EDUCATING FOR GOOD PRACTICE WITH FATHERS…BY
DEGREE
Gary Clapton
Introduction
Social Work has never known what to do or say about fathers and
in particular about fathers’ potential positive contribution.
Fifteen years ago Greif and Bailey (1990) asked the question
‘Where are the fathers in social work literature?’ and concluded
that the only time fathers receive consideration was when they
were either a risk to children or a destructive influence in the
family. This is not only detrimental to fathers. No-one benefits,
least of all children and the wider family because the
marginalisation of fathers happens at the same time as that of an
over-emphasis on the mother.
The failure to include fathers in social work practice has been
noted at regular intervals since 1990 (Messages from Research
1995, Ryan 2000 and Ferguson and Hogan 2004).
Yet changes seem difficult to bring about. Evidence for this can be
seen in the arrangements for teaching the new Social Work degree
standards. Neither, on paper, in class or out in the field does it
appear that there are some obvious opportunities for social work
students to learn good practice with fathers.
So what are the obstacles? And what can be done?
The New Degree
A quick survey of the content of a sample of ten Degree Courses
shows that the most common areas taught are:
Children and Families Practice (6)
Law (6)
Ethics/Values (5)
Human Growth and Development (5)
Working with Service Users (4)
Anti-Discriminatory Practice (4)
Each of these subjects presents possibilities for discussion of
fathering, fatherhood and fathers’ potential contribution to the
well-being of children and families.
So the capacity is there.
Unfortunately, in terms of Study, Teaching, Practice and Guidance
relating to Social Work, there are a number of hurdles to negotiate
if we are to embed discussion of fathers in the training of social
workers.
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The first difficulty is that of the New Degree standards. These,
like much policy guidance today, attempt gender neutrality with
references (36) to ‘families’ and ‘parents’. The use of the term
‘parents’ conflates mothers and fathers and is ultimately
unsuccessful in establishing equity because of social work’s overconcentration on mothers. This is the default position - children
and families are mothers’ work; it is Social Work’s ‘Home Page’. In
all aspects of Social Work, mothers are elevated and fathers’
potential contribution marginalised.
A quick snapshot of Social Work Theory, Policy, Practice, Research,
and Social Working Teaching and Education bears this out.
Social Work and Fathers
The marginalisation of fathers normally takes three forms. As
already noted, they are either a threat or abusive; but when they
are not being described as dangerous, fathers are as absent or
not-resident; or thirdly, omitted altogether. These ideas permeate
social work.
Social Work Theory
The influence of Bowlby’s concentration on mothers in his study of
maternal deprivation (Maternal Care and Mental Health, 1951) has
cast a long shadow over social work, no more so than in adoption.
Fahlberg’s well-thumbed ‘A Child’s Journey Through Placement
(1991) uses the term ‘parents’ throughout but in practice
examples, only uses mothers. Elsewhere, in the ‘Handbook of
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Theory for Practice Teachers in Social Work’ (Lishman ed. 1991),
there are thirteen chapters in the course of which, when they are
mentioned, fathers are either dead, abusive or take a back seat
during one discussion of parents’ experience of a cot death
(Dryden and Scott in Lishman ed. 1991).
See OHP for an example of assumption of that parent=mother
and expectation that mother does the care work (note father
included in ‘other members of the family’) in a major Child
Protection text ‘Helping To Prevent Abuse: a behavioural approach
with Families’ (Cigno, K., 1997 in The Child Protection Handbook
Wilson and James ed.).
Social Work Policy
The Framework for the Assessment of children at risk and their
families (DoH 2000) is a widely-used document that has 122
references to parents, with the one gender-specific example being
that of a mother’s experience. Its back-up document (Assessing
Children in Need and their Families, 2000) is much more revealing
with its 14 references to mothers and eight to fathers. These eight
father references come in a short paragraph in a document of 141
pages and consist of summary note about one piece of research.
Social Work Practice
A recent study of USA literature found that “Fathers had to
demonstrate to the caseworker their connection to the child
whereas the mother’s connection was taken for granted”
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(Sonnenstein et al 2002). See also Mary Ryan (2000) for a UK
review of the involvement of fathers in child protection. She
concludes that they are “minimally involved”. My research into
birth fathers in adoption (Clapton 2003), found that they had been
overlooked, disenfranchised or demonised. Much the same is the
case regarding many young unmarried fathers today (Speak et al
1997). Most recently in a study of social work publications: “The
practice rhetoric of working with parents is still largely expressed
in terms of interventions with mothers and not with fathers”
(Strug, D. and Wilmore-Schaeffer, R. 2003). If social work’s
default position is that child care is women’s work, it seems that its
canteen culture is one of ‘fathers are either a nuisance or bad
news’. This is not surprising when the deficiencies of Social Work
Theory and Policy are identified. Academia is no better.
Social Work Research
There has been very little research on fathers and social work.
What has begun to emerge is evidence of fathers not being
involved in, e.g. for child welfare and protection planning.
According to O’Hagan, “child abuse research demonstrates the
pre-occupation with mothers and a near total exclusion of fathers”
(1997). However, we are at a low base line here in that much of
the research has found a negative - fathers’ potential contribution
has been overlooked. We have yet to look at just exactly how
social work can work with fathers in a way that has begun in other
professions such as mid-wifery and settings such as children’s
centres and some schools.
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Social Work Teaching and Education
There is no evidence of the role or contribution of fathers being
taught (“First time we’ve heard about fathers in four years” was
what one student said to be after a lecture). When Casework
Scenarios are used on courses the following is not atypical in my
opinion. OHP with ten short stories of child abuse, seven which
involve the child’s father either as absent or abandoning (3),
physically or sexually abusive (3) and the seventh father a
common or garden tyrant. Perhaps examples of Child Abuse, by
their very nature, must perforce, show the worst in people,
however, we need to ask ourselves ‘do such negative images and
abuse-laden accounts of fathers accurately reflect the reality of
child welfare work?’ Or, how much is due to social work’s canteen
culture to which I referred?
Practice Placements
Placements are an interesting area where traditionally students are
expected to combine theory and practice, make their learning
come together and get a working knowledge of life in the field.
Unfortunately, even where they can be identified, small groups of
fathers (e.g. the ‘Dads Projects’ and such like) to which a student
could be attached, might not be in the loop when it comes to
having a supervisor for the student.
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Two Propositions
So where is it possible to intervene to raise the discussion of
fathers in the new Degree?
o To begin with a suggestion of two practical points. These are
that firstly,
 We could acknowledge the fact that what we have
tended to do to date is see fathers as individuals. I
would like to suggest that we begin to look at fathers,
not only as individuals, but as members of possibly
wide, potentially helpful paternal networks (OwusuBempah and Howitt 1997). In cases where a father
cannot contribute positively, why should a paternal
grandmother be excluded? In Child Welfare work,
Family Group Conferences factor in the entire maternal
and paternal circles in efforts to prevent a child coming
into care and support a family. The exclusion of the
father and the paternal network only serves to reduce
the potential resources available to child care
professionals.
 A second point is much more food for thought and it is
that the role and influence of fathers has to date been
overwhelmingly concentrated on fathers and their
underage children. Is there a case to be made out for
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discussing fathers across the life-span? Afteradoption work is a good example of the fact that the
influence of fathers and ideas/fantasies about fathers
are significant across the life span – two weeks ago I
helped link a 69 year old father with his 44 year old
son (also a father). Whether absent, abusive, a
positive role model, whatever, the space marked
‘father’ in someone’s life remains significant at any
time in life. If re-cast as the need to factor in the issue
of a father then perhaps, for instance, the dynamics of
involvement with vulnerable fathers who need care
may be well worthy of exploring given what we know
of the burden shouldered by women carers – would
work with adult sons be fruitful? We can also
speculate about fathers who are in the criminal justice
system; not only might they contribute to their child’s
development but it may be that in addition, work with
these men and their identities as fathers, irrespective
of the age of their children, may be fruitful;
practice with mentally-ill adults – either fathers or
children – might also benefit from an exploration of
how we cope with father/filial loss.
o Secondly, I suggest that introducing ‘fathers’ and fathering is
possible in any number of taught subjects e.g. the Law. But
I have a concern that if introduced into Anti-discriminatory
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Practice, without an equal emphasis on social work’s overemphasis on mothers, that the ‘fathers’ option might join
that of racism and disability as minority, specific areas that
run the risk of tokenism. In the best courses, discussion of
racism, race and ethnicity has been mainstreamed
throughout the Psychology, Law and Human Growth and
Development inputs. The same can be achieved with
Fathers.
Elsewhere, skills-based teaching could be deepened to
include the potential for avoidance of working with men; this
would include experiences of fathering and being fathered
and dealing with the apprehensions of violence. This area
could open up a great deal of discussion regarding potential
blocks that serve to marginalise the potential that fathers
can contribute.
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