spawning areas or seascapes
incorporating feeding beds for marine mammals. Some bird sanctuaries may be
extensive.
It may be necessary to manipulate the area to provide the right conditions for the species
to survive. For example, a marsh for wintering waterfowl may require continual removal
of excess reeds and supplementary planting of waterfowl food; or a reserve for
endangered animals may need protection against predators. Limited areas may be
developed for public education and appreciation of the work of wildlife management.
Ownership may be by central or other levels of government, non-profit trusts,
corporations, private individuals, and/or groups. This is provided that adequate
safeguards and controls exist for posterity.
Criteria for selection and management vary with the objective as different types of
areas fall into this category, but each has its own reason for the protection of nature and
the survival of species. The size of the area depends on the habitat requirements of the
species to be protected. The area may require habitat manipulation to provide optimum
conditions for the species.
Category 5: Protected Land and Sea Ecosystem Conservation Areas. These are the
most complex of all categories, as they are frequently large and often need
sophisticated planning techniques, as they often require multi-zoning and ecodevelopment. Thus they may have the characteristics of National Parks, Scientific
Reserves, Natural and Cultural Monuments and Wildlife Management Areas. Each of
these may appear as zones within these protected areas in which human use is
harmoniously integrated.
They may be natural scenic areas along our coastlines and lakeshores, in a hilly or
mountainous area, along the banks of rivers, inland adjacent to important tourist
highways, and/or near and even within population centres. They have outdoor
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recreational development potential. Some are privately owned or are established and
managed under public ownership, while others are State owned and controlled.
These areas lend themselves to Ecotourism as they generally include rural agriculture,
villages, towns and other communities, as well as forestry and wildlife management
areas.
Protected land-/seascapes are defined as areas where humans and nature interact in
harmony. They may give insight into customs, beliefs, social organisations and/or
material traits, which will be shown in use patterns. Scenic beauty and aesthetically
unique patterns of human settlement are portrayed in the traditional practices associated
with agriculture, grazing or fishing. The objective of this category is to maintain the
economic and normal, but unique, lifestyle for recreation and tourism, and for the sake of
conserving cultural and biological diversity, as well as for scientific and educational
purposes.
Criteria for selection and management of these areas is broad because of the cultural
and natural diversity of areas in which may occur. These areas are usually privately
owned, and if in State ownership are usually delegated to locals to control as long as the
continued integrity of the area in ensured. Government assistance and subsidies might
be needed long term.
3.3 Transfrontier Protected Areas (or Peace Parks)
A Protected Area that crosses one or more international boundaries is defined as a
Transfrontier Park. They are also known as Peace Parks, because such areas cannot
exist unless the adjoining countries have agreements for protection, and their peace and
stability is political between them. Other names for these areas are:

Transfrontier Protected Areas

Border Parks

International Peace Parks
There has been a significant increase in international recognition of these parks over the
last five years, which is due to the potential for reducing international tensions and for
creating peaceful conditions between the participants. The other advantages, due to
their usually larger size and international recognition, may include:

Improved resource and ecosystem management
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Enhanced preservation of cultural values of local communities as frequently
political boundaries of people divide communities from the same ethnic and/or
cultural group

Preservation of wildlife migration routes where they cross artificial boundaries that
may also have been curtailed by border fences.
Some regional examples are:
In 1990 negotiations between the governments and conservation authorities of South
Africa, Mozambique and Zimbabwe began over land bordering the Kruger Park to the
east and to the north. Substantial border fences that were made even stronger during the
Apartheid era had curtailed the natural movements of wildlife between South Africa and
the other two countries. The inter-governmental discussions revolved round the
possibility of including adjacent land in Mozambique and Zimbabwe to form what has
become known as the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Park (there have been a series of
suggested names for this park and it may still change again). The areas considered for
inclusion in the mega-Park are:

The Banhine National Park in Mozambique and some adjacent land

The Gona-re-zoha National Park in Zimbabwe and some adjacent land to make
up a corridor
In the historical past (up to 1971 when the first fence was erected by South Africa) wild
dog, eland and elephant certainly migrated across the border into Mozambique, and
there are records of animal migrations north and then east-west into Zimbabwe. This
proposed Transfrontier Park will be much larger than Kruger; perhaps some three times
the size - and it would then be the biggest protected area in Africa.
3.4 Spatial Development Initiatives
Spatial Development Initiatives (SDIs) occur as a result of government inspired attempts
to bring some sort of economic opportunity to impoverished rural areas. This concept is
now fairly well developed and “endorses” and complements the “Peace Park” concept.
An SDI is a programme shared by partners (governments and/or individuals) within one
or in adjoining countries, while not replacing the responsibilities of ‘normal’ government.
The idea is to prepare projects with investment potential for private sector involvement.
These ventures often “kick-start” regional economic development (which is what they are
intended to achieve).
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There are TWO types of SDI’s

Industrial: Such as the Maputo Development Corridor which links Gauteng
(South Africa’s industrial, economic and financial ‘power house’) to Mozambique’s
coast and capital Maputo.

Ecotouristic: Such as the Lubombo SDI that has involved new and upgraded
roads, agri-tourism, agriculture, and Ecotourism development. The Lubombo
Mountains are largely unspoilt, and with their scenic beauty is complimented by
the history and culture of the area. Border Cave, ear-marked as a World Heritage
Site for its paleo-anthropological importance dating back some 130 000 years, is
on the Lubombo. The grave of the Zulu King, Dingaan, is also on the Lubombo in
the Gwaleweni Forest. Both these sites are near the small mountain-top town of
Ingwavuma.
4 PROTECTED AREAS RECOGNISED UNDER INTERNATIONAL
AGREEMENTS
4.1 World Heritage Sites
World Heritage Sites are either natural and/or cultural areas that are internationally
recognised for their outstanding and universal value to humankind. All sites must have
strict legal protection (and although recreation and interpretation facilities can be in
place). Some sites are so important that the public may be prohibited from entry or are
strictly controlled to ensure adequate protection of the natural values.
There are about 270 World Heritage Sites worldwide, ranging from the pyramids in Egypt
to glaciers in Alaska, the Swayambhu Temple in Nepal to the Serengeti in Tanzania,
Ayers Rock (Uluru) in Australia to Aldabra in the Seychelles.
4.1.1 Criteria for World Heritage Listing
The criteria for inclusion on the World Heritage List (according to the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)) are listed below, and for
inclusion a site must meet at least one of these criteria:

They must represent outstanding examples of one or more of the major
states of the earth‘s evolutionary history (these may also be of extremely
important historical value to the world)

They must have outstanding examples of significant ongoing geological
processes, aspects of biological evolution and/or evidence of human
interaction with the natural environment
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They must contain unique and rare natural phenomena, formations or features, or
be areas of exceptional natural beauty

They must contain the most important and significant habitats where
threatened species of plants and/or animals of outstanding universal scientific
and conservation value still survive
4.1.2 Advantages of World Heritage Sites for South Africa
The listing of South African World Heritage Sites can have great added advantages,
which include:

Our existing and outstanding natural environmental heritage can gain by even
greater recognition and conservation efforts

Local communities will benefit as they themselves become an integral part of
the Site

The country can benefit from the foreign exchange earned from Ecotourists who
wish to visit such significant Sites
4.1.3 Important World Heritage Sites in South Africa
South Africa is currently a full member of UNESCO and can submit proposals for the
proclamation of World Heritage Sites. The most important sites earmarked as World
Heritage Sites in South Africa include: Kruger National Park, Table Mountain and the
Mountain Chain of the Cape Peninsula, The Greater St Lucia Wetland Park, the
Drakensberg Mountain range (Natal Drakensberg Park), Robben Island, and the
Richtersveld.

The Kruger National Park has a huge segment of pristine African savanna
preserved intact, and an enormous variety of animals live as their predecessors
have done through thousands of years in this area. The Kruger also has
important archaeological sites from the Iron and Stone Ages.

The Greater St Lucia Wetland Park, where SIX different ecosystems exists side
by side consists of the Cape Vidal State Forest, the Dukuduku Indigenous Forest
(at present under threat), False Bay Park, St Lucia Game Reserve, and the St
Lucia Marine Reserve. This area possesses some of the last remaining areas of
Swamp Forest in South Africa as well as some fringing Mangrove communities.

The Table Mountain and Peninsula Chain has more plant species than the
whole of Britain. The cultural aspects range from evidence that the Phoenicians
(who lived 600 BC) visited the area, to examples left by the Khoisan peoples who
had lived here for at least some 2000 years.

The Richtersveld is a mountain desert area with a unique flora and extremely
complex and interesting geology. The Nama people who still live there constitute
an interesting human component living much as they did in pre-historic times.
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The Natal Drakensberg Park is not only is part of the Afromontane Biome, but is
also of outstanding natural beauty. The are many caves and shelters that are rich
in San Bushman paintings, being a National treasure trove of San rock art. More
than 550 known rock shelters which contain over 30 000 individual images are
painted in the unique styles of these hunter-gathers. This is the richest San rock
art area in Africa, and one of the richest in the world. It is also a significant
watershed and wilderness area of high recreational value. Geologically it is an
outstanding example of escarpment mountain formation with layers of sandstone,
shales and basalt eroded over more than 200 million years (the top of the
mountains still represent part of the Gondwana land-surface). Some 190 species
of fauna and flora occur here and nowhere else on earth.

Robben Island is a critically important historical site mainly as the place where
the Apartheid Regime jailed Nelson Mandela for part of his 27 years of
incarceration.
4.2 Biosphere Reserves
These reserves are also registered under the auspices of UNESCO. At present there are
an estimated 320 of these reserves worldwide. This is the most important type of reserve
in terms of Ecotourism. Most of these reserves are based on pre-existing National Parks
and other protected areas that usually form the core area. These reserves consist of
three zones:
A core or central area

This is a formally protected area of the highest conservation status, e.g. a
wilderness area - in other words having minimal or no interference by humans,
with access limited to foot or horseback and for management purposes (with no
roads or infrastructure in the core). In Africa this is not always the case simply
because humans have always managed African natural ecosystems, thus part of
the Kruger Park’s “wilderness area” is one of the core areas of the Kruger to
Canyons Biosphere Reserve. Core areas are always linked to some significant
ecological factor - for example, the protection of very rare plants, animals and/or
ecosystems.
A buffer zone

This is the next zone, which is usually a protected area or game reserve while
activities such as hunting, Ecotourism and environmental education are practised.
Here there is sustainable use of land and the principle objective is the
conservation of the environment.
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A transitional zone

In this zone other land-uses can exist - e.g. agriculture, fishing, forestry and
commercial tourism. This implies that the farmers or rural communities that are
adjacent to this valuable conservation land have to be environmentally
responsible in their environmental practices (e.g. no overgrazing, use of harmful
pesticides, etc.). This has to be done to ensure that the integrity of these
components is maintained.
The management committee of a Biosphere Reserve is a completely democratic
body. They serve as a conflict resolution structure. Government play a facilitatorary
and advisory role only. Through cooperative management the influence of the expertise
that is provided by the formal conservation authority is increased and extended to private
and other land. Fundamental to all these three zones is a code of conduct - a set of
rules that is laid down by the committee that run the Biosphere Reserve.
Biosphere Reserves are internationally designated protected areas, managed for their
conservation value. Each Biosphere Reserve has to be UNESCO approved. Briefly, it
implies the maintenance of existing conservation areas, and the application of
environmental principles to the surrounding areas. Biosphere reserves are zoned
and many include areas managed strictly for conserved to even intense agricultural
areas in the transition zone(s) and urban communities. Conservancies may also be
included in the buffer zone that protects the core area.
4.3 Ramsar Sites (www.ramsar.org)
These are wetland areas of significant importance to conservation. They have been
designated under the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance. The Ramsar
Convention was signed on 2 February 1971 at a meeting in Ramsar, Iran, and took the
name from this town when it came into force in December 1975. Wetlands are defined
as:
“areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial,
permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh,
brackish or salt, including areas of marine water, the depth at which
at low tide does not exceed six metres. Wetlands may incorporate
riparian (along banks rivers and streams) and costal zones adjacent
to the wetlands, and island or bodies of marine water deeper than six
metres within adjacent wetlands”.
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For information the DEAT map of SA Wetlands is given and for simplification a
separate map of RAMSAR sites only is also given.
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5 AN INTRODUCTUION TO PROTECTED AREA (PA) LEGISLATION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
5.1 Why we need PA Legislation?
The need arose soon after the arrival of the first Dutch settlers at the Cape. The Dutch
East India Company needed fresh food and timber for their ships and sailors en-route to
the Far East. Laws were introduced to protect the very resources on which this station
depended. For millennia the plains of southern Africa had teamed with wildlife. Within
three hundred years of arrival of the Europeans at the Cape and their colonisation of the
interior the great migratory herds of mainly blue and black wildebeest, red hartebeest,
eland, quagga and springbok had been decimated and had disappeared, or almost so.
Tens of thousands of wild animals were shot out indiscriminately. Those that were
left were pushed into the more remote and more arid areas to the north, and the tsetsefly areas to the east, and replaced by domestic animals which destroyed or drastically
changed large areas of indigenous vegetation (mainly due to the provision of permanent
drinking water and fencing which allowed the rangelands to be continuously grazed,
rather than seasonally by the nomadic indigenous herbivores).
5.2 The First Reserves
The immediate response in the Cape was for The Company to restrict the right of free
burghers to hunt. Tree felling was banned in 1656 and official woodcutters, licensed to
sell timber and fire wood, were appointed. This was the first state control of
conservation for which South Africa took responsibility. Thus the first conservation
areas in South Africa were the forest reserves, set out in terms of the Cape Forest Act
of 1888. Natal appointed a Forestry Officer in 1891, and by 1903 the Orange Free State
and the Transvaal followed with Forestry Services. Transkei and Pondoland forests were
also controlled -the fauna and flora within Forest Reserves were also protected.
The formal protection of “game and wild animals” outside of the Forest Reserves
followed:

In the Transvaal the Pongola Game Reserve was proclaimed in 1894 and the
Sabi Game Reserve in 1898

In Zululand the Hluhluwe, Umfolozi and Mkuzi Game Reserves were proclaimed
in 1897

In the Natal Drakensberg the Giant’s Castle Game Reserve was proclaimed in
1903

Central government took over conservation responsibilities for the forestry in
1910. This included coastal drift sand areas, indigenous forests and mountain
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catchments. In addition inland waters, islands and the seashore between the high
and low water marks were also afforded protection.
5.3 The Different Types of Acts
The first National Park Act was promulgated in 1926 in response to appeals made to
central government to permanently protect the Sabie Game Reserve for the whole
nation. Because it was feared that mining and agriculture might prove a problem to
conservation efforts. The 1926 Act proclaimed the Sabie Game Reserve as part of the
now Kruger National Park.
Some of the key Acts are listed below (the DEAT website has a full listing of the
legislation and all the amendments – see also Appendix III):

National Park Act 57 of 1976

Mountain Catchment Areas Act 63 of 1970

Lake Areas Development Act 39 of 1975. This includes tidal lagoons, tidal rivers
or any land adjoining a lake or river

Environmental Conservation Act 73 of 1989, which includes protected natural
environments, special nature reserves, limiting development areas, and protected
areas under the international instruments and agreements

The Forest Act 13 of 1941, which includes state forests, nature reserves,
wilderness areas and National Botanic Gardens

National Monuments Act 28 of 1969, which includes national monuments and
conservation areas

Defence Act 44 of 1957, which prohibits or restricts access to land under military
control used for training and testing purposes. It is policy to manage these
scientifically with nature conservation objectives as a secondary function

Sea Fishery Act 12 of 1988

Sea Shore Act 21 of 1935, which controls the land and the water between the
low water mark and the high water mark

Sea Birds and Seal Protection Act 46 of 1973, which controls most islands
around the South African coast

Various Provincial Nature Conservation Ordinances.
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6 THE FUTURE OF OUR PROTECTED AREAS
Environmental damaging land-use decisions are still being made despite the legislation
and the best efforts of a few to prevent the damage. A uniform national policy to decide
on the establishment, status and management of protection areas was put in place in
2003, and the legislation needs to be put into effect before irreparable damage is done,
and the damage has a negative impact on Ecotourism investor confidence.
7 ECONOMICS OF TOURISM IN PROTOECTED AREAS
Ecotourism in protected areas can lead to increased economic benefits through both the
direct expenditure by Ecotourists and the associated employment opportunities
generated, both within and adjacent to the park. The economic benefits of Ecotourism
have the potential to provide additional support for park protection, and for giving parks a
role in supporting rural development.
The question of who gets the benefits and who pays the costs is complex. Limited
attention has been given to the economic costs imposed by the infrastructure developed
to attract, accommodate and facilitate Ecotourism, or to the costs of maintaining and /or
restoring the park resources adversely affected by Ecotourism. This raises the concern of
whether perceived economic returns of Ecotourism in or associated with protected areas
will lead to inappropriate developments, and/or use levels that will threaten the
conservation objectives upon which the park is founded.
8 CONSERVANCIES
Conservancies may be established by a voluntary agreement as to the management
of the environment by two or more landowners. Like-minded landowners may
conserve private properties and even inappropriate communal and/or State-owned land.
Conservancies originated in the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands and have been very successful.
Co-operation between the farming community and the conservation authority has
enhanced this system, making it a national conservation movement. Apart from just the
farming community it must be noted that conservancies also serve urban and industrial
areas allowing them to better conserve their environment.
Conservancies give landowners an opportunity to deal with the increased pressure of
Ecotourism on their properties in a structured and pro-active manner.
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9 VOLUNTARY CONSERVATION ORGANISATIONS
There are a multitude of voluntary conservation organisations in South Africa. Three of
the most important (biggest and active in many fields) non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) are:
1.
The Botanical Society of South Africa. This has the largest membership and has
a strong association with the National Botanic Gardens. Traditionally the BotSoc, as it is
known, was mainly a Western Cape dominated Society but has always had a National
membership with many overseas members too. It publishes a quarterly journal called
Veld & Flora and has been extremely active in recent years with a number of community
conservation matters.
2.
The Wildlife and Environmental Society of South Africa (WESSA). The Society
acts as not only a public watchdog on conservation issues but also as an educator,
helping to improve the quality of human life and enabling communities to care for their
environment. The Society also publishes two magazines African Wildlife for adult
members and Toktokkie for its junior members.
3.
The Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) aims to conserve the biodiversity of
southern Africa, particularly the rare and endangered animal species (usually the icon
species). It harnesses the energy of a wide range of participants and has a wide range of
working groups focussing mostly on endangered species and habitats. These include
amongst others:

The Blue Swallow Working Group

Raptor Conservation Group

South African Crane Working Group

Vulture Study Group

Poison Working Group

Carnivore Conservation Group

Mozambique Working Group

Dolphin Conservation Platform (at Richard’s Bay)
The Trust has its head office in Johannesburg and publishes a regular, quarterly
magazine called the ‘ Endangered Wildlife Trust ’ and ‘Vision’ – the latter being an annual
publication.
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REVISION EXERCISES
Multiple choice questions
5. Which of the following is false
1. Which of the following are different
regarding
ecosystem
conservation
names for a Peace Park?
areas:
a) Border Park
a) They can include rural agriculture and
b) International Peace Park
forestry
c) Transfrontier Protection Area
b) They can be the scenic areas along the
d) All of the above
coast or mountains
c) They are generally relatively small
2. Which of the following statements
areas
are TRUE regarding the IUCN World
d) None of the above
Conservation Strategy?
a) Conservation should be anti-people
6. Which are NOT criteria for World
b) Conservation should offer benefits to
Heritage Listing?
society
a) Must be outstanding examples of
c) Human activities in conservation areas
geological formations
should not affect biological diversity
b) Must be unique sites of ecological
importance.
d) B and C above
c)
3. Which of the following is an IUCN
Preserve
genetic
significance
d) Must have global historical significance
conservation objective?
a)
Must have enormous cultural
and
biological
e) Must cover extremely large areas
diversity.
b) Protect Natural and Cultural heritage.
7. Which are NOT SA World Heritage
c) Maintain air quality.
Sites?
d) All of the Above
a) St Lucia
b) Table Mountain and the Peninsula
4. Which of the following would NOT be
c) Richtersveld
classified as a Natural/Cultural monu-
d) The Cape Floral Kingdom
ment:
e) KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg
a) Rock art sites
f) Robben Island
b) National Parks
8. Biosphere Reserves must have:
c) Botanical Gardens
a) A core area
d) Zoological gardens
b) Many towns and villages
c) Mountains, plains and valleys
d) Many people living in the area
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LEARNING UNIT 6
THE NATIONAL PARKS OF SOUTH AFRICA
KEY OUTPUTS FOR THIS UNIT
______________________________________________________________
After studying this unit you should be able to:

appreciate the current and future politics of South African National Parks

be familiar with legislation protecting South African National Parks

describe features of the National Parks of South Africa such as location, activities
and conservation value

give guidelines for tourists visiting National Parks

explain who does what in the tourism services field.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 South African National Parks (SANParks)
South Africa has one of the world’s richest and most unique biodiversity heritages (both
natural and cultural). Much of our scenic beauty and wildlife heritage is protected in our
system of National Parks. The South African National Parks (SANParks) manages a system
of parks that represents the indigenous fauna, flora, landscapes and associated cultural
heritage of large parts of the country. National Parks of South Africa have three fundamental
spheres of focus:

The conservation of a representative sample of the biodiversity of the country

Maintain a focus of community upliftment and capacity building amongst people living
in Protected Areas and around the parks

Provide a recreational outlet to the public to experience and enjoy the wonders of the
parks.
The third of these responsibilities is achieved through TOURISM and is necessary to provide
the financial resources required by the organisation in order to sustain the first and second
responsibilities. Ecotourism manifests itself in many ways, but in SANParks' situation the
definition involves the movement of people into the parks to interact with the park
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environment. Once there, visitors use facilities and take part in activities. One specific facility
type is accommodation. Park run accommodation is offered in 14 of the National Parks.
Those that do not have on park accommodation have privately run accommodation off park.
Ecotourism also carries with it many focused niche markets and areas of specific interest.
Some of these include birding, accessibility and malaria information, and many more.
National parks offer visitors a diversity of Ecotourism opportunities including game viewing,
bush walks, canoeing and exposure to cultural and historical experiences, to mention but a
few.
South Africa’s National Parks (arranged in alphabetic order) are given in the table below,
which also summarises some of the vital statistics of these Parks:
PARK
DATE
PROCLAIMED
Addo Elephant
Agulhas
Augrabies Falls
Bontebok
1931
1999
1966
1931
51 309
0
11 743
2 786
23 030
5 690
29 933
0
74 339
5 690
41 676
2 786
Cape Peninsula
1998
0
13 450
13 450
Golden Gate Highlands
1963
11 633
0
11 633
1931
959 103
0
959 103
1979
41 047
36 047
77 094
Knysna National Lakes Area
1985
15 000
0
15 000
Kruger
Marakele
Mountain Zebra
Namaqua
Richtersveld
Tankwa Karoo
1926
1993
1937
1 962 362
37 035
6 536
0
13 691
18 127
1 962 362
50 726
24 663
1991
1986
162 445
27 064
0
16 835
162 445
43 899
Tsitsikamma
1964
63 942
0
63 942
Vaalbos
Vhembe-Dongola
West Coast
Wilderness
TOTAL
1986
1998
1985
1985
22 697
0
32 361
10 600
3 417 663
0
5 356
3 912
0
166 071
22 697
5 356
36 273
10 600
3 583 734
Kalahari Gemsbok (now
Kgalagadi Transfrontier)
Karoo
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AREA
AREA IN ADDED CURRENT
1994
SINCE
SIZE (ha)
1994 (ha)
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BIOME
TYPE
Thicket
Fynbos
Nama Karoo
Fynbos
Fynbos (some
Thicket,
Renosterveld and
Forest)
Grassland (some
Forest)
Savanna (arid)
Nama Karoo
Forest (some
Fynbos)
Savanna (semi-arid)
Savanna (semi-arid)
Nama Karoo
Succulent Karoo
Succulent Karoo
Succulent Karoo
Forest (some
Fynbos)
Savanna (semi-arid)
Savanna (semi-arid)
Thicket and Fynbos
Forest
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1.2 Current and Future Politics of SANParks
In the past conservation areas in South Africa were largely established through enforcement
and compulsory exclusion of people. The history of our National Parks was often
characterised by conflict between the Parks and neighbouring communities. The
preservationist view, that conservation can only succeed if people and Parks are kept
separate and that communities contaminate natural wilderness, resulted in a rift between
those who lived around National Parks and those who were responsible for running the
Parks. This adversarial relationship was exacerbated by the fact that communities often paid
heavily for conservation in terms of:

loss of land (they were removed from the land to be included in the new Park)

loss of access to natural resources and hence, reduced economic opportunities, and

losses to livestock and crops - from predators and herbivores.
International trends and the broad transformation of South African society demanded that the
“People versus Parks” or “fences and fines” approach that has characterised
conservation for the greater part of the 1900s be revisited. It has been determined that
successful long-term management of South Africa’s National Parks depends on the cooperation and support of the local people, rather than them being hostile to the Park. The
shift is now to look at how best the rift between Parks and People can be narrowed – and
this is becoming a worldwide trend.
1.2.1 Local Involvement
Firstly local people must be involved in conservation once again because Parks cannot exist
in isolation. If they are to be of relevance in a transformed South Africa, Parks will have to
see themselves as part of the community in which they are situated. This means they will
need to recognise their links with, and dependence on, local communities - and to achieve
this they must include local people in their planning and management programmes, and
contribute to or facilitate community development. Thus there is a critical link between
development and conservation, and National Parks are well placed to encourage sustainable
living in the surrounding communities. SANParks have realised that South Africa’s cultural
heritage is inextricably linked to the biodiversity of our country.
1.2.2 Changes to Philosophy of SANParks
Since the democratic elections of 1994 SANParks have undergone major changes with
regard to philosophy, policy and organisational structure, thus SANParks now reflects the
new political, economic and social realities of South Africa. The first major step in the
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transformation process was taken in 1995 with the appointment of a new board whose new
Vision for the SANParks was articulated as follows:
National Parks will be the pride and joy of all South Africans.
In order to achieve this vision SANParks adopted the following mission:
To acquire and manage a system of National Parks that represents the
indigenous wildlife, vegetation, landscape and associated cultural assets
of South Africa for the pride and benefit of the Nation.
This statement clearly represents a fundamental shift from what were the traditional
conservation practices to a more holistic, integrated natural and cultural heritage
management approach. The new approach is enshrined in the South African Constitution
and the Bill of Rights, and has also been shaped by other legislation - such as the Land
Restitution Act of 1995 (which makes provision for the restitution of land rights to people or
communities who were dispossessed by the racist laws of the past). SANParks is playing an
active and positive role in facilitating the resolution of land claims using the framework of the
SANParks Land Claims Policy.
1.2.3 Restructuring of SANPARKS
The core business of the restructured SANParks is conservation in the most modern, broad
definition of the word - where conservation includes the management of biodiversity as well
as the pursuit of social ecology, by recognising that people are crucial in conservation. Social
ecology brings in the vital linkage of people participating in conservation. If conservation is
the business of SANParks then the key ingredients must be natural resources and people.
For practical considerations, the focus of the social ecology programme is on the historically
disadvantaged communities living in the neighbourhood of National Parks. Nonetheless,
SANParks is also keenly aware of the role that other neighbours play vis-à-vis the Parks such as farmers, industry and agriculture, so much so that it is a management objective in
the business plan for each National Park to actively engage with all its stakeholders for
mutual benefit.
SANParks recognises the need to use the Ecotourism potential of National Parks to achieve
the objectives of conservation. It is the obligation of SANParks to make National Parks
accessible to everyone in South Africa, and the rest of the world, by delivering an appropriate
standard of service.
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2 SANParks Commercialisation Programme
It is worth noting the considerable debate that continues to wage on with the implementation
of the commercialisation programme. The aim is to gradually empower local communities to
take over the running of various tourist facilities, and so provide an income to these people.
Income generation for local people is believed to be the key to the success of National Parks
in perpetuity, and this will be the focus for the next decade.
South African National Parks (SANParks) was established by the National Parks Act for the “
establishment, preservation and study therein of wild animal, marine and plant life and
objects of geological, archaeological, historical, ethnological, oceanic, educational and
scientific interest…in such a manner that the area which constitutes the park will, as far as
may be possible for the benefit and enjoyment of visitors, and be retained in its natural state”
SANParks’ historic role has been twofold:

To protect the assets it looks after

To deliver tourism and recreational services to Local and Foreign Travellers.
The political changes in South Africa have led to a big shift of most existing institutions.
SANParks now find themselves seeking new avenues, which will justify and secure their
future. The Government of South Africa faces a serious dilemma with respect to wildlife
conservation: “how to balance the extensive land and financial resources required by
protected areas with the acute social and economic development needs of poor rural people
with very limited access to any kind of resources”
Tourism and Ecotourism are a key component of Government’s economic strategy to
achieve growth, employment and redistribution of wealth in South Africa. National Parks are
a key component of the Ecotourism industry in South Africa. Concessions are claimed to be
one mechanism for generating social and economic benefits without compromising the
conservational ethos of a National park. These benefits include:

capital investment

foreign exchange generation

employment creation

stimulation of support industries and development of small, medium and micro
enterprises.
It is a means of generating an income for SANParks, which may be used for maintaining
SANParks, expanding, and/or subsidising access for those citizens who are unable to afford
to pay visitor fees.
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2.1 Definition of a Concession
“A concession is an opportunity to build and operate an Ecotourism facility in a National Park,
with strict regulations governing the conduct of the facility”. In most cases an exclusive area
is allocated for use, for two reasons.

It allows for the establishment of a luxury Ecotourism product that caters to a different
segment of the market than that which is the main focus of SANParks

There is an associated accountability for any environmental damage.
2.2 Commercialisation as a Conservation Strategy
“Commercialisation as a Conservation Strategy” implies the intention to generate additional
revenue to ensure better conservation of South Africa’s National Parks. Granting the private
sector the opportunity to operate within National Parks without alienating any of the assets
generates additional revenue. This should, over time, result in an increase in the value of
assets under SANParks control.
A concession contract enables the concessionaire to use a pre-defined area of land, over a
20-year period, in return for payment of concession fees. It requires a private company to
completely implement the venture throughout the agreed concession period, after which it
hands over the asset to SANParks. SANParks remains the owner of the assets and, legally,
immediately becomes the owner of all new fixed assets built on the site, even if the
concessionaire financed these assets.
In addition to this there is a set of obligations on the part of the concessionaire. Infringement
of these requirements carries penalties and ultimately the termination of the contract, with the
assets reverting to SANParks.
The Commercialisation Strategy thus allows SANParks to:

increase and capture more of the net economic benefits attributable to parks

contribute more to local economic development

mitigate environmental impacts

help finance biodiversity conservation (recognising that only a small fraction of
ecologically-important areas have the potential to attract significant tourism).
2 THE NATIONAL PARKS ACT
The First National Parks Act was passed in 1926, because of representations made to
central government for the permanent protection of the Sabie Game Reserve despite the fact
that the area was proclaimed a Game Reserve by the South African government in 1898.
This is because it was feared the area was not adequately protected against mining and
agricultural development.
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The purpose of establishing National Parks is stated in the 1976 National parks Act as:
“The object of the constitution of a Park is the establishment, preservation and study
therein of wild animals, marine and plant life, and the objects of geological,
archaeological, historical, ethnological, oceanographic, educational and other
scientific interests, and objects relating to the said life or first mentioned objects or to
events in or the history of the Park, in such a manner that the area which constitutes
the park shall, as far as may be and for the benefit and enjoyment of visitors, be
retained in a natural state”.
The two maps on the next page are DEAT’s map of Conservation Areas of South Africa, and
a map indicating where South Africa’s Protected Areas are in relation to Hotspots. You
should find and number on both maps the 20 National Parks
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The Addo Elephant National Park
In the Eastern Cape, 70 km north of Port Elizabeth lies the Addo Elephant National Park
famous for its elephants. There is however also a naturally occurring population of about 70
buffalo which strangely enough mainly browse rather than mainly graze. There is 60 km of
tourist road for game-viewing and over 240 elephants. Addo has/had (?) a valuable
population of the D. b. michaeli subspecies of black rhino, which were originally imported
from Kenya and have thrived in the Park. There are plans to repatriate these and stock the
Park with the D. b. bicornis subspecies that is the southern and endangered animal).
The proposed Greater Addo National Park will be about 397 500 ha, and when stocked with
the ‘Big Five’ will take its place on the international safari market.
The Park makes a profit, part of which accrues to the neighbouring communities.
The Zuurberg National Park is now a section of the Addo Elephant National Park, due north
of Port Elizabeth and 50 km north of Addo itself. It is a scenic 35 000 ha park with steep
river valleys and richly varied habitats. It is suitable for hikers as there are trails, but permits
are required. This Zuurberg Mountain range is part of the Cape Fold Mountain belt.
Currently there are moves afoot to greatly extend Addo and link it to the Zuurberg N.P. and
thus provide much more habitat for elephant and black rhino.
The Agulhas National Park
Cape Agulhas is approximately 230 km from Cape Town. The nearest towns are Agulhas
and the fishing village of Struisbaai. Cape Agulhas is the southernmost tip of Africa. A cairn
marks the tip’s exact location. It is here where the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans
officially meet.
The flatish area around the southernmost tip of Africa is called the Agulhas Plain and is
rich in natural and cultural features. It is of international significance due to its rich
biodiversity. It has approximately 2 000 species of indigenous plants, including 100 which
are endemic to that area and over 110 Red Data Book species. It is also home to the Cape
platanna and the micro frog, and has over 21 000 migrant and resident wetland birds.
Culturally there are significant archaeological sites and numerous shipwrecks of early
explorers. The Cape Agulhas lighthouse, a National Monument, as well as many historic
buildings are found in this area.
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Augrabies Falls National Park
This National Park lies 120 km West of Upington and 40 km North-West of Kakamas. It is a
scenic reserve covering 50 000 ha on both the northern and southern side of the Orange
River. The focal point is the 56 metre high Augrabies Falls, named by the Khoe-khoe people
and meaning “the place of the Great Noise”.
Sanctuary is provided to the smallest of succulents, birds, reptiles, springbok, gemsbok and
the endangered black rhino. Tourists can partake in nature trails, hiking trails, game drives
and horseback rides. Swimming pools are available.
Bontebok National Park
Situated in the Western Cape, SE of Swellendam, it is 2 786 ha in size with more than 470
species of flora. This park was proclaimed in 1931 in the Bredasdorp district and later moved
to its present position to protect the remaining 22 bontebok that survived hunting. At the time
of moving 84 bontebok were transferred. Today the park in carrying its maximum at
about 200 bontebok, the surplus stock is being bought by other nature reserves and private
landowners with suitable habitat. The present world population is between 2 000 and 3 000
animals.
This species became separated from the blesbok during evolutionary time, with bontebok
becoming a fynbos endemic species, restricted to a very small range in the south-western
Cape, while the blesbok remained on the plains of the old northern Cape, Free State and old
southern Transvaal.
Cape Peninsula National Park
Lying at the southwestern tip of Africa, the Cape Peninsula encompasses the very scenic
Peninsula Mountain Chain that stretches from Signal Hill in the north to Cape Point in
the south – a distance of approximately 60 km. It is bound by the cold Atlantic Ocean in
the west and the warmer waters of False Bay in the east.
It has world-renowned landmarks within its boundaries: Table Mountain and the
legendary Cape of Good Hope were well known to early explorers.
Its dramatic topography, very rich array of habitats, and extremely rich variety of fynbos
species are vital to conserve. The Cape Peninsula has some 2 285 species of plants – more
than the entire British Isles or New Zealand. Of these 90 are endemic to the area. Other
types of unusual vegetation found in the park include the rare Renosterveld grassland
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patches on granite and Malmesbury shale outcrops, and afromontane forest patches most
common on the east-facing slopes of Table Mountain.
Ecotourism activities in the area include horse riding, mountain climbing and biking,
abseiling, hiking, angling, hang gliding or parasailing as well as water-based activities like
surfing, windsurfing, sailing, snorkelling and scuba diving.
With Cape Point and Table Mountain, both featured amongst the top five most popular
destinations in the Western Cape, there is considerable tourist pressure on this area.
Golden Gate Highlands National Park
In the far eastern part of the Free State, South-West of Harrismith, this 11 630 ha park is
scenic cave sandstone at its best. Carved by the Little Caledon River the sandstone “gateposts” are impressive. The Bearded Vulture or “Lammergeyer”, and the equally rare bald
ibis breeds here. Lying in the foothills of the Maluti Mountains the grassland occasionally
gives way to pockets of forest in ravines. It is well stocked with antelope and zebra which
flourish in this 11 600 ha of true highland grassland habitat. Nature trails, hiking trails, night
drives and environmental education courses are on offer.
The Kgalagadi Trans-Frontier Park
Situated in the far N of the Western Cape 278 km N of Upington. The Park is set in the red
Kalahari sand dunes with the main roads between the camps running in the (usually) dry
riverbeds of the Nossob and Auob Rivers. There are three rest camps. Amongst the birding
fraternity the well known “Raptor Route” is a must. It has a good infrastructure for
Ecotourism. The Kalahari ecosystem is built on the drought-adaptive plant life of the Nama
Karoo and leads to the large carnivores at the top of the pyramid such as lion and eagle
being common. The gemsbok, which is abundant in the park, is well adapted to this
environment. This animal is capable of killing a lion with its rapier-like horns. This park
incorporates the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park in South Africa and the Gemsbok National
Park in Botswana and is now a Transfrontier Park.
The Karoo National Park
North of Beaufort West, there is a 90 km network of game-viewing roads. Dramatic scenery
in the wide-open arid plains, which rise abruptly into the mountainous country, makes this
park very scenic. There are black rhino and about 120 Cape Mountain Zebra. Overnight and
same-day 4x4 tours are available.
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Knysna National Lake Area
The park surrounds Knysna, including the lagoon, but is however a nightmare in terms of
nature conservation management due to the urban development in the surrounding
catchments. The National Parks Board felt that the lake area did not qualify as a national
area in terms of recognised IUCN criteria as it is only a small part of a much larger system. In
practice the area could not be managed for conservation because of development. An
oyster factory is a novelty for Ecotourists.
Kruger National Park
It is situated in the northeastern part of Mpumalanga with the northern part in the Limpopo
Province. It is situated on the Mozambique border extending from Zimbabwe to within a few
kilometres of Swaziland. The park covers nearly 2 000 000ha of bushveld typical of the
Lowveld and can be divided into three regions, Northern, Southern and Central. There is
an excellent array of accommodation, ranging from over a R1000 a night to R100 a night. It
is the flagship of South African National Parks and is home to the ‘Big Five’, 336 tree
species, 49 fish species, 34 amphibians, 114 reptiles, 507 bird and 147 mammal species.
Activities on offer vary from short nature walks, game drives, night drives, 4x4 overland
drives to seven different wilderness trails which last three nights and two days, and other
attractions are being developed.
Negotiations are underway for a larger park - the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Park,
which will combine the Gaza concession area and Bannine Park in Mozambique and Gonare-zhou National Park in Zimbabwe.
The Marakele National Park (the name means “Place of Sanctuary”)
Close to Thabazimbi in the Limpopo Province, 250 km N of Johannesburg, this National
Park is set to take the pressure off the Kruger Park once all the land is acquired. Lying in
the heart of the Waterberg Mountains this added montane ecosystem gives the Marakele
the edge on the Kruger Park in terms of an added scenic “mountain” attraction. Once more
land has been acquired lion will be introduced to complete the “Big Five” complement. It
has many treasures game-wise with 13 species of antelope. The bonus is the Vulture
colony, which boasts the world’s largest breeding colony of the endangered Cape Griffon,
with more than 800 pairs.
Mountain Zebra National Park
Situated in the Eastern Cape, SW of Cradock, this park is 6536 ha and was established to
protect the last remaining populations of Cape Mountain Zebra, hence the name. Lying
on the northern slopes on the Bankberg, the area is scenic with deep ravines, grass-covered
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mountain slopes and flat, open plateau. Several short nature trails, horse riding and
swimming is available.
Namaqua National Park
Situated some 495 km from Cape Town and 67 km from Springbok in the North West
Province, this area was developed to protect the fragile ecosystems and renowned spring
flowers of Namaqualand. The main focus areas for the new park include:

the area around the Skilpad Wildflower Reserve, well-known for its spring flowers

the area between the Groen and Spoeg Rivers, which allows for the protection of
marine ecosystems and associated estuaries.
In the future these two areas may be connected through various concession arrangements
and/or conservancies.
Richtersveld National Park ‘The New South Africa’ National Park
It is situated in the NW part of the Western Province on the southern bank of the Orange (=
Garipe) River. Is consists of 162 445 ha and is managed by SANParks on behalf of the
local community of Nama pastoralists, who continue to graze their livestock within the
Park. Two existing diamond mines also operate within the Richtersveld along the banks of
the Orange River.
This is a mountain-desert Succculent Karoo habitat and offers scenic beauty, wilderness
and highly adaptive succulent flora like the halfmens, giant quiver tree and stone plants
Lithops. Its geology and geomorphology are starkly beautiful and add to the scenic views.
Its Ecotourism activities include a 4x4 trail, fishing in the Orange, and walking. It is
essential to carry water at all times and not advisable to sleep on the ground due to
venomous scorpions. Accommodation is available in ‘Matjieshuise’, as used by the Nama
farmers. This promotes awareness of the local community. A community-based
Ecotourism programme has been piloted in this area.
Tankwa Karoo National Park
It is situated 250 km NE of Cape Town and 90 kilometres S of Calvinia, and consists of 27
000 ha of Succulent Karoo veld. This National Park is closed to the public as it is
recovering from decades of overgrazing and subsequent erosion.
The Ecotourism potential when it opens consists of the following. Ecotourists that will be
attracted to this area are those who can appreciate remoteness and silence of this totally
different kind of environment, as well as those interested in plants. The large desert-adapted
game species that used to live here, gemsbok and springbok, will be re-introduced.
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Tsitsikamma National Park
In the Eastern Cape, situated on the coastline E of Plettenberg Bay, this indigenous coastal
forest supports the famous ‘Big Tree’, the Outeniqua Yellowwood, which is over 36 m tall.
This park is also a part of the 63 km Tsitsikamma trail, and the world famous Otter Trail runs
along the coast. The habitat is rocky coastline rising sharply through Afromontane forests
to fynbos on the higher ground. The De Vasselot section of the park offers sandy beaches
and areas of fynbos and forest. At Storms River Mouth visitors can angle, scuba-dive and
snorkel, with demarcated underwater trails, which qualified scuba divers may only
undertake. Hiking trails are the main attraction for international tourists.
Vaalbos National Park
West of Barkley West, this 22 696 ha savanna grassland national park may possibly lose
its status. There are 40 km of game-viewing roads with extensive stretches of land along the
Vaal River, which in the past was mined for alluvial diamonds. The name Vaalbos originates
from the Vaalbos (camphor bush), a prominent plant species in the park.
Vhembe-Dongola National Park
This is a new national park in the extreme N of the Limpopo Province near Musina. It shares
boundaries with Botswana and Zimbabwe. An open-border policy with the three countries
would ensure free and unhindered movement of game. The entire spectrum of game occurs
here with the exception of black rhino. This park has the potential of becoming one of
southern Africa’s largest protected areas.
West Coast National Park
It is situated on the West Coast 110 kilometres north of Cape Town centred on Langebaan
lagoon. The reserve consists of the lagoon and both shores. It covers about 20 000 ha and
includes the Postberg Reserve where seasonal wild flowers abound. The bird islands of
Malgas, Jutten, Marcus and Schaarpen are all included in this National Park.
The vegetation types include the West Coast Sandveld, coastal fynbos, salt marshes and
mudflats.
Ecotourism in the area consists of birding tours to the bird islands, and game and flower
viewing. Yachting on the Langebaan Lagoon also offers Ecotourism opportunities.
Wilderness National Park
Situated 15kms E of George in the Western Cape, the Park lies in one of South Africa’s most
popular tourist routes. The Park covers 2 500 ha with a further 10 000 ha designated as
“under the National Park’s control”. The park incorporates the lakes between Wilderness
and the Goukamma Nature Reserve. Birding at Langvlei and Rondevlei, and nature trails
through forests, along the beach and lakes all fulfil the needs of the natural history lover.
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5 GUIDELINES FOR VISITING NATIONAL PARKS
What should one tell visitors to National Parks? Two basic principles apply:

Safety for yourself and others is more important than seeing something

Respect for the animals, plants and environment goes without saying but there is
also respect for other people. It is important to respect the need for tranquillity, peace
and quietness while visiting national areas.
The following are some useful hints.

Protected environment
Remember the environment is protected. No picking of flowers or collecting of plants
without a permit. Animals should be treated with respect, if you see a snake on the road
do not jump out and prod it, as it may be playing “dead”, and besides there may be a
predator nearby. Also no stones or any other abiotic objects (such as shells) may be
removed from Parks.

Do not feed the animals
Baboons are particularly at risk. They become brazen and desperate and can attack
humans to get what they now deem rightfully theirs. Their demise is caused by humans
trying “to be kind”. As the Cape Point Nature Reserve’s sign reads, “You feed them! We
shoot them!”

Stay in the Car
If warned to stay in the car, do so. Predators cannot be talked out of killing humans and
there are fatalities every year. Even if the animals look harmless and you are in a reserve
with no predators or harmful game, stay put.

Stay on the roads and do not “get up close”
Drive on the designated tracks (and road), otherwise you damage the veld and cause
erosion. Driving too close to wild animals is not a good idea. You may not know that a
female is in oestrus until the male suddenly turns on your car to protect his mate. Elephants
have done irreparable damage to cars with occupants having lucky escapes. Even a female
ostrich could prove formidable if she is protecting her nest in the spot near where you have
chosen to stop.

Fires
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Only use designated areas to make your fire. Extinguish the fire properly and completely
once you are finished. You could cause loss of life and damage to grazing that may result in
forced culling of animals. If hiking, be aware of your gas canister, which will light with zest
after being shaken around in your pack for hours whilst walking. Never light it in a tent or long
grass, as you will not be able to contain the result and could burn the tent down or start a
massive grass fire.

Firewood
Firewood collecting is usually forbidden, so use your stove or take your own wood or buy
wood if a braai area is available. Wood for sale is wood that has been carefully collected on a
sustainable-use basis.

Road conditions
Check the road conditions – you may need a 4x4 vehicle. If going to an isolated area do your
homework beforehand. Rather make your first trip with someone who knows where they are
going and has been before.

First Aid Kit
THETA now requires all registered tour guides to have completed a first aid course. It is
always wise to go prepared. Remember for snakebite, try to get a look at the snake to be
able to describe it when you do get to help and/or a doctor – so they have a good idea how
to treat you. Tell your visitors to be on the lookout for snakes. The leader of a hiking party
should have a stick to prod anything suspect on the path and all people should have good
protective footwear, preferably boots. Stay on footpaths, as snakes “hear” by feeling
vibrations and tend to stay away from regularly used footpaths. It is no longer recommended
that guides carry snakebite serum, as its incorrect use can be fatal.

Water
Take your own water. Always preferably boil water before drinking no matter how clear the
stream looks. You will be surprised at how people higher up the stream can abuse the
system, and bilharzia and other health risks may be present.
Thousands of local people die annually from malaria. Pregnant women should just not go
into a malaria area. Nor should very young children, as they are advised not to take the
prophylactic drugs. One of the best forms of protection besides the mandatory medication is
a liberal application twice daily, and after a shower, of a good insect repellent. Also one
should ‘cover up’ early morning and particularly at nightfall (two hours before and three hours
after sunset).
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Remember to warn your visitors when you say ‘goodbye’ for the last time about “transient”
‘flu-like symptoms’, which may occur for up to four months after leaving the area. Having a
simple blood test should check this. This warning could save their lives, as cerebral malaria
is a killer.
Bilharzia is a possibility if swimming at low altitude and 4 km upstream of an open lagoon. If
the lagoon mouth is closed then the possibility of saline seawater killing the Bilharzia there
may be less. The water is likely to be mostly “fresh” from the river flowing into the lagoon,
and swimming is not recommended. Some organisms live in shallow pans and slow-flowing
rivers in subtropical areas. Avoid contact with this water.
Tick-bite fever is a possibility all year round, and an application of Tabard Lotions, Ascabiol
or Benzyl Benzoate on the legs when hiking works well. Pepper ticks are minute and cannot
be seen in the bushveld. They will come up like an itchy heat rash all over the body so
always use the Tabard before walking if the grass is even slightly long. Constant headaches
develop about a week to four days after being bitten, so if you are travelling well away from
good health facilities take medication with you.
6 TOURISM TERMINOLOGY
There is often confusion over terminology used to describe certain categories in the “facilityservice” area of the hospitality industry. And it may be important to have a clear definition.

Game Reserve
All activities advertised, such as game drives, hikes and canoeing take place “inside” the
premises of the organisation or game reserve. Game animals must be in their natural
state, not boxed or fenced in. Game should be endemic (restricted to a given region) or
indigenous to the area, as opposed to being exotic (coming from another country or another
biome).

Safari Lodge
An accommodation facility that is usually small and/or the game viewing may or may not
be done on the same property. The visitors can often also travel to neighbouring parks,
reserves and/or private farms to view game – this is termed “going on safari”.
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Game Resort
Game in this case is fenced in although this may be in a large area allowing the animals to
roam “seemingly freely”. This facility may be a hotel with a conference centre, restaurants,
etc.

Game Farm
This is a facility where game does not necessarily have to be in their natural state, and can
be either fenced or boxed in. The game does not have to be endemic to the area.
Accommodation may not be available and the game may be the only attraction.

Wheels Operators
Any person transporting tourists and acting as the driver must by law be in possession of a
Public Driving Permit (called a “PDP licence”), which is obtained from the normal carlicensing office. However, the police will give clearance by taking finger-prints, and a clean
bill of health is required from a doctor. This whole procedure will take about eight weeks the
first time around. Thereafter it will be quicker but one should not allow the PDP to expire.
Every PDP requires a doctor’s consultation.

Transfer company: A vehicle operator who transfers fare-paying passengers
between destinations on public roads. Is it very important for these operators to
carry a passenger liability (a minimum of R 5 million per vehicle per any one
incident – this is usually for a microbus carrying eight people) and Road Carrier
Permits are available from the Road Traffic Department.
With the statistics of road fatalities so high in South Africa it is vital that one only uses
companies, which carry this insurance. Many big bus companies (especially the local
ones) may not carry adequate insurance, so be advised – check all details carefully.

Safari Operators: This is an operator who organises game safaris and
accommodation. Operator owned companies have their own vehicles.

Tour Operator: This is an operator with their own vehicle who arranges tour
itineraries, game safaris and accommodation.

Tour Broker
There are TWO types of Tour Brokers:
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A tour broker who arranges tour itineraries, game safaris and accommodation.
They do not own their own vehicles but hire from vehicle and bus companies.

Agents who ‘sell’ tour itineraries and accommodation establishments on behalf
of a third party. These agents should ensure that the tours they sell have ‘credible’
operators and that the accommodation establishments have public liability.
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REVISION EXCERCISES
Multiple choice questions
1. The
benefits
of
a
concession
include:
5. A National Park, which is known for
its spring flowers, is:
a) Capital investment
a)
Kruger
b) Foreign exchange generation
b) Tsitsikamma
c) Employment creation
c) Agulhas
d) All of the above
d) Namaqua
e) Marakele
2. The first National Park was declared
in:
6. Game here is fenced and there may
be a hotel and conference facilities:
a) 1976
b) 1928
a)
Game Reserve
c) 1926
b)
Game Farm
d) 1956
c)
Game Resort
d) Safari Lodge
3. The following is an example of a
‘New South Africa’ National Park:
7. The vision of SANParks is:
a) Kruger
a) Protect indigenous fauna and flora
b) Richtersveld
b) Provide adequate tourist facilities
c) Tankwa Karoo
c) Embark on a new philosophy of
d) Marakele
conservation
d) Be the pride and joy of all South
4. Which of the following National
Africans
Parks was declared for their scenic
e) Include neighbours
beauty:
a) Mountain Zebra
7.
Commercialisation
b) Augrabies
SANParks as:
is
good
for
c) Addo Elephant
a) It allows more people to benefit
e) West Coast
b) It saves SANParks money
f)
c) The environment is better pro-
Knysna Lakes
tected
d) More people can visit the Parks
e) Parks can get bigger
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LEARNING UNIT 7
THE COMMUNITY
KEY OUTPUTS FOR THIS UNIT
______________________________________________________________
After studying this unit you should be able to:

describe the role of the community in Ecotourism

explain the advantages of Ecotourism to communities

understand the needs of the community.
1 INTRODUCTION
Let us re-look at the key elements in our definition of Ecotourism: “purposeful travel to
natural areas to learn about the culture and natural history of the environment, while
taking care not to alter the integrity of the environment, and contributing to the economic
value of the local people.”
This definition should also include a sociological dimension, by inserting after ”integrity”
the phrase: “ OF THE CULTURE OF THE LOCAL PEOPLE AND…”.
2 THE ROLE OF ECOTOURISM ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Attention must be given to socio-economic development of adjoining rural areas to provide a
basis for goodwill and common interest between conservation activities and local
communities. The spin-off of Ecotourism activities is that they draw local communities into
the business process. Two main categories of involvement are:

Direct participation: The community themselves organise and develop forms of
economic activity, and in turn gain direct access into the industry. Local people create
their own niche and participate directly in the creation of wealth

Indirect participation: Communities do not actually own any of the Ecotourism
business operations and mostly provide peripheral services.
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2.1 Direct participation
Direct community participation can be extended to include co-ownership of private or
state owned game lodges and camps. There exist several successful examples of equity
ownership of Ecotourism ventures.
A different situation is possible with emphasis on direct participation in the business
process. Local people participate directly in the business decision-making processes. As a
result they understand much more intimately the conditions under which the business is likely
to flourish and/or fail. Because of a direct and significant stake in the growth of the business
the rural people are more interested in creating and maintaining profitable conditions. A
drawback to this may be that the company is more likely to be orientated towards the needs
of the community and may not offer the best deal for the Ecotourists and biodiversity
conservation.
In addition an important effect of direct participation is that local people are employed more
widely and not only in the traditional menial positions available in such a business. Joint
venture businesses are often linked with community capacity building programmes. Locals
are fully exposed to the business process and with training are required to do more than
merely menial tasks. This provides locals with experience and skills that enable them to start
their own businesses, or they are then better able to sell their skills and expertise elsewhere.
2.2 Indirect participation in Ecotourism
Under the indirect model of benefit the Ecotourism venture remains an activity that is not
fully understood by the local people. People are unlikely to truly identify with an Ecotourism
venture without much insight or direct stake in the business process. Also “deals” with locals
have the connotation of a bribe. Such indirect interaction creates dependency on the part of
the local communities and is not a good basis for community empowerment and
development.
Some game lodges redirect a percentage of their turnover to toward neighbouring
communities. This includes developing the ability of locals to provide services such as
construction, vehicle maintenance, etc. to the lodges. The idea here is that lodge operations
can be effective mechanisms for creating subsidiary economic activities in rural areas.
Tourism serves as a very effective starting point for rural development and growth. Many
nature reserves have attempted to promote a mutual economic interest in Ecotourism by:
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Subcontracting certain services and functions to neighbouring communities i.e.
Laundry services

Buying local produce

Offering cultural activities and services to Ecotourists inside the reserves

Providing the means for locals to sell their wares: i.e. curios, arts and crafts.
The pros and cons of direct and indirect participation
The more valuable form of direct participation is in terms of community development, yet the
value and necessity of indirect participation should not be underestimated. Nor does the
achievement of direct participation mean that indirect participation should be neglected or
ignored.
For a successful Ecotourism venture the first step is to establish common economic interest
between the Ecotourism venture itself and the local community. And it should be noted that
indirect means are the quickest and easiest to implement initially.
3 SOME ISSUES AROUND ECOTOURISM
3.1 Respect
Ecotourism is deemed the “peace industry” because it promotes respect for other
people’s cultures, with the role of “host” being enjoyed by even the most poverty-stricken
South Africans. Ask any Ecotourist, “Do you want to see the authentic Zulu lifestyle, the way
Zulus cook and their customs?” Or “Would you like to visit Café Africa for a meal?
Ecotourists invariably jump at the opportunity to do the “real thing”.
3.2 Criminal Element
When a tour operator uses a local community as a destination that community should be well
known to the operator, and it should be one with whom the operator has established a
relationship and trust. This is important both for the authentic experience and also for the
personal safety of the Ecotourists. Our crime statistics are extremely high in South Africa and
the criminals can show up anywhere and anytime. There may also be factors we are not
aware of, such as tensions within the community, that need to be understood and discussed
with the community leaders beforehand.
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3.3 Personal Contact
There is no substitute for personal contact. The sense of adventure for the traveller is always
memorable, and a vitally important ingredient for Ecotourists visiting Africa. Despite language
differences visitors want to communicate, and can communicate surprisingly well with rural or
urban South Africans. All it takes is a smile and an introduction through a facilitator. Despite
a life of hardship our urban and rural people still show great friendliness when interest is
shown in their activities and/or their culture.
3.4 Protocol and Etiquette
There is a protocol for making contacts with communities that must be strictly adhered to for
reasons of respect and understanding. Protocol is defined as the form of ceremony and
etiquette observed by heads of state and politicians. The correct people need to be consulted
in the correct manner for any Ecotourism venture to succeed. Etiquette refers more to a
social code of behaviour or courtesy. This is simply displaying good manners. Good manners
in any culture are the basis for meaningful social interaction and for gaining respect.
3.5 Partnerships
Some of the most interesting regions of South Africa are found in the communal lands. It is
believed that wildlife conservation in these areas can only be sustained with the acceptance
and support of the rural communities. There is enormous potential to develop additional
reserves and resorts, particularly in the coastal belt of the old Transkei and KwaZulu-Natal.
Such developments should not unduly disrupt traditional land-use, and should provide direct
benefits for local inhabitants: for example in the form of a levy.
3.6 Exploitation
Most communities will host visitors gladly in exchange for remuneration, which after all is
acceptable in a service-based industry. The Ecotourism industry should promote a spin-off to
the local community as opposed to a rip-off of the local community. The rip-off comes from
local entrepreneurs who exploit a culture by creating a pseudo- or artificial impression of that
culture to be presented to visitors. Overseas operators charge high prices in their countries
for cultural experiences in South Africa, but mostly the financial profits of the operator are not
passed on to the rural people providing the service.
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3.7 Authenticity
It is important that the Ecotourist have an authentic experience. An amazingly powerful interaction between visitors and local people can be degraded by the greed of a local
entrepreneur, who does not possess the common sense (or sensitivity) to realise that the
spirit of the local people is what the visitor has come to see and feel. This cannot be
achieved by regimented shows on the hour, or when the commentary on entering into one of
the huts is rattled off parrot-style.
3.8 Instinct
As an Eco-tour operator seek out the experience for yourself carefully. After a reasonable
study of the culture try the product for yourself with your Ecotourist in mind. Trust your
instincts and good common sense, and you have a good chance of getting it right. Your client
will remember you for it and you will do good business in the future.
TRUE SPIN-OFFS Case Studies
The role of the community is paramount in the Ecotourist’s experience of South Africa.
It is part of the ‘romantic’ in-Africa experience. Some examples of this essentially
subtle form of communication from a tour operator’s perspective are the following:
1.
A City tour with a visit to a ‘touristy’ African venue/village was planned for
visiting American executives. With disgusting toilets, something that should always be
checked out beforehand, the ‘show’ did little to impress the astute travellers.
Fortunately the story had a happy ending with the highlight being a stop near an
informal settlement, where there was much excitement among the guests with cameras
clicking madly. On reflection, this was ‘real’!
2.
A wealthy Turkish business executive and his wife flew in from Mala Mala to
do a Battlefield tour in KwaZulu-Natal. Booked into a country lodge, fortunately with no
touristy Zulu ‘show’ available. The owners of the lodge asked their employees, whose
children where at the local school, to dance for the guests. There was great
excitement. The local black schoolteacher was delighted, as he was trying to instil in his
pupils a sense of pride in Zulu culture by encouraging the children to dance.
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The parents provided a traditional Zulu meal in two traditional huts and, as darkness
fell the couple enjoyed a meal in the traditional way with these humble people. In the
firelight of that African night enthusiasm turned to sheer joy. The atmosphere was
magical! Later in discussion with the schoolteacher our wealthy guests asked what were
the immediate needs of his small school. His prayers were answered directly by the
guests donating generously to the school. In this exercise there were no pretences, no
‘tired’ people banging out a rhythm, and certainly ‘no shows’. Most of all the local
community benefitted directly.
4 THE NEEDS OF THE COMMUNITIES
Ecotourism can bring new benefits to rural communities who most often do not have the
services, or the level of services provided in urban areas. Such as proper housing, electricity,
water, sewage and refuse removal. These are sometimes referred to as the “new big five” of
the rural communities. Sadly the very fascination of the First World Ecotourists with Third
World people is their struggle for survival and their coping mechanisms (ingenuity) to cope
with that struggle. So we must not hide or protect the Ecotourist from the abject poverty that
exists in South Africa today, as it is very much a part of the experience. Instead we need to
analyse this struggle to understand what the Ecotourist perceives of the present, what they
may know about the past, and what may bother them about the future. Sustainable living can
only be achieved by a redistribution of resources. The sites of struggle, as perceived by rural
poor are basically:

Land to grow food and to run livestock. Prior to 1994 75% of the population was
restricted to 13% of the land, which meant that they were denied a primary natural resource.
Five million people were forcibly removed to smaller areas, sometimes where the productivity
was poor and with few natural resources. Over-stocking in densely populated rural areas has
caused near desertification in many areas. Living in such crowded circumstances brought
about extreme poverty, which exacerbated environmental degradation. South Africa has
limited agricultural land. Of our surface area of 120 million hectares only some 55% (66
million hectares) receives enough rain for dry land production (and that only in better than
average years). Of this land only about 15% is arable. It is also apparent that most black
households have little incentive to make viable use of the communal land allocated to them
for crop production. Consequently much of the arable land, especially in KwaZulu-Natal is
under-utilised because emerging farmers do not have access to land that lies unused by
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other households. At present the concept of land rental is being introduced so that everyone
concerned can benefit. Emergent farmers can expand their operations, while people who do
not wish to use their land, gain rental income paid in either cash or kind. This may even be a
share of the crops grown, from land that previously generated nothing.

Energy for fuel and warmth. Over half of South Africa’s population relies on non-
sustainable use of fuel wood for their energy requirements. Some 80% of urban blacks
receive ESKOM electricity, while 50% plus of rural blacks have access but use wood in
preference because it is cheaper for them. If the current consumption rates continue all
natural wood resources will be virtually denuded by 2020. To reverse this situation 500
000ha of woodlots close to the relevant communities must be planted in the next ten years.
Many urban blacks cannot afford electricity and also burn wood or poor grade coal. This
creates unhealthy air and contributes to the smog and the escalating chest problems of the
township populations.

Water for drinking and washing. For a long time fresh water has been polluted and
reduced in quantity by insensitive building, unsound agricultural development/practices,
industrial and municipal pollution, urbanisation, introduction of alien species, unwise
afforestation, and the clearing of natural vegetation. Meanwhile in formal urban areas water
is generally of high quality and sewerage is water borne. However due to the lack of finance
damaged sewerage pipes go unchecked and the general quality of water is fast becoming
questionable in all the major cities in South Africa. Despite the best efforts of government
many people in the rural areas and in informal settlements still do not have adequate access
to water of an acceptable quality. This has brought the inevitable health problems, and is
exacerbated by drought.
It is not, therefore, surprising that most rural people have very little concern for the
environment when they are simply struggling to survive on a daily basis. There is often an
apathy and even hostility at the mention of environmental issues to rural people. Through
education and the actions of mainly NGOs there is, however, a growing ‘green
consciousness’ in certain black urban townships. It is obvious that without an acceptable
redistribution of land many South Africans will not adopt an ethic for sustainable living.
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REVISION EXERCISES
Multiple choice questions
1. Tourist trap businesses are:
5. What is the key role of Ecotourism?
a) Run by greedy people
a) That communities have the
b) Make money from forced culture
c) Exploit rural people
opportunity to get rich
b) That communities are able to learn
d) All of the above
more about conservation
c) That communities are able to afford
2. Sites of struggle for rural
better health services
communities refer to:
d) That communities are drawn into
a) Authenticity
the business process
b) Land, Energy, Water.
e) That communities can meet
c) Housing, Sewerage, Refuse
Ecotourists
removal, Housing, Electricity
d) Abject poverty
3. The Criminal Element can be
restricted by:
a) A well-planned itinerary
b) Protocol
c) Prior communication with
community leaders
d) All of the above
4. A peaceful solution to the lack of
available land to black farmers is:
a) Land rental of communal land
b) Redistribution of wealth
c) Nationalisation of Farms
d) None of the above
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LEARNING UNIT 8
CULTUROLOGY
KEY OUTPUTS FOR THIS UNIT
__________________________________________________________________
After studying this unit you should be able to:

explain some of South Africa’s cultural differences through a study of culturology

describe the whereabouts of the different tribal peoples of South Africa

appreciate the value of the traditional and new developing cultures of South Africa.
1 INTRODUCTION
Any foreign visitor to South Africa will comment on our rich mix of cultural diversity, which is
often one of the reasons for their visit. From a South African perspective a study of these
cultures is also very important. The more we understand one another, the more we will
respect one another, and the greater our chances for peaceful co-operation and
development.
It is important to realise that the “environment” includes both the urban and the rural
environment. Conservation therefore not only refers to our biodiversity but also includes the
preservation of the prehistoric, historic and contemporary cultural components of our country
- as they also contribute to the richness of our quality of life in both urban and rural settings.
2 CULTURAL SENSITIVITY
There are as many different customs and norms of acceptable behaviour as there are
countries around the world. And there are some big differences between African cultural
norms and those of Westerners. Here are some examples:

In Zambia males often walk together hand in hand as a sign of friendship, but the
custom of the country condemns any physical contact in public between members of the
opposite sex

In Zimbabwe guests to tribal homes should make loud noises while eating to
compliment their hosts
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When visiting a private home in Botswana be careful not to step on the doorsills as
the Tswana believe that each doorsill contains a god and it would be sacrilege to disturb
them unnecessarily.
White South Africans tend to practise individualism, which is the pursuit of personal goals,
logic and forthrightness in the expression of emotions and thought. In tribal Africa these
exact qualities are foreign, and can even be construed to be offensive. The importance of the
individual in tribal Africa is earned through experience, age and lineage.
A common thread of etiquette that does run through all African cultures is that everything that
is yours should be exalted and everything that is mine should be humbled. Tribal people can
be really upset by even small infringements of taboos, faiths and behaviour. It is up to the
Ecotourist to try and not upset people they meet. This can be done by:

accepting that the conventions of your home country usually conflict with those of
other countries

potential travellers reading up as much as possible on the destination, and the culture
and beliefs of the society in the locations they intend to visit.
3 THE SOUTH AFRICAN CULTURAL SITUATION
- AN OVERVIEW
We live in one of the most culturally complex countries in the world. After the first free
democratic elections in April 1994 South Africa adopted 11 official languages (and recently
“Sign” has been added to these to make 12), and recognised almost 850 dialects. To add
to the confusion of cultures there has also been an unchecked invasion of both legal and
illegal immigrants into the country from all over Africa. In addition South Africa has large
numbers of European residents that are still proud of their home country’s culture, thus there
is an even bigger mixture than simply the indigenous cultures.
South Africans of all colours and ethnic groups can become bewildered and frustrated by the
behaviour of others, simply because of their lack of understanding of the cultural differences.
This can lead to intolerance.
We will study a few of the South African cultures, not only to ensure that we can act as better
Ecotourist guides in our country, but also to improve our own understanding, dispel fear and
mistrust, and grow tolerance.
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Some of the major communities in South Africa include Afrikaners, Coloureds, English,
Griqua, Indians, Khoisan/Nama, Ndebele, Pedi, Pondo, Shangaan, Sotho, Swazi, Tswana,
Venda, Xhosa and Zulu. In all these cultures there are critical lessons for our future as a
“Rainbow Nation”.
The information presented in this Learning Unit can only touch on a few key aspects of
culture. – which is a vast subject. The opinions expressed here may be different to some of
those held by you and your lecturers. For this reason time will be allowed for individual
presentations during this section.
4 CULTURE DEFINED
The dictionary of anthropology defines culture as:
All that which is non-biologically and socially transmitted in a
society, including artistic, social, ideological and religious patterns
of behaviour, and the techniques for mastering the environment.
In more simple language this translates into culture being used to indicate a social grouping
that is smaller than a civilisation but larger than a single community.
5 AN INTRODUCTION TO SOME SOUTH AFRICAN CULTURE
- with some useful examples of common differences in interpretation between
different cultures within South Africa
Eye contact
In Western customs by not making eye contact whilst speaking to another person implies
that you have something to hide and is considered dishonest or sly. In Black customs it is
unheard of to look a senior person in the eye while speaking to them because it is
considered a challenge to their authority. This is a major difference and one that can occur
daily.
Greetings
In Western culture it is considered polite for a junior person to greet a senior person first and
for a man to greet a woman first. In the Zulu culture a junior person does not address a
senior person unless they are addressed first. In Tswana, Sotho and Southern Sotho, an
intermediary is used for greeting and announcements. There may be as many as 16 or 17
intermediaries, until “Sabona” is said (meaning “ We recognise you”). This is another daily
example of the cultural divide.
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Leading the way
In Western culture a man lets a lady lead the way. In Black culture the man leads the way,
and this originates from the idea that the man must go first to make sure there are no
enemies or dangerous animals ahead. Yet another example of opposite behaviour between
Western and black cultures.
Funerals
In Western culture a funeral normally takes place a few days after death. In black culture the
dead are not usually buried until the whole “family” has been notified, and had time to gather
to pay their respects. The funerals normally take place on a Saturday to give all relatives and
friends an opportunity to attend. Traditionally during the night before nobody sleeps and
much singing takes place, then early the next morning the funeral takes place. To be present
at the funeral is important as one’s presence shows that there was no involvement in the
death of the deceased. Because we have an increasing number of Muslims in South Africa it
is worth mentioning that in this religious culture the dead person must be buried on the day
that they died. So we have at least three very different ways to deal with death.
General Black cultures and customs
To a degree these are not practised with the same intensity, as they were in the past, but
they still form a part of the general accepted cultural norms and customs of the past, present
and future.
Social structures
The social order of the Blacks in their tribal state is best likened to a triangle with the superior
chief at the apex. The name of the tribe is usually the same as the surname of this man
whose position is hereditary. The great chief rules over a number of lesser chiefs, each in
charge of a group of families, and all these families constitute the tribe. The father is head of
the family unit and all members are answerable to his rule, as he is answerable to his
headman, the headman to his petty chief, and the petty chief to the great chief. Thus there is
a strictly hierarchical structure dictated by Tribal Law.
Tradition
The law of the tribe is based on custom and tradition, and the tribe’s ancestors watch over
the living from the spiritual world. It is the duty of every living member of the tribe to observe
these laws and customs, even as their forefathers observed them. There is a curious sense
of mystic of tribal belonging, with each individual being part of a continuous pattern stretching
back to the forgotten past.
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Family
In African culture all uncles and aunts (all older people in your local community) are
considered to be your “parents”. Thus it is possible for an African to attend several funerals
of their “mother” simply because they have many mothers, fathers, sisters and brothers.
Ethics
Behaviour, manners and ethics are all tribal, and to sin against the interests of the tribe is
considered a sin indeed. Modesty is evident in tribal girls and woman, and is expressed by
prescribed behaviour and posture, rather than in covering the body.
Life cycle
In the traditional Black society each individual has an established position from the cradle to
the grave, and beyond. The position may change through marriage. Polygamy is an
accepted state and all the duties of men and woman are clearly defined. A woman may only
work with cattle after the death of her husband; women’s work is in the fields or preparing
food, caring for children, and in the home. Men are soldiers and attend the affairs of state,
law and trading. Women must remain at home in their family groups, each working for the
good of the whole, and each has a well defined status.
Lobolo
Traditionally the husband presenting lobolo to the father of his bride cements a marriage
between a man and a woman. Lobolo marriages are recognised under South Africa law and
are therefore legal. Lobolo is not as payment, but a token of gratitude to the parents for
rearing the girl and to compensate them for the loss of a daughter. It is paid in honour of her
status and as an assurance that she will be well treated. Should she run away because of
unhappiness the lobolo is not returned. The size of lobolo indicates the bride’s status and her
chastity.
Ancestral Spirits
When trouble comes to the individual or the tribe the first question asked is whether the
ancestors are angry and the spirits are punishing the tribe. In the case of where the ancestral
spirit is angry a spiritual ceremony will be held where an animal is sacrificed to regain the
approval of the angry ancestor.
Traditional healer
No individual can solve his or her own troubles by intuitively discovering, or simply guessing
the mood of the spirits. The sangoma is a mouth piece (diviner) of the spirits, and may be
either a man or a woman. There are two types of sangomas - the herbalist or nyanga who
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usually has a remarkable knowledge of nature and herbal remedies, and the clairvoyant who
sees into the future. Both may, however, throw bones and divine the future and both may
administer herbs. In the hands of these healers lie the solutions to all life’s riddles and
challenges, and a troubled person may get new strength by eating or drinking potions
obtained from the traditional healers.
6 UNDERSTANDING CULTURES
Most of South African Black groups originate from the Nguni, Sotho, Tsonga and Venda (the
last two being single groups of people, while the first two can be divided in to a number of
sub-groups).
NGUNI
ZULU
XHOSA
SWAZI
NDEBELE
Cele, Xesib
Fingo, Pondo
Bhaca, Hlubu
Ngwane
Southern Ndebele:
Ndzumda and Manala
Northern Ndebele:
Moletlane and
GaMasashane
SOTHO
NORTHERN
SOTHO
Bapedi, Balobedu
Batlokwa, Bantwane
Bantoane, Bakopa,
Bakone
SOUTHERN SOTHO
Bahlakoana, Batlokwa
Bakwena, Batuang
TSWANA
Barolong Bakokeng
Btlukoabantwane,
Batuang, Bakwena,
Bahlaping, Bakgatla
5.1 Afrikaners
During the 17th Century groups of Protestants from mostly Dutch, but also German, Swedish,
Danish and French descent, fled religious persecution in Europe and came to South Africa.
These early settlers were bound by religious beliefs and a common language, Afrikaans,
developed out of the need for a dynamic, easily understood, colloquial language. Although
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the first basic book in Afrikaans was published in 1856, it was only recognised as an official
language in 1925.
Characteristics: The Afrikaner then, and still today is fiercely independent, self-reliant
and intent on maintaining their own identity. They have a passion for strong
nationalism and stubbornly cling to their Afro-European culture.
Concentrating on agriculture, as many still do, the Afrikaners, termed “boers”, started to
develop a life for themselves in this corner of Africa. Those of prominence became teachers
and ministers, instilling in the youth the importance of their unity. By the 1800’s their hope of
independence started to crumble with Britain extending the Empire to South Africa. To
escape the forced Anglicisation orders of Lord Somerset, the Afrikaners embarked on The
Great Trek. With ox wagons they set off to find a haven where they could live independently
of British rule. Independent Boer republics were founded in the north only to be attacked by
the British. The bitter Anglo-Boer war left the Afrikaner dispossessed and impoverished, and
this defeat still rankles among the faithful.
Many Afrikaners have doggedly clung to their own status, shouldering aside hardships in
their efforts for stability. In 1918 the secretive Afrikaner Broederbond was formed. Initially
established as a cultural organisation it rapidly developed into furthering the aims of the
Afrikaner nation. By ingenious political and economic means this organisation sought
Afrikaner dominance in South Africa. Although Afrikaners played a lesser role than Englishspeakers in the economy of the country, they were able to secure positions of power in
companies that were able to swing considerable influence in national money matters under
the Nationalist Government regime.
Church: A great deal of Afrikaner philosophy and current direction is a result of the teaching
of the church and educational bodies supporting causes that encourage the aspirations of
the Nation. The religious influence is arguably the major factor governing the ethos of the
Afrikaner people. Three main churches have emerged: Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk,
Gereformeerde Kerk and Hervormde Kerk. When pressure from the boers upon these
churches to implement separate churches for whites, coloureds, and blacks was not
immediately forthcoming, the politically conservative Afrikaanse Protestante Kerk was
formed. But today these churches are officially open to all.
5.2 English
In South Africa the influence of the English is unchallenged. Less than 8% of the population
are English-speaking and their culture is despised by some local societies. Their dominance,
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while being weak in the political arena since 1948, has undoubtedly been supreme in the
spheres of commerce, business, media, industry and banking.
South African history is inextricably aligned to the English, not only with regards to the
almost 45 000 British soldiers who fought in the Anglo-Boer Wars, Frontier Wars and Zulu
Wars, but also in terms of the banning of slavery and being among the most outspoken white
critics of the apartheid regime.
In 1820 the first 4 000 English settlers brought what they considered correct civilisation to
Africa. They introduced a system of commercial free trade, increased economic
development, agricultural production, and the development of infrastructure. In the present
South Africa English speakers still dominate the economy. That is not too surprising since
English is one of the World languages. The selection of English as the official language of
government and economy is an indication of the importance of English globally.
Manners: English politeness, thinking and manners are still considered to be important. Here
are some traditional guidelines.

Unusual hair-dos are regarded with suspicion. Keep hair under control – generally
follow the no-facial-hair rule

Do not look sexy, rather dress conservatively

Keep it clean. – the look is fresh, scrubbed and effortless

English behaviour is based upon not making unnecessary demands on others. So the
most important words in the culture are “Please” and “Thank you”

Turning up unexpectedly at an English home may be considered impolite

Direct personal questions are considered rude

Eating in public, apart from picnics, fun fairs and informal situations, is considered
inappropriate

The basics of eating with English people are do not:

scratch at table

eat greedily

criticise the meal

offer others left over food

take someone else’s allotted place

lick your fingers

pick the best bits, and

certainly chew with your mouth shut and never talk with your mouth full

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5.3 Indians
South Africa has the largest number of Indians outside of India – over 1 million - with most of
them resident in KwaZulu-Natal. The history of South Africa’s Indians began in 1860
when the British shipped over 150 000 indentured labourers to harvest sugar cane,
cut timber and lay railroad tracks. At the end of a five year contract these mostly
Hindu workers had the option of signing up for another five year term, remaining in the
country as freemen, or taking a paid passage back to their homes. Most chose to stay,
working as traders, farmers and on the lucrative diamond and goldfields of the interior.
In 1911 a contingent of mostly Muslim Indians arrived in South Africa. They came as
businessmen to South Africa out of their own free will.
The Indians have been subjected to many discriminatory practices for example:

In 1907 government ruled that Indians could only trade in demarcated areas

Indians were not allowed to live in the Free State for more than two months, and were
not allowed to own or rent any fixed property

Mohandas Ghandi arrived in South Africa and launched the ‘Force for Truth’
(satyagraha), a peaceful resistance campaign. By 1927 some 40 000 Indians had fled
the oppression. Those that remained faced many other restrictive laws.
In 1949 and 1985 violence broke out between Indians and Zulus in Natal. Despite all these
happenings the Indians have demonstrated an amazing ability to adapt.
Religion: Most of the Indians living in KwaZulu-Natal are Hindus; those in other provinces
tend to be Muslim. Hinduism is the oldest religion on earth. Its motto is ‘All things to all men’.
It is founded on a belief that all of us go through a series of rebirths or reincarnations that
eventually lead to spiritual salvation that frees us from the cycles of rebirth. Hinduism has
many gods, each a representation of the many attributes of a single god. The holiest day on
the Hindu calendar is Diwali (Festival of Lights). Islam, whose disciples are known as
Muslims, is one of the fastest growing World religions. Founded by the prophet Mohammed,
Islam and Hinduism have clashed throughout the centuries. The holiest of all Muslim books
is the Koran, and Friday is the Muslim holy day. The aim of every Muslim is to ultimately
make a pilgrimage to Mecca.
Indians are naturally friendly, hospitable, kind and compassionate, and regard correct
behaviour as important
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Social guidelines:
 When visiting a home, temple or mosque, shoes must be removed as a sign of
respect

Upon entering a Hindu home the custom is to press the palms of the hands together
in a prayer-like manner and bow slightly

With Muslim families shaking of hands with the men is accepted, but not the women

Never touch artefacts and objects in temples or offerings at shrines. Always circulate
in a clockwise direction

Leather articles like handbags should be left outside sacred places as Hindus believe
that cows are holy creatures

Muslims are forbidden from consuming pork and alcohol

Hindus do not eat beef

Dress conservatively and be well covered when visiting an Indian home as a guest
(long pants are essential for men)

In traditional Indian homes eating utensils are often not present. Use only your fingers
from your right hand to scoop up your food.
5.4 Pedi
Found in the Northern Province and Mpumalanga the Pedi are one of the most hospitable
and migrant of all South Africa’s ethnic groups.
Following clashes with both the Boers and British the Pedi in 1879, under their best-known
chief Sekhukhuni, were crushed by the British. They never recovered from that war and
became a marginalised, dispossessed people, increasingly dependent on becoming migrant
labourers. Despite their lack of tribal cohesion today, and minority status in the eyes of other
tribes, the Pedi have managed to retain some of their traditional ways.
Taboos: A few of the more important behavioural codes that apply to people visiting Pedi
include the following:

No woman menstruating, nor any man, may enter a hut where a birth has just taken
place

It is a sin against the ancestors to kill or eat a family’s totem- always ask what the
totem is of your particular host

While crops are growing no reeds or grasses may be cut for bedding or roofing
material

No trees large enough to provide shade to animals or humans may be cut prior to
consultation with the medicine man or village chief
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Secretary birds, storks, hammerkops and red spider mites are never to be killed, for
they are the guardian creatures of the Pedi.
5.5 San (Bushmen) and the Khoe-khoe – Khoisan peoples
No cultural perspective on South Africa is complete without mention of the Khoisan peoples.
The San (Bushmen) were hunter-gatherers, whilst the Khoe-khoe (Hottentots) were
pastoralists who tended their flocks and were semi-nomadic.
The San
The San (Bushmen) roamed the seashores, mountains and plains of the subcontinent, living
in the open or in shallow caves. They were nomadic hunter-gatherer people who moved
frequently in search of food, water and shelter. Their clothing and carrying-bags were made
from the skins of animals sewn together using bone needles and sinews. They made a wide
range of tools from stone and other available items such as ostrich eggshells. Possessions
were limited to those that were easily carried, bows and arrows, quiver and a bag for the
men; digging-stick and bag for the women. They lived in small clans and were reputed to
only fight over honey – a delicacy.
It is generally considered that their rock paintings were related to the trance ritual and were
the visual expression of their hallucinations. Some academics are of the opinion that the rock
art was purely a recording of significant events in daily life. Southern African rock art is
known to be extremely old (extending some 26 000 years), and modern interpretations do
not necessarily reflect the full range of beliefs/concepts that existed in prehistory.
The Natal Drakensberg San were annihilated from the mid- to late 1800s by the Nguni,
boers, and finally the British, who were called to assist the farmers to protect their livestock
from the marauding Bushmen who had resorted to hunting cattle once the herds of wild
game had been decimated by the very people who complained of cattle rustling and
slaughter.
The Khoe-khoe
The Khoe-khoe herders (Hottentots) with their flocks of sheep and herds of cattle introduced
a new way of life into southern Africa about 2000 years ago. They were a semi-nomadic
people who resembled the San in appearance but whose movement was governed by the
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need to ensure adequate water and grazing for their animals. In addition to their livestock
they brought a new skill with them, that of making pottery and the concept of ownership of
animals.
The Khoe-khoe inhabited the coastal regions between the Orange River in the north and the
Kei River in the southeast, areas that provided adequate grazing for their stock. Their
shelters were portable structures of woven-grass mates and skins spread over a framework
of branches, and the cattle and sheep were protected in kraals of branches. They used packoxen and were able to move with more belongings than the San, whom they displaced in
some areas.
5.6 Sotho
In about 1500 the Sotho people left their ancestral Tswana root-tribe behind, crossed the
Vaal River and settled in the Free State and Lesotho. They were scattered into clans by
attacks from the Zulus and sought refuge in the Maluti Mountains. Here they lived a hand-tomouth existence.
Chief Moshweshwe managed to unite the wandering clans into a cohesive tribe of well
armed, disciplined warriors. Their consequent clashes with the Boer farmers in the Free
State led to Moshweshwe calling in the help of the British. This unfortunately led to the
Mountain Kingdom of Lesotho being annexed by England. Independence was only granted in
1966.
Today most Sotho outside Lesotho work on Free State farms, the mines, and in South
African cities.
Homes and Villages: As in early days there are two main kinds of Sotho houses; wood and
reeds, and stone and thatch. The actual village is divided into two areas, separate
dwellings/areas for male and female, which include the kraal and stockades. Entering a kraal
or village must be done only after applying to the local chief.
Intricate designs are often drawn on the inner walls of Sotho homes. The circles symbolise
wholeness, life, and fertility, while the lines and zigzags indicate the opposition features of
life.
Taboos and Beliefs:
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All women are strictly forbidden from entering the kraal and the livestock pens of the
village. The eldest daughter must milk the cows and goats, but this must be done with
the animals tied up outside the walled kraal

In the homes of villagers permission must be asked of the wife before entering a
house. Should a child have been born no man may visit that home for the first three
months, not even the husband is allowed

It is considered an unforgivable sin to disgrace or damage burial sites. The results of
this include misfortune and incurable illness, which will not only affect the offender but
also the entire community

The Sotho believe that each plant, animal and mineral have spiritual powers
associated with it

Their circular homes represent the cosmos. When entering a traditional Sotho home,
tap three times before crossing the threshold and three times once inside, to open
and close the sacred circle.
Death is never actually mentioned, but is referred to as ‘That place where people go’. People
are buried with their faces to the sun. There are no speeches or wailing at the funeral, though
relatives of the deceased cut off all their hair and wear woven grass cords around their
necks.
5.7 Tswana
These quiet, wise, tranquil people comprising over 50 tribes are found over a vast part of
South Africa. The Tswana live from the Limpopo River in the north to the Maluti Mountains in
the south, and from the Kalahari Desert in the west to Mozambique in the east.
The Tswana structure is based on settlement and agricultural lifestyles, with harmonious
communities being their goal, rather than empire building. The Tswana have a strong,
binding and practical system of tribalism.
Tribal Law, Religion and Behaviour are still ardently practised. They are a conservative
nation and very superstitious. Their views and codes of conduct have remained virtually the
same since the 15th Century.
Ancestors: Each family is under the direct guidance and protection of its ancestors, and each
clan also has its own mascot and totem. Ancestors are not considered to be dead, but have
simply passed into another stage of existence. To make sure that the spirit of a deceased is
released the person must be buried in a crouching position, be facing the correct direction,
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and have an adequate supply of mohla grass. The ground must be made firm so that the
spirit can quickly travel to the tribal home of the ancestors.
Social Structure: The social structure of the Tswana is based on a hierarchy of nobles,
commoners and servants, each playing specific roles in maintaining the community. The
Tswana are experts at negotiating and are not prone to violence. The breaking of taboos is
greeted with vocal outbursts and the offender ejected.
Greetings: The older person should initiate the greeting, which is followed by a limp
handshake of the right hand, the right forearm cradled by the left hand. One should never
make eye contact with someone older or sit where the head of the house does.
Food and Drink: Always accept the offer of food and drink. Prior to eating wait until the head
of the house, or eldest person, invites you to start eating. Should a Tswana family visit make
certain to offer the husband, or eldest male in the group, food and drink first and the
youngest child last.
Taboos: Three very important taboos never to be broken include:

Never sit in the doorway when the maize is tasselling – this impedes the process

Never burn anything green during summer- the family on whose property this is done
will inevitably have a death

Never lie flat on your back when there is lightning – the house will be struck due to
your obvious challenge.
5.8 Venda
The Venda are one of the smallest and most traditional black population groups in South
Africa. They inhabit the eastern part of the Soutpansberg in Limpopo Province. Their culture
includes elements of the Zimbabwean Shona culture including stone structures similar to
those in Zimbabwe. Mining and metalworking have long been important elements of the
Venda culture and economy.
It is believed that they are descendants of chiefs who travelled south from Central Africa and
arrived in South Africa at the beginning of the 18th Century. They eventually reached the
Nzhelele River in the Soutpansberg Mountains and named the place Venda (a pleasant
place). The soil was fertile and there was also a lake (Lake Fundudzi) formed by an ancient
landslide, which blocked the exit from a valley of the Mutale River.
Lake Fundudzi dominates the worship of the Venda. It is said that there is a village
submerged beneath the waters and when conditions are favourable you can see the
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activities at the huts and the cattle grazing in the murky depths. The giant python god of
fertility is said to live in this lake. This god demands the sacrifice of a maiden each year.
Nowadays periodic offerings of beer and grain are cast into the lake.
No one washes or swims in the lake. Permission is required to visit it. On the approach to the
lake visitors may only travel through the Venda Holy Forest by car. According to Venda belief
hikers disturb the ancestral spirits.
Gomba: Another remarkable ceremony is the Gomba or python dance that is performed
every night somewhere in Venda. The Gomba dance, with rows of bare-breasted girls
imitating the movements of the python, is a beautiful spectacle. Drums throb out a symphony
in praise of sexual love and the ancient mysteries of the people. The drum is central to
traditional Venda belief.
Domba is an initiation school for girls. It is held when the headman’s daughter reaches
marriageable age she is attended by maidens of her age group. Schooling lasts for nine
months, symbolising the human gestation period. The initiates learn the facts of life and the
secrets of the tribe. Each night the python dance is performed.
5.9 Xhosa
This group, who inhabit the Eastern Cape, were once a great warrior nation whose soldiers
challenged the Dutch, British, Boer and even occasionally Shaka. The name Xhosa is a
Khoe-khoe word that means ‘angry man’.
The Dutch in 1736 mistakenly grouped all the black people encountered East of the
Bushman’s River together as one tribe. The Xhosa speaking people in fact include distinctly
different peoples with separate social structures, politics, lifestyles, beliefs and even dialects.
They include the Bhaca (who were known for eating raw meat), Bomvana, Mfengi (who
pierce their ears), Mpondomise (People of the Snake), Thembu (who circumcise), Xesibe
and Xhosa (who cut off the first joint of their little fingers). Nowadays these tribes accept their
lot as being classified as Xhosa, but loathe accepting the Xhosa King as being paramount to
their own chiefs.
Religion: Animism and animal sacrifices is commonly followed and practised alongside
Christian worship. Worship of the ancestors is central to amaXhosa families and an elaborate
series of rituals are followed.
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Death: Details of death and an impending funeral are broadcast by word-of mouth and
anyone may attend. The funeral ceremony starts with ash and water being smeared over the
windows of the dead person’s home. An all-night vigil is held around the body at which all the
grief and loss is expressed. The day after the vigil burial takes place. An indication of
mourning is a patch of black cloth pinned to the sleeve of a person. On a prescribed day in
the weeks that follow, an animal is slaughtered and the implements used to dig the grave are
washed with the blood. The animal is cooked and eaten with ground millet by all who
originally attended the funeral.
Food and Drink: It is considered good Xhosa etiquette to simply invite your guest in
and supply them with food and drink. One should never ask for food because it might
embarrass the person who may not have much to give, but water may be requested.
Greetings: It is always the person arriving who greets the person already there. Men
shake hands – the palm clenches first, then the reverse grip- with the left hand
cradling the right forearm. Women also shake hands, the arm cradled and palm kept
limp and flat, facing downwards, so that no sign of threatening strength is ever
demonstrated.
Taboos: Both in tribal and urban environments there are many subjects that
amaXhosa may not speak about to the opposite sex. These include pregnancies,
sexually related topics, spiritual matters and childbirth. It is forbidden for anyone
other than the girl’s mother and her husband to see a newborn baby for ten days
after the birth. During menstruation, women are not allowed to touch any food to be
consumed by others, and sex is forbidden.
The amaXhosa are a gentle people known for their easy laughter, casual attitude to
the hardships of life and a fatalistic belief that the ancestors will guide their path.
5.10 Zulu
They are the most famous of all the sub-Saharan tribes. Known for their bravery,
pride and unity that struck terror into the hearts of everyone who ever challenged
them. They are ‘The People of Heaven’ - the amaZulu.
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They are the warrior tribe drilled as such by their visionary leader Shaka. While other
tribes have largely forsaken tradition and adopted Western lifestyles the Zulu
manage to straddle cultures and retain many traditions.
Ancestor Worship is central to the Zulu belief. They believe that the ancestral spirits
are able to direct and protect much of what happens in the human world. Anyone
attending a Zulu gathering should take along a gift for offering to the ancestors of the
family. The amaZulu consider nothing to be a coincidence – it is the work of happy or
displeased spirits.
Sangomas play an important role in Zulu culture. They are the mediums between the
living and the dead, can travel between the different levels of existence and
prophesy, curse and provide medication for healing or destruction.
Greetings: It is respectful for the older of the people meeting to greet first. They can
then decide whether you are worth greeting or not. A woman never greets a man
first, nor a child an adult. In rural areas it is necessary to ask about the relatives and
ancestors first before speaking about the weather, crops and cattle. Males usually
shake hands, the right hand extended and the left cradling the forearm of the right.
Women do the same, but add a slight curtsey if the other person is of higher rank.
Eye Contact is never made with someone older – it is considered as an act of
defiance.
Entering a Kraal: Kraals must never be entered directly. The visitor simply stands and
waits and does not call for attention. Someone must fetch you and take you to the
chief or elder. In rural communities once seated do not stand up when anyone enters
as that is interpreted as a threat.
6 TRADITIONAL CULTURE VERSUS THE NEW DEVELOPING SOUTH AFRICAN
CULTURE
From the above you will realise that our cultural identity and diversity is important.
We need to respect all cultures and endeavour to understand as many people as
possible especially if we are to be involved in Ecotourism that embraces all cultures
in South Africa. What concerns Ecotourists coming to South Africa is safety. Our
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crime statistics are not good, being rated as 50% higher than the most violent
countries in the world. It is unpredictable when and where criminality will rear its ugly
head, thus it is advisable to thoroughly check the current state of crime in any area
beforehand. Unfortunately the media, directly affecting tourism, can magnify any
relatively small issue of crime.
Cultural Villages
Tour operators are happy to use these venues for international visitors to view the
different African Cultures, as they are considered safer than the townships or rural
communities. The cultural villages are usually licensed and provide a traditional meal
of the tribe or culture being visited; plus a western meal, if so desired. These facilities
are well used and are often the only close contact that the overseas Ecotourist has
with South African cultural groups. However, the spin-offs for local communities are
usually minimal.
If monetary remuneration is given to local communities this may act as a strong
incentive for that community to police any local criminal elements. This is one
solution to safe access to community areas.
Ecotourist Ventures
A recent development is the emergence of smaller entrepreneurs who offer guided
tours into local communities.
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REVISION EXERCISES
Multiple choice questions
1. Match the options below with
4. Culture is best observed:
question number 1.1-1.4
a) In cities
To which groups do the following
b) In towns
descriptions refer?
c) In villages
a) Angry Man
d) In people’s houses
b) People of Heaven
e) In the countryside
c) Boers
5. Which of the following cultures is not
d) A pleasant place
1.1 The Afrikaners
one of the major SA cultures:
1.2 The Zulu
a) Zulu
1.3 The Venda
b) Rainbow nation
1.4 The Xhosa
c) Afrikandom
d) Swazi Nation
2. With which group is Lake Fundudzi
e) Indians
associated?
a) Zulu
6. It is considered polite in African
b) Tswana
cultures to:
c) Venda
a) Look at some one directly when talking
d) Pedi
to them
b) Keep seated when an important person
3. Which of the following statements
enters the room
are FALSE?
c) Walk hand in hand as a couple in towns
a) A visit to a cultural village is normally
d) For men to go through the door first
safer than a township tour.
b) True Ecotourism is where the local
community are the hosts.
d) Cultural villages are well used by
Ecotourists
d) None of the above
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LEARNING UNIT 9
PARTNERSHIPS
KEY OUTPUTS FOR THIS UNIT
______________________________________________________________
After studying this unit you should be able to:

give guidelines for all parties contemplating an Ecotourism partnership

explain the different types of Ecotourism partnerships

evaluate what local communities expect from Ecotourism

explain capacity building and the role of Non-Governmental Organisations.
1 INTRODUCTION
Progressive private sector and state conservation agencies have introduced several
innovative integrated conservation community development initiatives that provide tangible
benefits to communities living in and alongside Ecotourism areas.
Dedication and patience are two key ingredients that are vital in establishing sustainable
community-based Ecotourism ventures. Experience gained both in South Africa and abroad
show that there is great deal of frustration over the length of time from the birth of the
concept, through the planning phase and finally to implementation. This lack of progress
often results in would-be investors losing interest and is a real problem to which tailor-made
innovative solutions need to be found.
Community-based partnerships are important for the following reasons:

They benefit the whole community socio-economically

They demonstrate the value of biodiversity as a key resource

They engender local ownership of the resource, thus enabling the communities to
accept responsibility.
2 DEVELOPING TOURISM PARTNERSHIPS
Ecotourism has facilitated a major change in the relationship between host communities and
developers. Ecotourism and other alternative forms of tourism have recognised that
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partnerships between local people, the private sector, and government have opened up a
wide range of new opportunities. Most of these partnerships are recent and are gaining
acceptance because they make good economic sense, benefit all partners and conservation
begins to take on a new meaning.
Some partnerships are born of necessity: for example, the need for local communities to
market their destination to a wider audience. Other linkages may result from a need for
greater flexibility in management where areas are closed off to Ecotourism because of
international conservation guidelines that have no relevance to the local community. These
sorts of conflicts have led to the development of partnerships between government and
NGOs where management is delegated to the NGO who can often better act with the
community’s best interests as a key goal.
New ways of looking at partnerships between the government and the private sector have
allowed the private sector to mange operations and run concessions in places where the
government lacked the resources, capacity and/or investment, such as accommodation in
National Parks.
New mechanisms and arrangement are constantly being devised with an increasing number
of partners, including many often not considered by more mainstream tourism organisations.
However, while bringing many partners to the table offers strengths of the combined
organisations, it can make co-ordination and decision making cumbersome. In such cases,
Ecotourism development may seem akin to a large integrated development project, with
many of the difficulties that these projects face. Projects with fewer partners may be more
manageable but may require high levels of co-ordination with other agencies. Ecotourism
then provides the catalyst for the development to improve the decision-making processes,
while giving an initial framework that may allow attempts to reach sustainable partnerships
agreements based on a shared vision.
New developments are dependent on equity to be established in National Parks and other
conservation areas that are used extensively for Ecotourism. There needs to be trust and
respect between the traditional custodians of the land, the new management agencies, the
local people and the Ecotourism users. For this to happen all parties must understand the
others’ culture, in order to come to terms with each other’s interpretation and perceptions of
any given situation. This understanding requires facilitation across a significant cultural divide
– thus excellent communication and networks are vital.
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Ecotourism can offer a clearly defined philosophical approach to partnerships and in so doing
has expanded tourism beyond an economic rationale. Ecotourism is able to achieve
environmental sustainability and its associated social goals. These goals include
minimisation of damage to natural resources, education of Ecotourists to conservation and
cultural values, access of the Ecotourism experience once only available to the elite, and the
distribution of the rewards and a shift in responsibility to local communities. Ecotourism
generates many and diverse benefits for biodiversity conservation, and can often succeed in
meeting conditions that cannot be met by other activities. It often allows partnerships to grow
where destinations can become competitive, and protected area authorities have the
capacity and jurisdictional mandates to design, develop, manage and implement sustainable
Ecotourism destinations consistent with their protected area objectives. In this the cost
reflects the true cost of Ecotourism and site protection. Thus clear guidelines need to be
followed by ALL parties involved in Ecotourism ventures, from a national level down to
individual entrepreneurs. Partnerships obviously involve local rural communities and revenue
sharing, not only as jobs, but real profit sharing.
3 SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENTS
Before beginning any ventures they should be supported by both Social, and Environmental
Impact Assessments (SIAs and EIAs). These will ensure sustainability both economically and
ecologically. Research into the society itself and the local politics can help identify and dispel
negativity. These procedures should not be long, drawn-out affairs, but in proportion to the
size of the proposed development - as limited finances have to carry the project through this
information gathering period. The involvement of conservation agencies may further slow
down the procedures.
Basic Components to Include
Be realistic, any Ecotourism venture needs three basic components:

Attractions

Amenities (e.g. accommodation)

Infrastructure (e.g. roads)
An Ecotourism venture should be developed together with, or even after, other economic
activities.
Training for Communities
Communities need basic training that is essential for community participation and
management of Ecotourism facilities:
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
Management skills training

Training in basic hospitality techniques

Business skills.
Theme Routes
A community-based tourism product should be included on your Ecotourism route. Include
this destination in all electronic reservation systems. Existing ‘well known’ routes such as the
Garden Route, Wine Route and Banana Route should still be explored, but add to these
major tours a side tour to participate in community-based Ecotourism products.
Land Claims
Joint venture operations, where land redistribution brings more equity to the community
concerned, should be seen as an opportunity rather than a threat. Tourism developments
wholly owned by local people can help with reconstruction and development.
Assistance to Communities
Once the ownership of land is restored to a community assistance is then essential to enable
that community to make well informed decisions about how to best use their land, especially
if they are going into an Ecotourism partnership or venture. It has been shown that an
Ecotourism venture is a preferred form of land-use in an arid or semi-arid country such as
South Africa. The Regional Development Forum (RDF) should be able to provide sound
development and planning advice.
The Risk Factor
At the end of the day it is the initiative and responsibility shown by the community that will
determine the success or failure of an Ecotourism venture. There are no guarantees. All
parties involved have to risk failure and all parties must know this risk of possible failure from
the start.
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4 PARTNERSHIP ARRANGEMENTS
There are FOUR main arrangements that can take place:
4.1 Between the State and/or the Provincial Conservation Agencies, and Local
Communities
Conservation departments/agencies usually facilitate these initiatives. It has become
increasingly clear that most protected areas are located in very poor rural areas, with low
agricultural potential, high human populations, and very little if any economic development.
State/Provincial conservation agencies realise that to sustain these vulnerable areas
neighbourly goodwill is essential. This realisation has prompted conservation/community
development initiatives that actually give some economic returns to the community on an ongoing basis.
Although fresh meat from the hunting and cropping in the neighbouring conservation areas
may provide some economic opportunities, Ecotourism development can (in the long term)
be more financially, ecologically and socially acceptable.
An example of a partnership between the state and the local community is the Pilanesberg
National Park, managed by the North-West Province’s Parks and Conservation Authority. It
consists of 30 000ha in a dormant volcanic crater. Local communities receive 10% of gate
revenues and a range of eco-development projects have been initiated in surrounding
villages. The conservation agency has also helped the local community to establish a
community reserve, Lebatlane. A recent survey conducted in the area surrounding the park
indicated that over 70% of local people supported the continued existence of the park.
Another example is the Richtersveld National Park, managed by the National Parks Board as
a contractual park. Local pastoralists were allowed to remain in the reserve after it became a
National Park, and members of the local communities sit on a joint management committee
and are planning new Ecotourism lodges.
Last, but not least, is the Mkuze Game Reserve, run by KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife. There are
plans to build a Zulu cultural village and education centre, in partnership with local
communities, and revenues will go towards social development programmes. Many similar
initiatives are currently being developed elsewhere in the country.
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4.2 Between Private Sector and Community Programmes
In this type of partnership transparency is a problem. Generally private sector developers are
not known for transparency. This situation can provide jobs and certainly revenue that is an
excellent start. However, to be sustainable the community must eventually be uplifted to
manage part of this partnership by being given equity, otherwise it is not a partnership.
Kagga Kamma “Place of Bushmen”, a private Game Reserve in the Cedarberg mountains of
the Western Cape, could be considered a partnership between the community and Kagga
Kamma ownership. It is not clear, however, whether or not equity does exist for the local
Bushman community, or whether they are in fact still ‘invited guests’ on the land, with cultural
and educational benefits only.
The same questions may be asked of the Conservation Corporation’s Africa Collection of
‘elitist’ lodges such as Mala-Mala, Sabi-Sabi, Londolozi, Matetsi (in the Sabi Sands Game
Reserve), Phinda Resource reserve at Rocktail Bay in KwaZulu-Natal, Ngala in the
Timbavati, and their tour operation called Wilderness Safaris. Some social development in
nearby villages is enhanced and jobs created, but as to partnership and equity this is
carefully taken care of by the Rural Investment Fund. Clinics, classrooms and water
provision have been facilitated by funds raised through direct appeal to clients and high
profile donors mainly abroad. But genuine community partnerships are apparently lacking
and the major profit share of these ventures is not ploughed back into the local areas.
4.3 Community-driven Projects
These would certainly qualify as ‘true” Ecotourism ventures. The Community benefits by
managing the venture themselves, and remuneration if primarily received by the Community.
However, in the tourism industry monies are often ‘leaked’. This is tourist revenue that is not
earned in South Africa but is siphoned off by overseas operators or guides, or to major
shareholders who are city dwellers. The result is that there is very little money left for the
people providing the actual service; they simply receive the ‘crumbs’.
At Kosi Bay, the Community Resource Optimisation Programme (CROP), a non-government
organisation assists a local committee to run a rustic tented camp. No other camp owned
and run purely by local communities is yet in operation, although others, such as the
Lebatlane game farm (NW Province) owned by the Bakgatla people is being planned.
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4.4 Tripartite Alliance – Government, Local Communities and Private Sector
A good example is the Pongola “Biosphere” Reserve in Northern KwaZulu-Natal. The
biosphere started as a private sector initiative, joined by the Government, KwaZulu-Natal
Wildlife and local communities. All parties are equal shareholders. Ecotourism is the
mainstay of the region’s economy. This project showed the local communities and private
sector businessmen that Ecotourism could provide more income than farming. Ecotourism is
the driving force of the regional economy. This is one of the success stories where local
people share all the benefits that Ecotourism can offer.
5 PLANNING APPROACHES
There are several basic Ecotourism planning approaches, applied in combination, which
underlie the Ecotourism planning process.

Continuous and flexible approach
The plan should be responsive to changing circumstances, but any modifications needed
should be made within the framework of achieving the development objectives and concepts
of sustainable Ecotourism.

Comprehensive approach
All aspects of Ecotourism development must be considered in the planning process. These
are the components described in the Ecotourism system: Ecotourist attractions and activities,
accommodation, other Ecotourist facilities and services, transportation, other infrastructure
and the institutional elements.

Integrated approach
Ecotourism is integrated as a system in itself, and the Ecotourism sector is integrated into the
overall development policies and plans of the area and local plans are integrated into the
national and regional Ecotourism policies and plans.

Environmental and sustainable approach
Ecotourism is planned in an environmentally sensitive manner so that its natural and cultural
resources are conserved, Ecotourism development does not generate serious adverse
environmental or sociological impacts, the overall quality of the environment is maintained or
improved, the benefits of Ecotourism are widely spread in the society and Ecotourism
satisfaction levels are maintained.
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
Ecotourism
Community based approach
To the extent possible, there should be maximum involvement of local communities in the
planning and development of Ecotourism, with benefits accruing to the local communities
including minority and disadvantaged groups.

Implemental approach
Ecotourism is planned so that the development can realistically be implemented and
implementation techniques are considered throughout the planning process. Planning must
also apply contemporary and creative concepts of development. Political realities must be
considered but long term development objectives and policies should not be compromised.

The strategic planning approach
Is sometimes appropriate. Strategic planning focuses more on identification and resolution of
immediate issues. It is typically used in a rapidly changing situation, is action orientated and
emphasises how to cope with changes organisationally. It is less comprehensive than the
long-term planning described above, but can be effectively used within the framework of
long-term policy and planning.
6 LOCAL COMMUNITY EXPECTATIONS FROM ECOTOURISM
Local Communities have the following legitimate expectations from Ecotourism:

Local communities must be equity partners and their share of Ecotourism revenue
must be contractually guaranteed over and above the creation of jobs

Local communities should be clearly identified

Local communities should receive priority in terms of jobs

Their legal access to the resource, through their legal tenure, should be recognised
and acknowledged

The distribution of revenues to local people should be fair, transparent and
accountable

Capacity building for local people should be part of the scheme.
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REVISION EXERCISES
Multiple choice questions
1. Community based tourism needs:
5. Capacity Building is:
a) Patience
a) Investment by NGOs
b) Dedication
b) Investment by Government
c) Both of the above
c) Education and training to ensure self-
d) None of the above
sufficiency in a community
d) All of the above
2. Which of the following basic
components need to be present in an
6. Land claims are important to the
Ecotourism venture?
future of SA Ecotourism because:
a) Amenities
a) They are a key to the future of rural
b) Attractions
people
c) Infrastructure
b) There is a perception that they will lead
d) All of the above
to political instability
c) More land will become available to
3. Communities need training in:
Ecotourism
a) Management skills
d) They will lead to better economic
b) Basic hospitality techniques
stability
c) Business skills
d) All of the Above
4. One of the major problems with a
private sector – community partnership
for Ecotourism is:
a) Time
b) Funding
c) Lack of transparency
d) Capacity Building
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LEARNING UNIT 10
ECOTOURISM PRINCIPLES AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES
KEY OUTPUTS FOR THIS UNIT
___________________________________________________________________
After studying this unit you should be able to:

identify limiting factors of a ‘new’ Ecotourism venture

know the mainstream role-players in an Ecotourism venture

give guidelines to various role-players in an Ecotourism partnership

facilitate an Ecotourism partnership.
1 INTRODUCTION
Ecotourism ventures are not only for the big and powerful. Even the small enthusiastic
entrepreneur can “connect” with a rural community and through careful planning and protocol
can make an Ecotourism venture work. This is a venture in its simplest form. From this
humble beginning “Biosphere Reserves” have grown.
Ecotourism should be a total experience combining four elements:

The natural and cultural attractions of the environment

The professionalism of the Ecotourism operator

The resources and hospitality of the local community

The responsible and conducive behaviour of the Ecotourist.
2 INVOLVING LOCAL COMMUNITIES IN TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
It is essential to involve local communities in the Ecotourism development process. By
involving local communities they will understand Ecotourism, be better able to cope with this
new development in their area, and participate in its benefits and, therefore, be more likely to
support Ecotourism. Also, local communities know their areas and societies best and may
have good ideas on Ecotourism development and how they can participate in it.
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General approaches of including the local population should:

give priority to employment in the Ecotourism enterprises being developed for local
residents

assist local entrepreneurs to establish small-scale Ecotourism enterprises through
technical assistance and small business loans

improve basic infrastructure, such as roads, water supply, electric power and waste
management for the communities, as part of the infrastructure development
programme for Ecotourism development

apply techniques for some of the revenue from Ecotourism, such as admission fees
to parks and archaeological/historical sites, to be used for improving general
community facilities and services such as schools and medical facilities

if local crafts are produced in the communities, organise the craftsmen to produce
and sell items to Ecotourists. This may require special training and development of
sales outlets, and guidance on maintaining a good quality level of the crafts

if the local communities have traditional dance, music or drama, encourage them to
organise performances for Ecotourists, but still maintain the authenticity of the
performances

encourage the Ecotourism enterprises to use as many local products as possible in
the construction and furnishings of the Ecotourism facilities,
without creating
environmental problems.
Ecotourism and local communities: Conflict, compromise or co-operation?
Local communities comprise groups with different and potentially conflicting interests. That is
not all groups want the same thing.
The tourism industry seeks a healthy business environment with:

Financial security

A trained and responsible workforce

Attractions of sufficient quality to ensure a steady flow of visitors- who stay longer and
visit often

A significant return of investment.
Those interested in the natural environment and cultural heritage seek:

protection of the environment through prevention, improvement, correction of
damage, and restoration

to motivate people to be more aware –and therefore “ care for” rather than “use up”
resources.
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Community members seek a healthy place in which to live with:

food, adequate and clean water, health care, rewarding work for equitable pay,
education and recreation

respect for cultural traditions

opportunities to make decisions about the future.
Some concerns that each might hold in common include:

issues of access, such as when, where and how tourists visit and move from place to
place.

host and guest issues, such as cultural impact or common use of infrastructure;

land
use
issues,
such
as
hunting/wildlife
habitat,
agriculture/recreation
preservation/development, etc.
Ecotourism and local communities
There are a number of reasons why local communities may consider Ecotourism as a local
development option because of:

a desire to be part of a strong growth in Ecotourism generally and see the potential of
catering for special interest tourism (niche markets)

an awareness of the high value of natural attractions to the locale

an empathy for conservation ideals and the need for sustainable Ecotourism

a desire for responsibility rejuvenates the local Ecotourist industry.
One of the main principle or elements of Ecotourism is its ability to maximise the benefits of
Ecotourism, not only with regards to income to a region but also as the preservation of social
infrastructure and biosphere conservation. Specifically, these benefits include:

increased demand for accommodation houses and food and beverage outlets

additional revenue to local retail businesses and other services

increased market for local products

employment of local labour and expertise

source of funding for the protection and enhancement /maintenance of natural
attractions and symbols of cultural heritage

funding and/or volunteers for filed work associated with wildlife research and
archaeological studies

heightened community awareness of the value of local/indigenous culture and the
natural environment.
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As these benefits suggest, Ecotourism is about attracting visitors for the “right” reasons, and
not simply the promotion of Ecotourism for the sake of the money at the expense of a
community’s natural and cultural attributes. However local communities are not immune from
Ecotourism impacts.
Issues and problems
The conflicting issues expressed by representatives of host communities to Ecotourism
development generally fall into a number of interrelated categories:

The lack of opportunities for involvement in decision-making relating to Ecotourism

Inadequate
responses from
government
when
administration
or
legislative
mechanisms have been established to involve them in such decision-making.

The lack of financial, social and vocational benefits flowing to these communities from
projects that commercially exploit what they regard as resources

The need to establish better tools for evaluating socio-economic impacts and
ensuring this is completed over the more emphasised environmental impacts on the
natural environments which are usually of more interest to the outside investors and
conservation groups

Impacts on community cohesion and structure

The rapidity of Ecotourism development that in many cases significantly accelerates
social change.
These concerns embrace a wide range of issues relating to the management of natural
resources adjacent to these communities. The central issue is the inadequate levels of
participation perceived by these communities in the management of what they regard as their
traditional domains.
Many organisations are now beginning to recognize the integral part that local indigenous
people play in Ecotourism by including cultural understanding and appreciation in their
definitions in Ecotourism. In this way ecologically sustainable Ecotourism is increasingly
becoming aligned to conservation, environmental and cultural understanding and
appreciation. Thus Ecotourism aims to promote and foster a respect and an increase in
awareness of other cultures, in fostering mutually beneficial relationships between hosts and
Ecotourists. Local communities must be in an empowered rather than be relegated to a
subordinate position – these communities must have autonomy over their culture, its
artefacts and rituals, and its very direction, while engaging in and with cultures that interact
with them but do not exploit them. By developing an appreciation of local communities and
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their customs and traditions “A process of mutual understanding and respect between
societies can be greatly enhanced”.
Local communities can benefit from Ecotourism economically if they play a greater
participatory roll in Ecotourism process.
Employment
One of the most obvious and immediate benefits of Ecotourism associated with local
communities is the increase in employment opportunities and income generated for the host
region.

Direct employment

Indirect employment (as a result of increased industry inputs such as employment at
a souvenir outlet)

Induced employment. (As a result of increased spending capacity of local residents
due to increased receipts of Ecotourism)
The do’s and don’ts of involvement of local communities

Local communities need to be involved in all level of Ecotourism development from
planning through to management. The planning process must take into account
community involvement with an understanding of how local communities can be best
approached, understood and integrated. Only then can Ecotourism provide a
sustainable economic base fro-rural development, but where local people have
traditional means of sustainable self-sufficiency, Ecotourism should only act as a
supplement source of income.

The appropriateness of foreign ownership and operation of facilities should be
carefully investigated in order to reduce conflict and resentment local people and
foreign operators. If there are likely to be limited long-term benefits to the local
people, then this must be brought to the attention of these people and the operators.

Ecotourism views the natural resources as home in a broad sense to all humans, but
more so to the local inhabitants. Ecotourism itself is concerned with low impact
tourism experiences that are purposely designed to have the least impact possible on
both the physical environment and the local inhabitants.

Ecotourists and Ecotourism operators should be involved in the management of the
natural resource, as well as positives devotees to the relationship between its
management and the local inhabitants. This would incorporate supplying locals with
some of the positive financial and other advantages of the Ecotourism activity, and
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providing an avenue for local people to participate in the planning and tourism
development decision-making.

Ecotourism raises the consciousness of hosts about wilderness protection and
sustainable development. It provides both the locals and visitors with genuine nonforced interaction, which does not intrude thoughtlessly on the local lifestyle.

Ecotourism provides the local community opportunity to expand its economic
resource base as a replacement or complement to traditional economic bases such
as agriculture.

Ecotourism does not restrict the benefits of education and access of the natural
resource to the local community, in providing avenues for employment, education and
enjoyment within the natural environment.
3 UNITING FACTORS OF A ‘NEW’ ECOTOURISM VENTURE
The Time Factor
An Ecotourism venture involves a large cross-section of people, as it is a joint operation. It
can involve people from the highest Government level, to provincial and local levels, and
conservation bodies. These role-players are called “The Authority”. To make contact with
these “bodies” and to get “something” passed can take years. To set up an Ecotourism
venture from scratch with a local community also takes time, as the “legitimate” Tribal
Authority of the area has to be identified and consulted.
Expense in terms of the involved Role Players
The more role players and the higher the level of authority the more money will be used
up in terms of time and effort in the start up phase. Hence it is better to start small at the
grass-roots level and to remain personally involved. Operating in a shorter time-span, with
“reachable” goals and a few key role-players is more cost-effective.
Cash-strapped Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs)
Finance for many new Ecotourism activities is usually a major problem. If you approach an
NGO bear in mind that they are not subsidised by Government and rely on membership fees
to augment the salaries of necessary key people and scientists. However if you are intent on
becoming involved specifically in Ecotourism it will be in your best interests to consider
involving key NGOs.
The local regional council may have a tourism division, who may assist – not with handouts
but with the promotion of an Ecotourism venture.
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4 THE ROLE PLAYERS IN AN ECOTOURISM VENTURE
There are four basic role-players in an Ecotourism venture:

The Authority

The Tour Operator

The Community

The Ecotourist
The “Authority”
This is the provincial, local or conservation body in charge of the Ecotourism area or
natural or cultural environment. The authority has the responsibility of creating a suitable
environment within which Ecotourism can take place.
The Tour Operator
He/she is the business link between the Ecotourism area or attraction and the other three
groups as well as the accommodation provider. The tour operator can mean a tour organiser
who sits behind a desk and never sees the Ecotourist, or more commonly in South Africa it
can mean the tour guide with “wheels”. This is a very important part of the operation, as it
must be reliable, informative and friendly. There are specific legal requirements as
discussed earlier.
The Community
There are urban communities and rural communities, which can number between twenty
to thousands. The community you approach should want to be committed to
environmentally sustainable practices, e.g. not slash and burn, and move on, with regard
to forest settlements. Despite the community’s deprivation, they should show an interest in
learning to care for conservation areas.
The Ecotourist
South African or foreign Ecotourists should be treated with the same respect and given the
same service. They are guests and as such should also be responsible to behave in an
environmentally and culturally sensitive manner. Tourists may travel with an organised tour
or make their own arrangements.
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5 GUIDELINES
Guidelines involving “The Authority” in Ecotourism ventures
Access
Private Ecotourism operators, which include accommodation providers and tour organisers,
should be assured access to Ecotourism areas to operate efficiently. Appropriate
development by tour operators can also be encouraged.
Opportunities for Service
Create opportunities for local people to become partners in Ecotourism ventures,
wherever circumstances permit. If your Authority has control over an Ecotourism area, a
local Ecotourism forum should be established, to discuss matters with a view to
developing these opportunities further. For example, landowners should assist in decisionmaking on the planning of development and utilisation of land and local people should
provide Ecotourism services to the tour operator.
Land Owners and Land Use
Consult with landowners to set aside land to include Ecotourism. There should be balanced
and sustained Ecotourism land use. This should preferably be on the periphery of the area
to avoid disturbance of the environment and the community.
Red-Tape Removal
User-friendly systems should make it easier for Ecotourism developers to obtain operating
permits and other official documentation. Remove unnecessary red tape to encourage
Ecotourism development.
Environmentally Sustainable Procedures
Aspire to this, and encourage the community to do likewise.
Integrated Environmental Management Procedures
Apply integrated environmental management procedures to ensure the natural environment
is well managed and conserved.
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Guidelines involving the “Operator” in Ecotourism Ventures

Target your Market
Make sure you have the right market for the right product. Establish exactly what your
client is looking for with regards his/her African experience. If he/she expects to see large
herds of game then organise to visit such a place. Tour planning should be carefully thought
out to give maximum exposure whilst still trying to give the best experiences.

Local Community Involvement
This could include transport, tour guiding, laundry, curios, vegetable gardens and even
clothing shops, etc. This sector of the community could be entrepreneurs who can
become partners in Ecotourism. They can act as a feeder group giving employment to
local rural communities, thus bringing economic relief to entire families. The business
people of the area should be consulted and included. Ideally the rural people should not only
get jobs, but should be empowered whereby the community can turn the service provided
into a small business allowing them sustainable opportunities which they can continue with
pride.

Staff Integrity
Staff should be familiar with the environmental and other standards required of them and
competent in every way. They should be motivated by ongoing training, for their self-esteem
and the team spirit of your company. This is called capacity building, where the focus is on
business skills training. Bookkeeping is basic to any business and an individual with this
training will be valuable to his/her community. Staff interact directly with the Ecotourist so
should not be overworked and tired.

Operating Practices
Use environmentally sustainable operating practices. For example, develop a
programme of environmentally friendly waste management, sustainable water utilisation,
make use of non-toxic cleaning materials and bio-degradable operating materials, and take
advantage of natural energy sources.

Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (EIAs and SIAs)
When planning a new development like a hutted camp or even a tour operation, EIAs and
SIAs will save time and money if done initially. It is better to clear all possible stumbling
blocks before going ahead with any development.
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Ecotourism
Environmentally Sensitive Practices
When developing an area, ensure that minimal damage is done to natural and social
resources. Try to make the development fit into the environment. Developers or their
contractors often destroy indigenous trees and entire ecosystems whilst also contaminating
streams.

Environmental Audits
Regular environmental audits should be conducted to evaluate the performance of the
environment. This process is usually undertaken by professional consulting firms, and
overseen by the administrative bodies involved. It provides the firm in question with
recommendations on how it can improve its environmental management practices.
Environmental compliance is good business practice, which will probably save money in the
long run.

Educational Opportunity
Ecotourism programmes should include educational opportunities. “True” Ecotourism is
undertaken by people wanting to expand the horizons of the visitor, allowing them to gain a
first-hand knowledge of the environment and the community. An interface between the
community and the visitor, could see the visitor assisting in community brick making,
charcoal making or drawing of water from the local pump; if only for half an hour. This
‘educates’ the Ecotourist to the community’s needs.
Guidelines for the local community involved in Ecotourism Ventures
The following are ways that local communities can contribute towards successful Ecotourism
ventures:

Approach an “Authority”
If a community owns or manages environmentally rich rural land, they should investigate the
possibility of developing this land for Ecotourism purposes, with:

the local authority

the conservation authority (National Parks Board, KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife)

private business

non-governmental organisations.
Despite a lack of funds and resources, the NGOs are less bureaucratic and more innovative
than the State or profit-drive private sector.
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Ecotourism
Investigate their land rights
If one owns or has control over land, you are in a good position to become a
shareholder in an Ecotourism venture. Investigate your land rights. Many rural
communities who have lodged land claims on the grounds of ancestral rights – this will hold
up the process, but must be carried through to fruition so that all parties are satisfied that
there has been transparency and fairness.

Seek Training with Private Sector
Approach the local Ecotourism business to employ or preferably train local community
members.

Local Craft or Culture
At present South Africa is inundated with other African countries’ curio arts and crafts. These
are imported from Kenya, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It would be of great benefit to local people
to produce craftwork, but this must be saleable. Research traditional handicrafts and
cultural traditions by asking Ecotourism companies and marketing authorities which items
would be best sellers with the Ecotourists.

Friendly attitude
Smile, this is the beginning of friendship. Treat tourists in a friendly and hospitable way and
they will always wish to come back and recommend your area to their friends.

Offensive Attitude
If there is Ecotourist behaviour or habits that are offensive to a local community or damaging
to the environment, one should be honest and make Ecotourists aware in a nice way. The
area belongs to the local community and visitors should respect their rights.

Tour Guiding
Train the local guides with a good knowledge of the environment and history and good
people skills. The South African Tourism Board (SATOUR) can offer information regarding
being trained as a Registered Tour Guide.
Guidelines for The Ecotourist in an Ecotourism venture

Research your destination
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An Ecotourist should read up on his destination - its natural history, cultures and peculiarities.
There are excellent books available on South Africa, covering fauna and flora and our
cultural heritage.

Behaviour
Ecotourists should try not to offend and behave in an environmentally sensitive manner.
Use water with discretion, do not litter under any circumstances and do not pollute quiet
places with noise. People value wide open spaces for their silence. Respect this.

Local Communities
Ecotourists should show respect to local communities, by being sensitive to their culture and
privacy.

Protect Yourself
Ecotourists should make sure they wear sunscreen and appropriate clothing, a hat and
sunglasses in the harsh African sun. Preventative medication should also be taken in malaria
areas.
Guidelines for the Presentation of an Ecotourism Venture
The presentation to prospective Business Partners should be professionally done.
The following information needs to be included:

An introduction of committee members, tribal authorities and facilitators

The day’s programme of events

The aims of the project

The existing infrastructure

An indication of the attitudes of the community

Future plans and meetings.
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REVISION EXERCISES
Multiple choice questions
1. Government officials,
4. The Ecotourist should
conservation bodies, provincial and
a) Research his destination
local Government are most
b) Show respect for local communities
accurately described as:
c) Not offend local communities
a) The Authority
d) All of the above.
b) The Tour Operator
c) The Community
5. Investigating the local communities’
d) The Ecotourist.
land rights will most probably:
2. This person is often the
a) Delay the development process
accommodation provider and link
b) Lead to a transparent and fair decision
between other role players:
c) A and B above
a) The Authority
d) Ensure a friendly attitude.
b) The Tour Operator
c) The Community
6. Community members seek a healthy
d) The Ecotourist.
place in which to live with:
a) Respect for cultural tradition
3. Opportunities for ‘service’ as a
b) Opportunities to make decisions about
guideline for Authorities refers to:
the future
a) Development of Access roads
c) Pollution free air
b) Staff should be familiar with the
d) A & B
standards required of them
c) Environmentally sustainable
practices
d) Creating opportunities for local
people to become partners in ecotourism ventures.
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APPENDIX I: TOUR GUIDING AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

The Legalities
The following text has been adapted directly from the Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) in the
amended tourism guide manual by The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
(DEAT) as forming the legal requirements by someone wanting to be a guide in the tourism
industry, this applies to all aspects of tour-guiding and is always subject to periodical change.
In a nutshell all guides and potential guides must register with THETA (Tourism Hospitality and
Sport Education Training) and attain a NQF (National Qualification Framework) rating, which
may be directly tied with a learnership qualification or if previous experience is taken in account
then a recognition of prior learning process (RPL) is put into place.
The following is based on the relevant requirements needed in the legalities of guides.
What is the National Qualifications Framework (NQF)?
The NQF is a means of transforming education and training in South Africa. It has been
designed to:
Combine education and training into a single framework, and bring together separate education
and training systems into a single, national system;
Make it easier for learners to enter the education and training system and to progress within it;
Improve the quality of education and training in South Africa;
Open up learning and work opportunities for those who were treated unfairly in the past because
of their race or gender; and
Enable learners to develop to their full potential and thereby support the social and economic
development of the country as a whole.
What are National Qualifications?
National Qualifications (NQ’s), which are available to everyone, are based on national standards
which are recognised by industry throughout SA. NQ’s are designed to provide (1) individuals
with a clear path in terms of career development, which is not tied to a specific route of learning,
and (2) employers with a means of recruiting qualified and competent staff, as well as managing
their performance.
What are Unit Standards?
 Unit standards are the building blocks of national qualifications. They are registered
statements of desired education and training outcomes together with their associated
assessment criteria.
Why do I need to convert my present training into national qualifications?
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In 1995 the South African Qualifications Authority Act (1995) stipulated that National
Qualifications would be developed for all components of the education and training system in
South Africa. This effectively meant that tourist guiding would also need to develop a set of
national qualifications and tourist guides would be expected to achieve them. Following an
instruction from Minister Mohamed Valli Moosa, THETA established a Guiding Standards
Generating Body in order to do this.
The Parliamentary Portfolio Committee insisted on a revision of the Tourism Act of 1993 and
stipulated that future registration of tourist guides be linked to the achievement of national
qualifications. This was borne out in the Second Tourism Amendment Act of 2000. What does
this mean? It means that national guiding qualifications will be linked to the various existing
categories of tourist guides (being reviewed to fit the national qualifications) and the guide will
have to obtain the national qualification in order to guide legally in the future.
When will the National Guiding Qualifications be registered?
The first sets of national qualifications for Tourist Guiding were registered on 13 June 2001. Not
all the guiding categories’ qualifications have been developed. The initial focus has been on
cultural and nature guiding, as well as tracking. Workgroups are in the process of developing
qualifications for the various aspects of adventure guiding. This will not prevent adventure
guides from converting certain parts of their training and experience into those national
qualifications and unit standards that have been registered by the end of June 2001.
How do I upgrade my present qualification(s) into national qualifications or unit standards using
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)?
Recognition of Prior Learning or RPL Assessment is the process of defining, documenting,
measuring, evaluating and granting credit for learning gained through experience or previous
training / learning. This means that the existing knowledge and experience of a guide will be
assessed and evaluated against the relevant unit standards of the relevant national qualification
by a THETA licensed assessor.
This evidence can take many forms, e.g. a curriculum vitae, a logbook, demonstration of guiding
expertise in a real or simulated scenario, letters of recommendation about the person’s guiding
quality by people who have been on guiding trips with them, etc.
If the person is not competent, then they do NOT fail. The assessor gives guidance / coaches
the person with regard to the areas that need attention, or in which they are lacking. The
assessor and the person being assessed, then agree on a date when those specific deficiencies
will be assessed.
In this context, RPL is be used to assess previously registered South African Tourism guides
against the SAQA registered guiding standards, as required by the Tourism Amendment Act.
THETA needs to develop a national network of assessors to assist with the task or
assessing existing guides in the conversion of their qualifications to the new national
requirements.
THETA’s RPL process consists of nine basic steps. The steps are as follows: Step 1.
The applicant (the tourist guide) must identify the learning he / she wants to have evaluated.
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Step 2.
The assessor and the applicant must differentiate between learning and experience. Learning
must be expressed in specific outcomes that are relevant and appropriate for the credits
required.
Step 3.
The applicant will collect a portfolio of evidence that includes as much evidence as possible of
experiences and learning that are relevant to the RPL process.
Step 4.
The assessor will evaluate the evidence produced as well as the learner’s competence. This
may be done in a variety of ways, which could include practical assessment, simulation, written
tests and/ or questioning.
Step 5.
The assessor/s will make a recommendation about the learning and the amount of credit that
should be given based on their evaluation and the evidence that was produced.
Step 6.
The assessor will write a report (a copy of which is kept by the applicant for quality assurance
purposes) recommending whether the learner should be given the credits / qualifications. The
report must include sufficient supporting evidence for the decision. The report must be based on
the evidence produced by the learner as well as any assessments that may have been done.
Step 7.
Based on the assessment decision, the assessor will complete the Declaration of Competence
Form and submit it for external quality assurance.
Step 8.
Once the Declaration of Competence has been signed off by a Quality Assurer, the Assessor
and the Learner, it should be submitted to THETA.
Step 9.
If the applicant was assessed as competent, a certificate is issued.
Step 10
If not, the assessor will not fail the learner but will advise and give guidance on areas of
incompetence for the learner to go back and improve.
Do I have to repeat training to achieve national qualifications if I am presently a South African
Tourism registered guide?
No, you can request the recognition of your prior learning (training courses) and experience
(practical experience in the field) via a process of assessment.
How will tourist guides be identified in the future?
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The National Registrar of Tourist Guides will issue badges and I.D. cards. The I.D. cards will
indicate which provinces a tourist guide can operate in and the badges will indicate the province
of registration.
What happens if we do not comply with the Act?
Acts of misconduct can be reported to the Provincial Registrars, who will take steps against the
guide. This could range from a letter of warning to suspension / revoking of the licence to guide
(in cases of gross misconduct).
There is an Appeal process, which enables a guide to make representation to the National
Registrar (currently Dr. J. Raputsoe “Director Tourism Quality Assurance”) if the case cannot be
resolved at a provincial level.
The regulations also make provision for a R10 000 fine for tour operators using unregistered
(unqualified) tourist guides. It also makes provision for a R5000 fine for tourist guides who are
guiding illegally.
Who trains guides?
Now that the national qualifications for Tourist Guides are registered, training providers are
required to accredit themselves with THETA.
Who benefits?
Learners: benefit from the provision of qualifications that enjoy national recognition and where
appropriate, enjoys international comparability.
Workers: benefit from clear learning paths in the qualification structure, to facilitate and support
life-long learning and career advancement.
Employers: benefit from a work force, competent in the skills
6.1 Professional tourism guidelines
In addition to the above document a Tourist Guide Code of conduct was also issued in order
have access to a framework of control and assessment
A professional tourist guide:

Shall uphold the principles of the South African Constitution, especially its chapters one
and two.

Shall at all times show willingness to provide optimum support and quality service to all
tourists, and will give tourists an opportunity to enjoy or visit a desired destination.
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Ecotourism
Shall in no way discriminate in rendering service to any tourist on any basis, e.g. colour,
gender, ethnicity, nationality, physical challenge, age, etc.

Shall be impartial, unbiased and positive, and represent South Africa objectively.

Shall be suitably dressed and presentable at all times.

Shall be punctual, reliable, honest, conscientious and tactful at all times.

Shall be a responsible driver, when driving as a guide.

Shall carry out the programme/itinerary of a tour to his/her best abilities and be loyal to
the company/organisation that he/she is representing.

Shall deal with conflict in a sensitive and responsible manner.

Shall report any incident of injury or death to a nearby tourist authority or police station.

Shall be knowledgeable and shall assist tourists and not provide them with misleading
information.

Shall in the event of not being familiar with, or being unable to provide information
requested by a tourist, consult with the appropriate authorities for assistance.

Shall at no time be under the influence of alcohol or a narcotic substance while on duty
and shall refrain from administering any medication to a client without proper medical
consultation.

Shall never solicit for clients or gratuities.

Shall be concerned at all times for the safety of the tourist.

Shall wear the appropriate tourist guide badge and will carry his/her registration card.

Shall treat all people, cultures and the environment with respect.
6.2 Categories of Field Guides
According to South Africa law, a fare–paying passenger who requires information on his/hers
surroundings, whether in a vehicle or on a walk must be informed by a
Registered Tour Guide – registered with THETA. This person has to pass stringent exams on
a particular area. You find three types of qualified guides:
Local Guides: -may not accompany guests on an overnight excursion as their qualification only
covers a town or ‘locality’.
Regional Guides: -may accompany tourists overnight and is confined to a region, which is
usually a province.
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National Guides: -who have passed exams on ALL provinces and may accompany tours
nationwide. These latter guides often speak a foreign language.
6.3
The Field Guide Association of South Africa (FGASA)
FGASA promotes professional field guides based on a strong ethical, well-informed, safety
conscious approach. These guides provide the visitor to the African bush with a pleasant and
memorable experience.
THETA has also recognised FGASA as an accredited body to
coordinate standards for field guiding and field guiding training.
Field guides may operate on foot, from a vehicle, on horseback or in a boat, in natural
areas. A good field guide knows his subject and can answer a client’s observation questions.
6.4
Interpretation in the Bush
Teaching people about the bush and natural history is called ‘Interpretation’.
In the African scenario, the Specialist Guide will for example answer a question about the white
underside of the tail of an alerted antelope. Other knowledge is then imparted to the visitors
who gain a deeper insight into the topic:
Animal’s Tails:
Most of the birds and animals in the bush have a tail of one sort or another, which will have
a purpose and are not decorative. An elephant calf helpless against predators because of
its small size at birth, will curl its trunk around its mother’s tail to maintain contact with
her and gain assurance.
The waterbuck has a white circle around the tail, which serves as a clear following signal
for others in the herd, as is the white underside of the tail of an alerted antelope. When
wild dogs hunt, others can easily see the bushy white tips of their tails in the pack. The
lion and leopard cubs learn to stalk and catch prey – an alertness gained by playing and
pouncing on the lioness’s tail, which she twitches constantly.
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A cheetah can only sprint 300 yards at 112 kph before rising temperature and a lack of
oxygen forces it to quit. Thus the average speed during the chase is under 64kph. This
requires balance, which lies in the ‘steering’ capacity of their long tail. Zebras and other
animals use their tails to swat flies, often observed when two animals stand nose to tail.
6.5
The ‘Romantic’ feeling of Africa
This is an element which stirs the soul. Remember that one of the prime reasons for an
Ecotourist wanting to come to Africa and brave the hot sun, mosquitoes and flying insects, is to
‘find’ him/herself spiritually. This is a world away from a highly technological workplace. This
is not to say that ‘things’ should not ‘work’ here in South Africa, on the contrary. The comfort of
guest in whatever situation is seriously important. Tourism is most definitely a service
industry. When guiding a group be careful not to over-romanticise, but ‘marry’ the romantic with
reality.
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APPENDIX II: NATIONAL RESPONSIBLE TOURISM GUIDELINES FOR SOUTH
AFRICA
On the 13th May 2002 Minister Valli Moosa issued a document regarding the National
Responsible Tourism guidelines for South Africa. It addresses the development of Tourism and
the framework within that Tourism operates and what is required to ensure control and quality of
Tourism. It applies to all aspects of Tourism and especially eco-tourism. The document is
important across all spectrum of Tourism. It places special emphasis on eco-tourism concepts
that serves to enforce the Ecotourism concept and provide an excellent platform for growth. In
itself it can serve as an manual for this course Following is the document in its original form
1. GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR ECONOMIC RESPONSIBILITY
Tourism still plays a relatively small role in the South African economy and it has a long way to
go if it is to fulfil its potential to significantly contribute to national income. Traditionally the main
focus of governments has been on the growth in international arrivals and total foreign exchange
earnings, and is now than on fostering entrepreneurial opportunities for the historically
disadvantaged, poverty relief, employment and local economic development. Both domestic and
international tourism can create employment; it is a relatively labour intensive industry and it
employs a multiplicity of skills from accountants and hairdressers to tour guides and trackers.
Tourism can provide very good skills development opportunities for local communities.
The White Paper concluded in 1996 that tourism development in South Africa had largely been a
missed opportunity; and that the focus on a narrow market has reduced the potential of the
industry to spawn entrepreneurship and to create new services, like local entertainment and
handicrafts, and to drive local economic development. In fact formal tourism sector provides
major opportunities for the informal sector. Tourists travel to the "factory" to consume the
product; they travel to the destination to enjoy their holiday. Tourism is a "final good", all the final
touches have to be provided in South Africa and so the value is captured here. The value of a
taxi ride from the airport, wildlife viewing and restaurant meals all accrue to the local economy -the challenge is to maximise it by reducing leakages and developing the multiplier effect. Tourist
enterprises attract domestic and international tourists and create opportunities for small
entrepreneurs and economic linkages, for example agriculture, hunting, handicraft production,
and a wide range of service industries which tourists are likely to consume in the destination.
South Africa is now beginning to work on maximising the local economic benefits which tourism
can bring to an area, there is much to be gained from creating a more diversified tourism product
and marketing a wider range of experiences, activities and services to tourists. Established
enterprises can gain by encouraging and assisting the development of complementary product -the larger and more diversified the local tourism base, the more successful enterprises in the
area will be. The White Paper identified a wide range of opportunities for historically
disadvantaged groups ranging from small guesthouses, shebeens and restaurants with local
cuisine, through community tour guiding, music, dance and story-telling, arts and crafts,
traditional hunting and medicine to laundry, gardening and speciality agriculture. Tourism
provides particular opportunities for local economic development in rural areas where it can
provide people with an alternative to moving to urban areas. Tourism must be market related. If
community-based and other tourism development processes are not planned, implemented and
managed according to market demands then far too many South Africans, especially the poor,
are facing not merely "missed" opportunities, but the hard realities of failed or under-performing
products to which tourists simply do not come. The African cultural tourism experience needs to
be woven into the fabric of the mainstream South African tourism product.
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Domestic tourism plays an important part in the South African tourism sector and it is expected
to continue to grow, as historically disadvantaged people become tourists and travellers
themselves. Whether the tourists are domestic or international, their expenditure in local
communities contributes to the economic development of the area. The greater the proportion of
total tourism spending that stays in the local area, the stronger and more diverse the local
economic base. The multiplier effect is greatest where the local linkages are strongest -- the
imperative is clear, source the inputs for all tourism enterprises as locally as possible in order to
maximise local economic benefit and to assist in diversifying the local economy. Reducing
economic leakages from the local area and increasing linkages will bring significant local
economic development and assist in local economic diversification. Similarly the development of
complementary product will strengthen the local economy and local enterprises, groups of
established enterprises working together can make a significant difference. Strong economic
linkages at the local level were identified in the White Paper as a critical success factor in the
local economy.
There is an increasing aspiration for Fair Trade in Tourism in several of the international
originating markets; part of a trend towards increasing demand for equitably traded products.
Increasing numbers of consumers are purchasing products that demonstrably benefit local
communities more fairly than competitor products. The IUCN South Africa Fair Trade in Tourism
marketing initiative has identified a set of principles that embody a strong commitment to
responsible tourism. It is a good example of a responsible tourism marketing association with a
vision of just, participatory and ethical tourism that provides meaningful benefits to hosts and
visitors alike. The principles of Fair Trade should be part of the culture of responsible tourism.
1.1. Economic Objectives and Indicators
1.1.1. Assess economic impacts as a pre-requisite to developing tourism
.
Extend the season of enterprises by developing new products to create better
employment conditions and to provide a stronger base for local economic development.
Monitor occupancies or seasonality of employment over the year to show progress in
extending the season.
a. The historically disadvantaged are a significant emerging domestic tourism market. Identify
and encourage commercial responses to this opportunity.
b. Recognise that our cultural heritage should not only be assessed in economic terms, and
that tourism can create revenue from cultural heritage, traditional ways of life and wildlife and
habitats.
c. Encourage business relationships between foreign entrepreneurs and local and emerging
entrepreneurs.
d. Always consider the opportunity costs of tourism for local communities and their livelihoods,
and be prepared to accept that there may be more appropriate economic opportunities for
the area. Maintain and encourage economic diversity, avoid over-dependency on tourism.
e. Plan initiatives and investment to contribute to the broader local economic development
strategy (for example, Integrated Development Plans [IDPs] for the area).
f.
Planning authorities need to consider how they can intervene to avoid tourism developments
where they may cause adverse effects such as local land price inflation, loss of access to
resources or undermining sustainable livelihoods.
g. Exercise a preference for business and land tenure arrangements that directly benefit local
communities and/or conservation.
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h. Conduct market and financial feasibility assessments before raising expectations and
exposing the community or local entrepreneurs to risk.
1.1.2. Maximising local economic benefits -- increasing linkages and reducing leakages
.
Encourage all establishments to upgrade their standards of service, particularly small,
medium and micro-enterprises and emerging entrepreneurs, and to maximise their
revenue earning potential by adding value.
a. Encourage the informal sector to become part of the formal sector.
b. Buy locally made goods and use locally provided services from locally owned businesses
wherever quality, quantity, and consistency permits. Monitor the proportion of goods and
services the enterprise sourced from businesses with 50km and set 20% target for
improvement over three years.
c. Help local communities or emergent entrepreneurs to develop their product so that it can
be more easily used by others and marketed to tourists.
d. Cooperate with other formal sector businesses to maximise benefits for local community
enterprises -- for example, a community laundry or tailoring business may only be viable
if a group of enterprises commit to source supplies there. Showcase the initiative and be
explicit about whether community projects are funded by tourism revenue to the
enterprise, donations from tourists or tour operators, or funds from donor aid agencies.
e. Give customers the opportunity to purchase locally produced crafts and curios, set
targets to increase the proportion of sales of goods sourced within 20km of the
enterprise. Assist local craft workers to develop new products to meet market demand as
evidenced in the enterprise.
1.1.3. Ensure communities are involved in and benefit from tourism
.
Government and established businesses need to redress previous imbalances, and to
enable the historically disadvantaged to engage in the tourism sector. For example they
should source 15% of services and 15% of products, increasing by 5% per year, for 3
years, from historically disadvantaged groups, and/or individuals, and report on
purchasing activities.
a. Work closely with local communities, small, medium and micro-enterprises and emerging
entrepreneurs to develop new products that provide complementary products for formal
sector tourism enterprises.
b. Develop partnerships and joint ventures in which communities have a significant stake,
and with appropriate capacity building, a substantial role in management. Communal
land ownership can provide equity in enterprises.
c. Identify projects that the enterprise can support that will benefit the poor. Identify at least
one project.
d. Assist the development of local communities and emergent entrepreneurs with visitor
feedback on their products.
e. Consider guaranteeing loans for promising projects in communities or with emerging
entrepreneurs, and providing marketing, training and managerial support.
f.
Foster the development of community-based tourism products by providing marketing
and mentoring support.
g. Encourage visitors to spend more money in the local economy, and to visit local bars and
restaurants and participate in tours to local areas, bringing business to local
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communities. Where appropriate treat this as part of the business of the enterprise and
charge a booking fee or commission, or sell craft and local food products through the
mainstream enterprise.
h. Encourage tour operators be more innovative in their itineraries, by for example including
shebeens, local museums, arts and craft shops and local ethnic restaurants in their tour
itineraries, and by doing so encourage visitor spend.
i.
Consider using local entrepreneurs (particularly emerging and historically disadvantaged
entrepreneurs), experienced consultants and non-governmental organisations in
developing community initiatives.
j.
Be transparent when reporting community benefits distinguish between:

Benefits to employees.

Benefits to emerging or community based entrepreneurs.

Community benefits, for example leasehold payments, that go to community
projects (grinding mills or school books), or are distributed as household income
in the local area.
k. Consider establishing targets to monitor progress in achieving objectives.
1.1.4. Marketing and product development
.
Lack of market access is a major constraint on the growth of new enterprises.
Enterprises should provide information about local services and attractions provided in
local communities, and encourage their clients (individuals and operators) to use them.
a. Consider cooperative advertising, marketing and the promotion of new and emerging
products and attractions.
b. Ensure that the visual way in which the product is presented includes local cultural
elements and emphasises the richness of the local complementary product.
c. Consider developing and marketing fairly traded tourism products.
d. Foster the development of access opportunities for all visitors and potential visitors,
regardless of physical, or mental conditions of the visitor. Public authorities and
enterprises need to understand and embrace financial incentives that enhanced
accessibility will create, and the positive image such "access to all" will provide.
1.1.5. Equitable business
.
Enterprises should pay fair prices for local services purchased or packaged as part of
mainstream itineraries. Beware of abusing market power and imposing unfair
commissions or pushing down prices inequitably.
a. Develop transparent systems of sharing the benefits of tourism through equitable
contracts (e.g. this can be applied through tendering processes).
b. When entering into agreements with local communities or emerging entrepreneurs
ensure that the risk is equitably shared.
c. Recruit and employ staff in an equitable and transparent manner and maximise the
proportion of staff employed from the local community. Set targets for increasing the
proportion of staff and/or of the enterprise wage bill going to communities within 20km of
the enterprise.
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d. Develop a community labour agreement with targets for employment and for progression.
Recognise that the enterprise can play a significant role in increasing the skills and
capacity of the local community and that the enterprise benefits from that.
e. Go beyond the bare minimum wage rate and invest in local staff -- quality is dependent
upon well-motivated staff.
2. GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Batho Pele: Putting People First -- One and all should get their fair share
Tourism and the travel industry "is essentially the renting out for short-term lets, of other people's
environments, whether that is a coastline, a city, a mountain range or a rainforest". Tourism is
dependent upon the social, cultural and natural environment within which it occurs, and its
success is dependent upon the environment that it operates within. Good relationships with
neighbours and with the historically disadvantaged make good business sense. These
relationships need to be based on trust, empowerment, co-operation and partnerships. Too few
of the benefits from tourism currently accrue to local communities whose environment is visited.
As was pointed out in the White Paper, the majority of South Africans have never been
meaningfully exposed to the tourism sector. In the new South Africa, the government's objective
is to ensure that all citizens have equal access to tourism services as consumers and providers.
Enterprises and communities need to identify ways in which they can provide a range of tourism
experiences sufficiently wide to be accessible to the average South African. Programmes are
being established to allow South Africans, and particularly front-line tourism employees, to
become "tourists at home". To this end, the notion of Batho Pele is a guiding principle.
The opportunity costs of the creation of national parks and subsequent reduced access to
natural and cultural resources was often borne by local disadvantaged communities in the past.
Such communities did not perceive or receive any significant direct benefits from the change in
land use from conservation and tourism. Communities must be empowered to take part in the
management of areas so that they can have a say in the distribution of the benefits and the
sustainable use of their environment. Efforts are not being made to enable local communities to
experience wildlife in the parks.
One of the key challenges for business, local government and educators is to develop
knowledge among the historically disadvantaged regarding what tourism is, and how it can
benefit local communities. In the 1996 White Paper the involvement of local communities and
historically disadvantaged groups was identified as a critical success factor. Communities need
to be involved in the planning, decision-making and the development of tourism; and in all
operational aspects of the industry as tourists, employees and entrepreneurs. Social exclusion
has contributed to the historically narrow, myopic focus of the industry in South Africa.
Responsible tourism is about enabling and encouraging historically disadvantaged local
communities to access lucrative tourism markets. This is to overcome the problem of visitors
being kept within the hotels and resorts and only venturing out to "sanitised" places of interest.
For example local shebeens and craft vendors rarely see a tourist.
One of the key challenges for the formal sector is to develop ways of engaging with community
entrepreneurs and community groups to develop new products and diversify the industry. The
success of township tours is one example of the product development opportunities that exist in
the new South Africa. Much more effort needs to be made to improve the linkages between the
formal and informal sectors of the tourism sector. The exclusion of the historically disadvantaged
has contributed towards poverty and crime -- the "township tours" demonstrate that where local
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guides act as hosts, and where there are clear benefits both to communities and to historically
disadvantaged entrepreneurs, tourists can have a good experience and be assured of their
safety. In 1995, involving local communities in tourism, creating employment and training and
awareness programmes were identified as solutions to the problem of security for tourists. There
is much still to be done and this is a core challenge for responsible tourism. National priorities for
action are described in 2.1. Social objectives and indicators.
The meaningful involvement of historically disadvantaged communities as employees and as
entrepreneurs in South Africa is a priority. This requires both market access and capacity
building. Training at all levels is essential to the development of a more inclusive industry, able
to demonstrate its social responsibility and to develop new products which meet the cultural and
"meet the people" interests of tourists. The development and delivery of new quality products for
the changing market place is of central importance to enable the historically disadvantaged to
become part of mainstream tourism. It is also required for social justice and the avoidance of
exploitation of local cultures and community groups. The value of the culture of historically
disadvantaged people needs to be recognised and new tourism products developed. Their
awareness of the opportunities in tourism needs to be a key element in training and education,
and it is important that these opportunities are presented in a realistic commercial framework.
2.1. Social Objectives and Indicators
2.1.1. Involve the local community in planning and decision-making
.
Understand the historical, political and cultural context of local and host communities,
and historical relationships with tourism development and protected areas.
a. Creating opportunities and eliminating barriers to access mainstream tourism markets for
local communities, historically disadvantaged people and individuals.
b. Understand the local, safety and security, infrastructure, resource, educational, poverty,
disability and health constraints (e.g. HIV-Aids), when designing, operating and marketing
tourism.
c. Encourage proactive participation and involvement by all stakeholders -- including the private
sector, government at all levels, labour, local communities (their leaders and structures) -- at
all stages of the tourism life cycle.
d. Encourage formal and informal sector enterprises to develop effective structures, or join
existing bodies, for marketing and tourism development. Create the environment to do so by
providing resources, technical and management capacity.
e. Encourage successful entrepreneurs, particularly those from the emerging tourism fraternity,
to mentor others.
f.
Planning authorities should work to include stakeholders as part of a decision-making
process at the destination level, to determine what constitutes sustainable levels of tourism
in the social, natural, and economic context.
g. Programmes of education within school curricula, and public awareness within communities,
are needed regarding the potential positive and negative aspects of tourism.
h. Post employment education and training programmes within the framework of the Skills
Development Act and South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) are required to educate
employees regarding the potential pros and cons of tourism, and comparative costs and
benefits of alternative enterprises in order to aid decision-making.
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i.
Involve the local communities in growing the local tourism business by using existing
facilities and by developing new activities and attractions. Individual enterprises and groups
of enterprises need to develop complementary products (report number of new activities/
attractions; number of visitors).
j.
Empower communities to market their cultural traditions and products as assets and
enhance their economic opportunities.
k. Interpretation material and visitor information centres should be developed in consultation
with local communities.
l.
Integrate community development goals as identified in the Integrated Development Plan
(and similar processes) into the enterprise's social and sustainability mission and objectives.
2.1.2. Assess social impacts as a prerequisite to developing tourism
.
Identify and monitor potential adverse social impacts of tourism and minimise them in the
short and the long-term, and ensure that communities actively participate in the
monitoring.
a. Larger enterprises should appoint a member of staff to take responsibility for developing
better local relationships and partnerships. Implement social audits of tourism projects.
These can be conducted in an inexpensive, rapid and participatory way.
b. Consider schemes to encourage local co-operation and civic pride like an "adopt a school"
initiative or "adopt a street", or other local area near the enterprise. Work with local
government and the local community to identify priority sites, and make them safe and
attractive for tourists.
c. Enterprises should develop strategies to promote equality in terms of gender, ethnicity, age,
and disability, and report progress on implementation.
2.1.3. Maintain and encourage social and cultural diversity
.
Develop tourism with dignity, respect and nurture local cultures (including religion), so
that they enrich the tourism experience and build pride and confidence among local
communities.
a. Use tourism as a catalyst for human development, focussing on gender
equality, career development and the implementation of national labour
standards (report on gender equality and career development).
b. Tourism development should not compromise respect for social and cultural
and religious rights, or the essential human rights of people to food, a safe
and clean environment, work, health, and education.
c. Support the development of sustainable local handicraft enterprise by
assisting with improvement of design, marketing, production and packaging
skills for craft workers in relation to market demand. Consider specifically
what can be done to enhance the skills and earnings of women, particularly in
rural areas.
d. Support visits by local school children to tourism sites that promote and
display their heritage.
e. Consider what contributions the enterprise can make to scholarships, local
youth sports teams and other community causes. Monitor and report
increasing contributions with respect to the number of projects and level of
investment.
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Showcase local cultural artefacts in your enterprise and encourage the
development and sale of traditional cultural products, crafts and folklore. Aim
for 25% items for sale at enterprise from within 50km, with tours offered to
local markets, and try to increase these by 25% over 3 years. Provide
customer feedback in order to raise standards.
g. Be wary of the dangers of commodification, and encourage craft and other
cultural workers to maintain the authenticity and cultural values of their
products. Encourage craft workers to explain the cultural values and history of
their crafts.
h. Give enterprises a local flavour by serving local dishes and source soft
furnishings, arts and crafts locally. Monitor the proportion of local dishes on
menu; and the proportion of furnishings and crafts locally made, and aim to
increase these proportions by 25% over 3 years. Visitors expect to find at
least one local dish their menus.
i.
Identify cultural heritage resources in the local area and where there is
sufficient demand from tourists and work with the local community to develop
them as sustainable tourism attractions. Consider mission settlements, sites
of slave occupation, festivals, struggle-related monuments and places, rock
art sites, cultural monuments, food, drink, arts and crafts, music, dance and
storytelling.
j.
Encourage tourists to show respect by learning a few words of the local
language, (and to use them when talking to local people!) and to learn about
the host culture and traditions.
k. Share enterprise level knowledge regarding informal sector tourism skills and
products. Draw the attention of ground handlers, the media and tour operators
to complementary product opportunities in the local community.
2.1.4. Be sensitive to the host culture
.
Respect, invest in and develop local cultures and protect them from overcommercialisation and over-exploitation. Encourage workers and staff to observe their
religious and cultural practices.
a. Respect indigenous intellectual property, especially when setting up
contractual arrangements for the use of indigenous knowledge.
b. Use local guides, and encourage them to continually improve their quality, to
ensure that the community speaks for itself and to increase the revenues
going into the local community (by higher fees for quality tours). Monitor and
report this economic contribution to the community and set targets to increase
it annually.
c. Develop a local social contract for interactions and behaviour between the
local community and tourists (including responsible bargaining), developed
with the participation and contributions from the community, and display it
prominently for visitors and publicly within the community.
d. Create opportunities for visitors to interact with locals in an unstructured,
spontaneous manner (e.g. through sporting activities, visits to local schools,
shebeens, taverns, restaurants in townships).
e. In accordance with the Batho Pele principle, provide visitors with inclusive,
honest and reliable information about history and contemporary life in South
Africa, local tourism attractions and facilities.
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Promote a sound, proud, service ethic among all participants in the tourism
sector.
g. Promote and ensure the respect and dignity of people in the development,
marketing and promotion of tourism.
h. Ensure that tourism does not undermine the resource rights, traditional
knowledge and skills of local communities.
i.
Negative social and cultural impacts associated with tourism, such as
increased crime, drug and alcohol abuse, prostitution, and crime should be
monitored and be proactively addressed in cooperation with the community.
j.
Educate tourists regarding local culture and where necessary make them
aware of how they should behave to respect it.
k. The exploitation of human beings in any form, particularly sexual and when
applied to women and children, should be energetically combated with the cooperation of all concerned.
3. GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY
Responsible tourism implies a proactive approach by the tourism sector to the environment
through the promotion of balanced and sustainable tourism. This is particularly important where
the focus of the tourism sector and of the activities of tourists is the natural environment, as is
the case with wildlife viewing, hunting and marine tourism. There are particular challenges in
making nature-based tourism sustainable. Responsible tourism development has to be
underpinned by sustainable environmental practices. In the environmental sphere only
conservative decisions based on the precautionary principle can be considered responsible.
Cultural heritage is also part of the environment, and the responsibility of the tourism sector
towards the cultural environment was considered in the social responsibility guidelines.
Central to environmental responsibility is thinking about the life cycle impact of an enterprise or
product, and so these guidelines apply to the stages of design, planning, construction, operation
and decommissioning. The process of managing the business should be fully integrated with
environmental management, throughout the project's life cycle (from conceptualisation to
decommissioning). In constructing concessions and leasehold developments it is particularly
important to ensure that during decommissioning it will be possible to remove all structures and
restore the area. Larger businesses should be using Environmental Management Systems to
exercise environmental responsibility; for businesses above a defined size in each sector it
would be irresponsible to operate without one.
All tourism enterprises can make a contribution to environmental sustainability by exercising
care in purchasing decisions -- by seeking out and supporting responsible producers of the
products that are required to run the enterprise, and by making clients aware of the responsible
purchasing policy.
The practical guidelines and indicators that follow are organised around the key environmental
elements of responsible tourism identified in the 1996 White Paper.
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1. Environmental Objectives and Indicators
3.1.1. Assess environmental impacts as a prerequisite to developing tourism
.
Plan new developments only in areas where the use of water and other natural resources
for tourism will not conflict with local community needs, now or in the foreseeable future.
Integrate environmental management into the project planning cycle.
a. Follow best practice guidelines on the design, planning and construction of buildings and
associated infrastructure to minimise environmental impacts and to reduce energy
requirements for lighting, cooling and heating.
b. Use local materials (where sustainable) and local architectural styles on a scale that does
not create a negative aesthetic impact.
c. Avoid damaging the environmental quality of the enterprise's neighbourhood by noise or light
pollution.
d. Design buildings with natural ventilation and actively plan to reduce resource use during the
construction and operational phases. Tell visitors what has been done to make the
enterprise more environmentally friendly. Quantify the resources "saved".
e. Plan new developments to have the lowest possible ecological impact, particularly in
environmentally sensitive areas such as the coastal zone, indigenous forests, wildlife
habitats and wetlands. Minimise the transformation of the environment around the
enterprise.
f.
When developing plans for a new enterprise include elements which contribute to the
maintenance of biodiversity by planting local indigenous and non-invasive species which
provide habitats for birds, bees, and butterflies.
3.1.2. Use local resources sustainably, avoid waste and over-consumption
.
Measure the quantity of water consumed and manages consumption and leakage so as
to reduce water consumption by 5% per annum for 3 years, and report water
consumption and performance in monitoring.
a. Measure electricity consumption and introduce energy saving measures to achieve 5%
reduction in use per annum over three years. This can be done by for example dimming
lights, using low energy appliances and light bulbs and enhancing the use of natural
ventilation.
b. Monitor the use of diesel, paraffin and petrol and set targets to reduce consumption and
switch to less polluting fuels.
c. Set targets to increase the proportion of energy used from renewable resources -- for
example solar, wind, hydroelectric (increase by 10% over 3 years). Sustainable use of
wood, from indigenous and plantation forests is complex, and great care needs to be
taken.
d. Install and showcase appropriate technology to reduce consumption of natural
resources, production of waste and incidences of pollution.
e. Monitor the sewage system and demonstrate how pure the outflow back into the
environment is. If the enterprise has one, make the reed bed a valuable habitat feature.
f.
Set percentage targets and time scales for the reduction of waste produced, levels of
recycling and reuse of waste from the enterprise. Set appropriate targets for reduction
and/or recycling of waste produced per year for paper (5%), plastics (5%) metal (5%) and
glass (5%). Report on progress towards 15% targets over 3 years.
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g. Work with suppliers to minimise the amount of packaging purchased with supplies, and
therefore reduce the amount of waste that needs to be disposed of. It may be appropriate
for trade associations to conduct these discussions on behalf of members.
h. Reduce "food miles" by using locally produced food.
i.
Enterprises should assist conservation by investing in sustainable trails, hides and
interpretation. Tell visitors what the enterprise is doing, and claim credit for activities.
j.
Encourage the use of environmentally friendly transport.
3.1.3. Maintain and encourage natural diversity
.
Encourage visitor behaviour that respects natural heritage and has a low impact upon it.
a. Discourage the purchase of products that exploit wildlife unsustainably or contribute to
the destruction of species or habitats (e.g. some handicrafts, bush meat).
b. Look for ways in which the enterprise and its guests can assist with the conservation of
natural heritage, for example through removing litter.
c. Invest a percentage of profits or turnover in species conservation or habitat restoration
and management. Report the investment, and try to increase this by 5% per year.
d. Avoid pollution by using environmentally friendly chemicals, and by using biodegradable
soaps and detergents -- tell visitors and staff why the enterprise is doing this and how it
benefits the environment.
e. Work with conservation authorities to ensure that visitors to natural heritage areas are
aware of the impacts that they may have on the ecology of the area and how they should
behave in order to minimise those impacts.
f.
Ensure that relevant members of staff are familiar with the issues and ways of avoiding
environmental impacts -- they should abide by the advice and communicate it to guests,
and use the services of companies that abide by local environmental best practice.
g. Do not market tourism resources to encourage tourists into ecologically sensitive areas
which are vulnerable to irresponsible tourism practices, particular sports or recreational
uses -- discourage these activities (e.g. irresponsible 4x4 use, hunting, diving or sand
boarding).
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