HUMR 4501: Case Study-China
By Andi Taletting Salahudin, Abraham Liyew, Hu Yuan Qiong, Olivia Mocanasu, Nahae, Gingie Welsh
Ethnic Challenges: Case of China
I. Notion of Ethnic Differences in Historical Regime Changing
The conception of China geographically concerns the heart and surrounding territory that
drawn along the watersheds of Yangzi River and Yellow river, and ethnologically based on
the evolution and expansion of civilization of “HuaXia” nation. The history of China, with
one of the world’s longest uninterrupted civilizations was looked at a repeated process of
“division and reunification”, accompanied with rebellions, wars and change of regimes. The
first united feudal empire, Qin, was established in BC 221 after unified six separate states
during the Warred States Period. The idea of unification was adopted by the first emperor,
Qin Shi Huang, with unification of written scripts, currency, measure units and so on from
former separate states.
For the most part of its history, China had been ruled by ethnic Han, the majority ethnic
group of China. The two exceptions to this assertion are the Yuan dynasty run by the
Mongols and the Qing dynasty ruled by the Manchus; both of which are ethnic minorities
under contemporary China.
The imperial system in China ended with the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC)
under Sun Yat-sen in 1912. The next four decades of ROC rule were marred by warlord
control, the Second Sino-Japanese War (WWII), and the Chinese Civil War which pitted
Chinese Nationalists against the Communist forces. After its victory in the Chinese Civil
War, the Communist Party of China under Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of
China (PRC) in 1949, forcing the Nationalist Party to retreat to the island of Taiwan.
Throughout the historical overview of China, two points could be made. First, the notion of
ethnic differences adopted by narrators of history, though which the legitimate ruler of China
assumed to be the successors of “HuaXia” nation, which generated as the main body of
ethnic Han. Thus, dynasties that established by non-Han nations were described as results of
“invasions” by “foreign nations”. Second, nevertheless, stressing the conception of unitary
multiethnic country under current political regime, the historical regime changes have been
seen as indivisible parts of history of “China”, through which a broader identity “Zhonghua
Minzu” (Chinese Nation) would likely be formed.
II. Ethnic Situation in People’s Republic of China: Definition, Demographics and
Institutions
i. Ethnic Classification and Recognition completed during 1950s-1970s
After the Chinese Communist Party took power in 1949, it has been noticed that
ethnic/nation questions was one of the main challenges to stability and integrity of the newly
established republic. However, the new leaders of the country were lacking of experience
and knowledge about the issue of ethnic distribution within the territory. Thus, large-scale
ethnic investigation took place, with teams of ethnologists, linguists and party cadres being
sent to minority concentrated areas. The goal of the investigation was to identify ethnic
groups as the basis of ethnic policy-making. The working principles of the investigation was
in line with the Stalinist four criteria of identification of nations, namely common language,
common territory, common economic life and common culture. Accordingly, about 400
groups claimed to be identified as separate ethnic groups and only 56 of them were
recognized up to now. Among the 56 ethnic groups, the Han accounts for well over 91% of
the population and the other 55 are about 8.4%. Despite the proportion of these ethnic
groups might seem so small, they stand more than 106 million.
The classification and recognition of ethnicity focused on part of traits of ethnicity; it did not
consider some important traits such as religion. The identification criteria were closely
related to the atheistic character of Communism and the secular character of the country.
Thus, there are no distinctive concepts of minorities based on religious or strict linguistic
differences. Due to the doctrine of “one nation-one language”, groups of people with
different linguistic characters were identified as one nation, meaning one ethnic group.
ii. Regional Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities
According to statistic of 2000 census1, there are more than 106 million minority population
out of 12.9 billion of total population of PRC, which constitute 8.4% of total population of
the country. Most of minority population are living close to border areas, especially vast part
of West of China, and North of China, with others scattered and inhabiting with Han
communities. Diminishing unrest and conflicts along the border areas are considered as
foremost task of ethnic policies by the central government, with stressing that persist and
improve the unity of ethnic nationalities and integrity of the country is not only the basic
principle of the state, but also the basic duty of each citizen2.
The first National People's Congress, convened in 1954, included the system of regional
autonomy for ethnic minorities in the Constitution of the People's Republic of China
(hereinafter referred to as the "Constitution"). All subsequent revisions to the Constitution
reaffirmed the implementation of this system. The Law of the People's Republic of China on
Regional Ethnic Autonomy, which was amended and issued in 2001, explicitly stipulates
that "The system of regional autonomy for ethnic minorities is a basic political system of the
state." 3 China's first provincial-level ethnic autonomous region - the Inner Mongolia
Autonomous Region - was established in 1947 in the liberated areas inhabited by
Mongolians before the founding of the People's Republic of China. After New China was
established in 1949, the Chinese government began to introduce the system of regional
autonomy for ethnic minorities to all regions where ethnic minorities lived in compact
communities. In October 1955, the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region was established; in
March 1958, the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region was established; in October 1958,
the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region was established; and in September 1965, the Tibet
Autonomous Region was established. Of these, five are autonomous regions, 30 autonomous
prefectures and 120 autonomous counties (banners). According to the fifth national census,
conducted in 2000, of the 55 ethnic minorities, 44 have their own ethnic autonomous areas.
The population of ethnic minorities practicing regional autonomy accounts for 71 percent of
1
http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020331_15434.htm
See. Art.4, 52 of the Constitution of PRC, 1982, amendment in 2004
3 http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/20050301/II.htm , Regional Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities in China,
Governmental White Paper, The State Council of PRC, Feb.2005
2
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the total population of ethnic minorities, and the area where such regional autonomy is
practiced accounts for 64 percent of the entire territory of China.4 In places where ethnic
minorities live in compact communities, but where the establishment of autonomous areas is
not feasible, because the populations of the ethnic minorities and the areas they live in are
relatively small, or the populations are scattered, the Constitution provides ethnic townships
be established. The minority peoples can also exercise the right to administer the internal
affairs of the ethnic group and be the masters of their own areas.5 By the end of 2003, China
had established 1,173 ethnic townships.6
According to the Constitution and Regional Autonomy Law, people's congresses in
autonomous areas have the right to formulate self-government regulations and other separate
regulations in light of the particular political, economic and cultural conditions of the ethnic
group in that autonomous area7. Autonomous regional governments have rights to regulate
local fiscal, educational, cultural, medical, sports affairs, using minority languages in public
authorities, arrange international trades, organize local security forces with approval by the
State Council, and so on.8 The central government and upper level state organs are obliged
to give support, assistant and preferential policies to autonomous areas to accelerate and
promote the economic and cultural development of the area9.
III. Ethnic Challenges to the State of China: Thorny Cases
i. Case of Tibet
Tibetan as ethnic group has long history. Tibetan language is belonging to Tibet-Burma
family10, but scholars also refer it to the Sino-Tibet family. Influenced by India early in 173,
Tibetans integrated local Bon religion with Vajrayana Buddhism and inspired the Tibetan
Buddhism, through which established the unique theocracy regime, with Dalai Lama and
Panchen Lama as the highest level of spiritual and political leaders. In current Tibet
Autonomous Region of PRC, over 90% population are Tibetan.
Tibet emerged as a strong empire between the 7th and 10th century, when paralleled with
prosperity period of China’s Tang dynasty. In 13th century, Tibet was incorporated into Yuan
dynasty which was ruled by Mongolia. By the early 18th century, Qing government of China
established the right to have resident commissioners, called amban, in Lhasa. In 1750
Rebellion, the Amban was killed; a Chinese army entered and installed a new Amban. In
1904 the British sent a largely Indian military force and seized Lhasa, forcing Tibet to open a
border crossing with British India. A 1906 treaty with China repeated these conditions,
making Tibet a de facto British protectorate. There was also a Nepalese mission in Lhasa
remaining from a similar invasion by Nepal in 1855. After 1907, a treaty between Britain,
China, and Russia recognized Chinese sovereignty over Tibet. The Chinese established
4
Supra.
Supra.
6 Supra.
7 See. Art.116 of the Constitution,
8 See. Art.117-120 of the Constitution, and Chapter 3 of the Law of Regional Autonomy for ethnic minorities
9 See. Art.4 of the Constitution, Chapter 6 of the Law of Regional Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities, and
http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/20050301/IV.htm, Regional Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities in China,
Governmental White Paper, The State Council of PRC, Feb.2005
10 See. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet
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direct rule for the first time in 1910. In 1911, the Nationalist Party Revolution in China gave
the Dalai Lama the opportunity to re-establish control. In 1913, Tibet and Mongolia signed a
treaty proclaiming mutual recognition and their independence from China. In 1914
representatives of China, Tibet and Britain negotiated a treaty in India: the Simla Convention.
The treaty was privately signed by Britain and Tibet; however, the Chinese side refused to
sign, thus paving the way to the Arunachal Pradesh dispute between China and India today.
After the establishment of PRC, the People's Liberation Army entered Tibet in 1950. In 1951
the Plan for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet resulted in a 17 articles treaty signed by
representatives of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, provided for rule by a joint
Chinese-Tibetan authority. However, due to disagreement on administrative boundary, as
well as the policy of land reform and other issues, a rebellion supported by the American
CIA waged struggle in Eastern Kham and Amdo (now belonging to Province Qinghai,
Gansu and Sichuan ) in 1956, and spread to Lhasa. In 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama and other
government principals fled to exile in Dharamsala, northern India, due to the fact that the
effective control of the government was manipulated by the central government of the PRC.
After the Culture Revolution of China from 1966-1976, reform in Tibet was started in 1980s,
and overall economic conditions improved. In 1987, the Dalai Lama announced “Five
Peaceful Principles”, claimed for no-violence solution of Tibet issue. However, riot
happened in 1989 in Tibet, which worsened the relation between Chinese government and
Tibet exile government. At the same time, the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Nobel Peace
Prize in 1989. Thus, the issue of Tibet attracted more and more international consideration
and pressure.
With urge and support by international communities, including several state governments,
four session of dialogues between the exile government and China government have taken
place. Based on five points peaceful principles of 1987, the Dalai Lama has announced the
new and more compromising attitude towards solving Tibet issue. Accordingly, he stressed
that the biggest interest of Tibet people is the most concern in process of solving Tibet issue.
Tibet remains a part of China, with a status of autonomous region and benefit from the
development
of the rest of the country. Tibetan culture is part of Chinese culture, and
should be protected and developed. Tibetan people’s rights should be ensured in all aspects
such as, traditional custom, culture, religion, natural environment and well-being. The points
raised here were considered as a positive opportunity for a constructive dialogue. However,
substantive progress has not been made.
Two main disputes from both sides are the following:
Historical status dispute: Tibet Exile government claims that Tibet has been an independent
nation before conquest of Mongol, and regained status of independent after the fall of Qing
dynasty, while China claims that Tibet has been indivisible part of China since Yuan dynasty
and China thus has legitimate authority on it.
Territory dispute: When the Government of Tibet in Exile refers to Tibet, they mean a large
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area that formed the cultural entity of Tibet for many centuries, consisting of the traditional
provinces of Amdo, Kham (Khams), and Ü-Tsang (Dbus-gtsang), but excluding areas
outside the PRC that have also formed part of the Tibetan cultural sphere. When the PRC
refers to Tibet, they mean the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR): a province-level entity
which, according to the territorial claims of the PRC, includes Arunachal Pradesh. The TAR
covers only the former Ü-Tsang province and western Kham province, while Amdo and
eastern Kham have been incorporated into the present-day Chinese provinces of Qinghai,
Gansu, Yunnan, and Sichuan.11
ii. Case of Xinjiang
Basic History of Xinjiang: Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region was formally established
on October 1, 1955. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region to the south, Qinghai and
Gansu provinces to the southeast, Mongolia to the east, Russia to the north, as well as
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and the Pakistan, and India-controlled
parts of Kashmir to the west.12 According to 2000 census, the percentage structure of ethnic
population is Uyghur 45%, Han 41%, Kazak7%, Hui5%, Kirgiz 0.9%, Mongol 0.8%,
Dongxiang 0.3%, Tajik 0.2%, Xibe 0.2%.
Xinjiang is the Chinese name for the Tarim and Jungar regions, with dominant ethnic group
Uygur as a Turkic-speaking group in central Asia. In the 2nd century BC, Han dynasty in
China sent Zhang Qian as an envoy to the states in the region, beginning several decades of
struggle between the Xiongnu nation and China over dominance of the region, eventually
ending in Chinese success. In 60 BC Han China established the Protectorate of the Western
Regions to oversee the entire region.13 In 8th century, the Uyghur Khaganate empire took
control of northern Xinjiang, as well as much of the rest of Central Asia, including Mongolia,
and declined in the 9th century. Followed by repeated rebellion and decline, the relationship
between Xinjiang region and central China are historically controversial. By the mid-19th
century, the Russian Empire was encroaching upon Qing dynasty along its entire northern
frontier. In 1864 most of what was northwest Xinjiang up to Lake Balkhash were ceded to
the Russian Empire in the Treaty of Tacheng. General Zuo Zongtang reconquered the region
between 1875 and 1877 for Qing dynasty. In 1884, Qing dynasty established Xinjiang as a
province.
Independent East Turkestan Movement: After the fall of Qing dynasty, the Qing governor of
Xinjiang acceded to the Republic of China in March of 1912. In 1933, a rebellion force in
Kash established the First Eastern Turkestan Republic, but soon declined in 1934 by
Nationalist Party of Republic of China. However, it served as inspiration of the founding of
the Second East Turkestan Republic one decade later, and continued to influence modern
Uyghur nationalist support for the creation of an independent East Turkestan.14
From 1934 to 1941 Xinjiang was under the influence of the Soviet Union in a similar way to
11
12
13
14
See. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet
See. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjiang
Supra.
See. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_East_Turkistan_Republic
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Mongolia. In October 1944, the Three District Rebellion broke out generally south of Ghulja
in the Ili, Altay and Tarbagatay, and subsequently established Turkistan Islam Government
with backing of the Soviet Union. The demands of the rebels included an end to Chinese rule,
equality for all nationalities, recognised use of local languages, friendly relations with the
Soviet Union, and opposition to Chinese immigration into Xinjiang. The military forces
available to the rebellion were the newly formed Ili National Army (armed and trained by
the Soviet Union), and a group of Kazak tribesmen under the command of Osman Batur.
Towards the end of 1949, the People’s Liberation Army cut off the Nationalist Party
administration in southern Xinjiang. Some officials fled to India, Afghanistan and Pakistan,
but most surrendered to the CCP. This “peaceful liberation” of Xinjiang was complete by the
end of October 1949. Osman Batur and his Kazaks continued to resist until 1954.
Independence advocates view the ETA as an effort to establish an independent state, and the
subsequent PLA entry as an invasion.
Independence advocates view Chinese rule in Xinjiang, and policies like the Xinjiang
Production and Construction Corps as Chinese imperialism. These tensions occasionally
result in major incidents and violent clashes. Such events include the Kazak Exodus from
Xinjiang in 1962, in which 60,000 refugees fled into the Soviet Union; the Baren Township
riot on April 5, 1990, that resulted in more than 50 deaths; the Ghulja riot of February 5,
1997, where over 1000 Uyghurs clashed with military police, resulting in anywhere between
10 and 200 deaths, and the Urumqi bus bombs of February 25, 1997, that killed 9 and
injured 68.15
Aftermath September 11, the Eastern Turkestan Independent Movement was defined as a
terrorist organization, and been targeted as part of war on terror by PRC. However, human
rights advocates as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch observed the lack of
justification of suppression policy towards Uygur culture and religious practices in name of
anti-terror and anti-separation.
IV. Questions for Thought
1- What degree of self-determination is recognised by the Chinese government?
Hint- China has issued an anti secession law just recently.
2- What level of autonomy do ethnic minorities have in their self-government?
3- What influence does the notion of a unified national identity ‘Chinese nation’ have on
the development of ethnic minorities?
V. Annex: Maps
Annex 1: Map of position of China
Annex 2: Administrative Map of China
Annex 3: Map of Tibet Autonomous areas
15
Supra.
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Annex 1: Map of Position of China
http://www.theodora.com/maps/china_map.html
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ANNEX 2: Administrative Map of China
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c9/China_administrative.png
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ANNEX 3: Map of Tibet Autonomous areas
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:TAR-TAP-TAC.png
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