'Sown forage herbs (other than legumes) are unreliable, inflexible and expensive
luxury components of organic grassland and livestock systems'. Discuss this
statement in the context of a typical Scottish organic beef and sheep farm.
Gillian Hardstone
PGDip Organic Farming
Yr1 2005-06
SAC Craibstone
'Sown forage herbs (other than legumes) are unreliable, inflexible and expensive
luxury components of organic grassland and livestock systems'. Discuss this
statement in the context of a typical Scottish organic beef and sheep farm.
1. Introduction
This essay will examine arguments for and against the use of sown forage herbs in
grassland, in the context of Scottish organic beef and sheep farming. This is again an
issue of concern to farmers and researchers (Brunetti, 2003; Trzaskos and Czyz, 2001),
despite more than a century of discussion (for instance, Elliot, 1908) followed by several
decades of little research activity (Foster, 1988), and it is one of particular relevance to
organic agriculture for a variety of reasons.
Organic livestock farmers should be concerned with
 the structure and nutrient status of their soil
 efficient yet sustainable forage and livestock production
 animal health1 and welfare issues.
According to one earlier proponent of forage herbs, 'The herbal ley is my manure
merchant, my food manufacturer and my vet, all in one' (Turner, in Newton, 1999). This
claim suggests that they might be of considerable interest to organic farmers. In its first
organic standards (1967), the Soil Association recommended the 'inclusion of herbal leys
or strips, in the grazing of ruminants' and the use of 'complex herbal leys' for soil
husbandry. So why might their utilisation be relatively infrequent2 ?
2. Sown forage herbs
To commence, the terms under debate require further definition. Sown forage herbs can
be defined as 'useful' broad-leaved plants (Newton, 1999) deliberately included as seed in
a grass mix3, as opposed to the same plants growing naturally in the wild or on
unimproved hill grazing, or weeds. Over time, herbs considered by researchers for
inclusion in this category vary (Foster, 1988), but have generally included those in Table
2.1 :
Table 2.1 : Forage herbs most commonly cited in research
Chicory
Cichorium intybus
Salad Burnet
Poterium sanguisorba
Ribgrass plantain
Plantago lanceolata
Yarrow
Achillea millefolium
Sheep's Parsley
Petroselinum sativa
1
Including eradication/prevention of disease through effective methods of husbandry or specific treatment
of individual animals, rather than routine prophylactic administration of drugs
2
No figures appear to be available for the number of organic (or conventional) farmers using herbal leys,
but it does not seem to be common practice.
3
And excluding leguminous forage herbs such as kidney vetch or birdsfoot trefoil.
Other herbs have also been investigated, such as caraway [carum carvi] and valerian
[valeriana officinalis] (Trzaskos and Czyz, 2001), ox-eye daisy and dandelion
[taraxacum officinalis] (Fisher, Baker and Tiley, 1996). All these plants are thought to
confer some practical benefits, whether in terms of soil structure, plant nutrients, forage
production or animal health. However, they are different species, and each has its own
characteristics (see section 5), which makes it somewhat difficult to discuss them as a
blanket category : 'forage herbs'. It is important to distinguish between these plants with
known though perhaps not scientifically proven uses in agriculture [irrespective of ease
of cultivation, management or cost], and other wildflowers, such as ragged robin or field
scabious, whose agricultural properties may be as yet unknown or unrecognised, sown as
part of a (meadow) grass mix or on set-aside land specifically to increase biodiversity.
However, these too may be useful (Fisher, Baker and Tiley, 1996).
3. Scottish organic beef and sheep farms
Turning to the context of application, it could be said that there is no such thing as a
typical Scottish organic beef and sheep farm4. However, such holdings could generally be
characterised as having an upland or hill location; on poorer soils tending towards acidity
and sometimes peatiness; and in a colder climate than the rest of the UK, with higher
rainfall in the west than in the drier, colder east. Their Macaulay land use classifications
usually range from 3.1 to 65, with limited (if any) ploughable acreage on which fodder
crops other than a grass mix can be grown.
Depending on more precise location, the land is likely to consist of varying proportions
of grassland that can be cropped for winter feed of silage or hay (S/H), with the
occasional crop of stubble turnips or fodder kale, permanent grass pasture that is re-sown
at intervals, and rough grazing / unimproved hill. Hence grass/clover/other leys of
varying duration, for grazing or for mowing, are of prime importance for livestock
production. Location and climate also affect the growing season for grass, which is
shorter the wetter and colder the weather.
The acreage of land available for forage conservation is often limited by the landscape to
the valley bottoms, lower slopes (if gentle), or to upland plateaux. Upland farms will
have proportionately more mowable acreage6 than large, extensive hill farms in the
steepest valleys, which may only have a few small S/H fields but hundreds of acres of hill
grazing. This will affect the proportions of sheep and cattle kept, as cattle need far more
conserved forage feed, especially if and when they are overwintered indoors, and high
4
In the case of conventional Dumfriesshire upland and hill beef and sheep farms, grassland and forage
management vary considerably within a single parish. For example, within this small upland river tributary
catchment area, some farmers reseed their silage fields annually, some every 3 years (on sandy loam), and
some every 7 (silt loam).
5
See Macaulay land use numbers and definitions for hill to limited crops.
6
Varying from 1:1 mowable:hill to 1:5. Locally, 'upland' farms of about 400 acres will have 100-150 acres
of silageable land and 250-300 acres hill.
yields of S/H will be a priority. As a result sheep tend to outnumber cattle on Scottish
organic beef and sheep farms.
The breeds of livestock chosen also have a bearing on grassland use. For example, hill
sheep are often only briefly brought inbye for clipping or spaining, whereas upland
breeds may also be flushed, tupped and lambed inbye. Some breeds, even those native or
traditional, require more feeding than others7. This means using fields for early grazing
(lambing) that are afterwards shut up for S/H, and autumn grazing post-S/H (flushing,
tupping). The grazing/mowing regime utilised may have implications for the successful
use of sown forage herbs (Fisher, Baker and Tiley, 1996). Some hardier breeds of cattle8
may partly overwinter outdoors with strategic additional feeding of S/H, but commercial
[continental9] crosses usually require indoor wintering10 on S/H and concentrates,
particularly when the grass is not growing and there is a risk of over-grazing and
poaching of the wet, bare soil. The choice and management of grassland and live stock
therefore strongly influence each other.
All these factors have implications for whether Scottish organic beef and sheep farmers
would find forage herbs sown as part of the grass ley a feasible or desirable option.
4. Setting the debate in historical context






7
Pasture used to be left in its natural state, and not until the Agricultural
Revolution / 18th century did attention turn to improving grassland (after rotations
and arable crops such as wheat)
Re-seeding grew in popularity from 1850s onwards, with increasingly complex
grass mixes recommended / trialled
This trend reached a peak about 1900, when Robert Elliot was experimenting with
herbal leys at Clifton Park in the Scottish Borders, as an aid to pasture fertility; to
improve forage productivity; to improve the yield of fodder crops when the ley
was subsequently ploughed for fodder turnips; and for livestock health. At the
same time, Gilchrist was developing the Cockle Park grass mix (Foster, 1988).
His work inspired both Newman Turner and Friend Sykes in the 1950s.
Post-WWII, there was a government drive with grant incentives to farmers to reseed grassland, but with an emphasis on simpler grass mixes, with higher yields11.
Recently, the commercial focus of organic farming has been on simple mixes,
designed for specific purposes (cutting, grazing) and lengths of ley, such as
perennial rye grass [PRG]/white clover.
For example, Scottish Blackface and North/South Country and Hill Cheviots (hill breeds) require less
feeding than upland crosses (Scotch, Cheviot, and other Mules; Half-breds) and the sires that produce them
(Blueface and Border Leicesters).
8
Angus, Galloway, and their cross-breeds; Highland cattle,
9
Limousin, Simmental, Charolais, for example.
10
From November to May-June locally, depending on weather and sward growth.
11
Until 2001, I used to run sheep [Scotch Mule ewes with Suffolk X lambs] on upland fields that had not
been re-seeded since before WWII. The pasture was species-rich including forage herbs, the stock were
healthy, and the lamb as tasty as hill-reared Blackface or Herdwick. However, the lambs grew more slowly
than conventional ones on simpler-mix [PRG] pasture.

PRG now appears to be the most important non-leguminous component of grass
mixes12, for both short- and long-term leys, as it tillers vigorously13, is swift to
establish, competitive with other species, persistent and high-yielding14. There are
early, mid-season and late varieties to cover the whole growing season, and for
mowing and grazing. Its popularity is thus understandable. However, its
characteristics have implications for sown forage herbs (see 5.1 below), and it
also has disadvantages for organic farmers (Newton, 1999).
5. The disadvantages of forage herbs
5.1 Unreliability
It has been suggested that in general (Lampkin, 2002) or for specific varieties (Frame,
1994), forage herbs in grass leys can be difficult to establish, and either of insufficient
persistence or prone to grazing out by livestock (Newton, 1999), especially by sheep,
since they crop more closely and find the forage herbs so palatable. Other research
suggests that this is not always the case (Fisher, Baker and Tiley, 1996; Sanderson and
Elwinger, 2000), as does anecdotal evidence from farmers who have sown forage herbs.
The way in which grazing is managed will also affect whether forage herbs establish and
persist : for example, the timing of re-seeding; grazing and cutting in relation to
germination and seeding times; the balance of cattle and sheep grazing (together or in
annual rotations); and stocking densities, however temporary, as in strip grazing
(Brunetti, 2003) or at lambing.
Of the five main herbs considered (Table 2.1), the one most likely to exhibit
establishment and persistence problems is sheep's parsley (Foster, 1988), because it is
slow to germinate, and biennial rather than perennial. This means that even if the herb
does germinate when sown with the rest of the mix, it will have to seed in its second year
and germinate again in the third year amongst already mature competitors. As with
establishing a permanent plot of parsley herb [petroselinum crispum]15, a further sowing
would be needed in the second year to complete the even-year cycles. Parsley seed also
requires constant moisture for effective germination, and possibly soaking overnight prior
to sowing. It would thus be better suited to farms in the wetter west of Scotland. Even if it
could be sown with the rest of the mix in year 1 (odds), the year 2 (evens) generation
would need to be sown by hand in any bare patches, or even better but far more
expensively, plug-planted. This might be an argument for sowing field strips of this herb,
and fencing parts of them off prior to and during seeding.
Yarrow can also take up to four years to establish, but persists well (Fisher et al. 1996),
and can even be a problem, as it competes strongly with grasses and clover (Newton,
1999). Ribgrass plantain establishes relatively easily and persists well (Fisher et al.
1996), but there is conflicting evidence for chicory (Foster, 1988), with Fisher et al.
12
90% of all grass seed sold is PRG (Newton, 1991).
Unless tetraploid.
14
My immediate (conventional) neighbour's silage fields (long-term ley) appear to be entirely PRG (!)
15
From experience of growing herbs.
13
(1996) claiming that it does not persist well, and Sanderson and Elwinger (2000) that it
does. Burnet germinates well, but only persists if not overshadowed by competitor
species (Foster, 1988). Recent research in New Zealand (Frame, 1994; Stewart, 1996, in
Sanderson et al., 2003) has focused on developing new cultivars and varieties of chicory
and plantain with increased ease of establishment and persistence. However, it is also
possible that commercial seed development will result in forage herb seeds that are not
based on local (and thus adapted to their environment) genotypes (Fisher et al., 1996),
which could inhibit performance. Ruiz-Jerez et al. (1991) reported favourably on
experimental methods for sowing forage herbs into existing pastures.
Extrinsic factors that may influence the reliability of forage herbs are their companion
grasses and legumes, and the N- and liming regimes to which the pasture is subject.
These in turn depend on whether the ley in question is intended for grazing (permanent
grassland), cutting (H/S fields), or both (H/S fields with prior and aftermath grazing)
(Fisher et al., 1996), and on the ploughing/reseeding interval in relation to the period
when forage herbs are most productive. For example, Stapledon (1919, in Foster, 1988)
showed that the years of maximum yield and species duration in years for forage herbs
and cocksfoot are not compatible with those of PRG, since the former generally last
longer and attain maximum yield later (see Table 5.1). So a mixed sward containing
significant amounts of PRG will need reseeding (with PRG) before the forage herbs have
strongly established.
Table 5.1 : Establishment and persistence of species sown as part of a ley mix (from
Stapledon, 1919, in Foster, 1988)
Species
Chicory
Burnet
Yarrow
PRG
Cocksfoot
Year of establishment
1-2
3
4
1
2-3
Usual duration (sown)
4-10
4+
3+
3-5
5-8+
Certain grasses and legumes, in particular PRG and clovers, are too fast growing and
competitive for forage herbs to easily establish alongside them (Foster, 1988; Newton
1999). The Clifton Park seed mixes did not contain PRG (Elliot, 1908; Robinson, 1954).
Frame (1994) noted that forage herbs performed best with less competitive grasses such
as crested dogstail and meadow fescue. This finding is supported by Fisher et al. (1996),
in terms of total forage production and DM content , who also found sweet vernal useful
for increasing DM content, and timothy compatible for increasing total yield. This could
be a conflict for Scottish organic beef and sheep farmers who need to maximise
conservation forage production on a limited field area, and thus choose to sow PRGbased mixes with high dry matter (DM) yields. However, PRG mixes do not necessarily
have the highest DM yield. There is also evidence (Ruiz-Jerez et al., 1991) that grazing
pastures composed of forage herbs and less competitive grasses, such as fescue and
cocksfoot, can produce more DM content than PRG-mixes when grazed by sheep rather
than cut for H/S. Hence herbal leys might be of more use to Scottish organic beef and
sheep farmers on permanent pasture, rather than for silage fields.
Forage herbs generally flourish in poor soils, so will not tend to grow well if N is applied,
for example, to silage fields. PRG-heavy silage grass mixes tend to need N- applications.
Liming in conjunction with N also makes a significant difference to herb yield and
persistence, reducing plant density in both plantain and chicory (Sanderson et al., 2003).
5.2 Inflexibility
From examining the factors underlying the perception of herbal leys as unreliable, it is
apparent that they require careful management, both during and after establishment, and
in terms of cutting and grazing.
Once chicory establishes, it will only persist for more than 3 years of the sward is not too
heavily grazed (Foster, 1988). This suggests that a regime of early grazing, one cut of
H/S + aftermath grazing might be suitable on silage fields, and possibly of low stocking
density continuous grazing on permanent pasture would be appropriate. However,
Sanderson et al. (2003) found that chicory yielded between 50 -100% more mass when
grazed only once every 4-5 weeks, rather than at 1-2 week intervals. Hence permanent
grazing would need to be carefully managed, perhaps with the aid of temporary fencing
or in smaller fields. This would be more difficult in hilly, rocky areas of Scotland, and
incur additional costs and labour requirements.
The fleshy stems of chicory may cause problems with drying sufficiently when making
hay, as may those of ribgrass. It might be that herbal leys are more suited to ensiling than
haymaking. This would make them more useful in the wetter west of Scotland, where
significant quantities of hay are often only made in very dry summers (such as 2006).
Fisher, Baker and Tiley (1996) examined yields of herbal leys under three different
cutting and grazing regimes, and concluded that over time, the cutting and grazing regime
did not have a significant effect on the yield of any component of the grass mix. They
looked at regimes that Scottish organic beef and sheep farmers would be likely to employ
on silage fields : two silage cuts + aftermath grazing; a single hay cut + aftermath
grazing; and early grazing, one cut of hay + aftermath grazing. However, this research
used mechanical means to simulate grazing, which would not give the same result as if
livestock had been used.
5.3 Cost
The cost of herbal grass mix seed is a prime factor in the decision of many organic
farmers not to use it on their inbye / silage fields. PRG seed is cheaper than some of the
other grasses that would be more appropriate companions for forage herbs, although most
of these (particularly crested dogstail, meadow grass, fescue and cocksfoot varieties) are
not that much more expensive (Newton, 1999). The main factor appears to be the cost of
the actual herb seeds, and the complexity of the mix itself probably accounts for some of
the price differential. For example, suppliers quote the following prices16 (Table 5.2) :
Table 5.2 : Prices of various organic grass mixes (2006)
Type of mix
Supplier
£/kg
Cost/ha (£)
7.48
Sowing rate
(kg/ha)
5-10 (say, 7.5)
Herbal Ley
Mix17
Short-Term Ley
Mix18
Long-term Ley
Mix19
Dual Purpose 4year herbal ley20
Silage ley (34yr mix)21
Long-term
grazing ley22
Chicory
Herb mix23
HDRA
Boston Seeds
2.79
33.6
93.74
Boston Seeds
3.01
36
108.36
Cotswold Seeds 5.14
41
210.71
Cotswold Seeds 3.06
30
92
Cotswold Seeds 3.65
30
109.75
Cotswold Seeds 9.00
Cotswold Seeds 17.00
0.5
1.2
4.50
20.40
56.10
This table demonstrates that herbal ley seed mixes are approximately double the cost of
simpler organic grass/clover mixes. On farms which are struggling for financial viability,
this would be a deterrent to adoption.
Elliot (1908) anticipated that herbal leys would need reseeding in patches, and his
suggested method for ad hoc reseeding was hand labour (by women or boys), overseen
by a manager : this method was fitted to a time of higher agricultural employment levels
and lower wages, but would not be economically viable now other than on small
acreages. Finding viable methods of reseeding herbal leys is still a concern.
16
Although some of these prices are for domestic / very small scale commercial quantities, they reflect the
relative price difference between herbal ley and simpler grass mixes.
17
Contains PRG, creeping red fescue, alfalfa, timothy, chicory, yarrow, burnet, sheep's parsley, red and
white clovers. Much lower sowing rate than other mixes (why?).
18
http://www.bostonseeds.co.uk/page52.htm : includes red clover
19
http://www.bostonseeds.co.uk/page52.htm: includes timothy and clover blend
20
http://www.cotswoldseeds.com/orgherballeys.htm : contains perennial ryegrass, cocksfoot, timothy,
meadow fescue, tall fescue, red clover, white clover, wild white clover, alsike clover, birdsfoot trefoil,
sanfoin, sweet clover, chicory, burnet, yarrow, sheeps parsley, ribgrass
21
http://www.cotswoldseeds.com/orgredcloversilageleys.htm : contains red clover, tetraploid hybrid
ryegrass, tetraploid perennial ryegrass
22
http://www.cotswoldseeds.com/orgwhiteclovergrazingleys.htm : contains perennial ryegrass, tetraploid
perennial ryegrass, white clover, wild white clover
23
http://www.cotswoldseeds.com/orgwhiteclovergrazingleys.htm : contains burnet, yarrow, sheeps parsley,
ribgrass
Farmers may also be reluctant to pay for the seed of herbs native to their hill land and
permanent pasture. In SW Scotland, yarrow and ribgrass are often found in abundance on
many upland / hill beef and sheep farms24. If cattle are grazing these areas during the
summer, and sheep for most of the year, is it still useful to include forage herbs in the H/S
or inbye field grass mix ? In that sense, they could be considered an unnecessary luxury.
6. The uses and benefits of forage herbs
Given the possible drawbacks of herbal leys, why would farmers wish to establish them ?
There are several reasons, some backed by research, others more a question of conviction
and beliefs.
6.1 Soil structure and mineral content
Many forage herbs are deep-rooting, and through their growth break up and aerate the
soil. Elliot (1908) claimed that a herbal ley could break up plough and other pans, though
this has not been validated since. The roots of forage herbs also help to bring minerals
and trace elements into the herbage itself, and to the topsoil levels though decomposition
(Elliot, 1908). The overall effect is to improve the structure and nutrient composition of
the soil (Foster, 1988). It could be said that the contribution of forage herbs, particularly
chicory and plantain, to the mineral content of herbage and soil alone would justify their
inclusion in a ley mix (Thomas et al., 1956 in Foster, 1988).
6.2 Grassland forage production
Drought resistance : Some forage herbs such as chicory and ribgrass (Foster, 1988)
exhibit drought resistance, and might be useful in the drier eastern parts of Scotland.
They are also said to improve drainage through deep-rooting, which would be of benefit
in western areas of the country.
Most productive periods : Chicory exhibits strong growth in early spring, so is useful for
providing an 'early bite', as is burnet. Ribgrass provides herbage in autumn and winter,
which helps compensate for slower grass growth.
6.3 Other forage production
One reason that Elliot (1908) started experimenting with herbal leys was to improve the
fertility of the land in general, in order to grow better forage root crops [turnips] when the
grassland was ploughed up as part of the rotation without having to apply artificial
fertilisers. This benefit would be of great significance in organic farming. Elliot also
claimed that herbal leys reduced diseases in a subsequent turnip crop. This claim does not
appear to have been further investigated.
6.4 Livestock health and welfare
24
Personal observation; and Lara Porter, organic sheep and beef farmer, Dumfriesshire.
The forage herbs discussed in this essay are thought to have beneficial properties for
livestock. They would certainly contribute variety of taste and texture to a ruminant diet
(Brunetti, 2003), and one would think this palatability (Frame, 1994) would make fresh
or conserved forage more appetising and interesting to cattle and sheep, which might
improve intake, weight gain and general condition (for example, when flushing ewes
prior to tupping), and possibly in lambs (Foster, 1988). Chicory produces non-fibrous
leaves and is easily digested, and ribgrass is highly palatable.
Health benefits have been claimed : yarrow and burnet as a preventive against diarrhoea,
and burnet as effective against 'rot' (Elliot, 1908). Milk yield increases have been noted
when forage herbs have been included in the ley (Elliot, 1908; Turner, 1955). Turner also
noted that the inclusion of herbs in the ley appeared to prevent bloat in cattle, even when
the sward contained red clover. However, more recent research has been less concerned
with livestock performance and more on herbal ley establishment and productivity.
Some of the herbs may have medicinal properties although this would be difficult to
validate from forage consumption alone. There is also an issue of not being able to use
herbal remedies on livestock destined for the food chain, as they have not been cleared
for use through safety trials. However, medical herbalists claim the following properties
in humans for the herbs included in forage mixes (Table 6.1), and it is interesting to note
the overlap with the findings of grassland and livestock researchers. There might be
scope for investigating whether the medicinal properties of other native herbs might
justify their inclusion in herbal leys, and whether they would establish successfully if
sown.
Table 6.1 : Medicinal properties of forage herbs (source : Bartram, 1995)
Herb
Yarrow
Chicory
[Ribgrass]
plantain
[Sheep's]
parsley
Properties
Anti-haemorrhagic;
anti-inflammatory;
digestive tonic;
bitter; stops diarrhoea; antihelmintic
Tonic laxative
Diuretic
Liver stimulant
Anti-bacterial
Blood tonic
Anti-haemorrhagic
Expectorant
Rich source of P, K, Mg
Rich source of iron,
folic acid, Vit C and E
Anti-microbial
Laxative, diuretic
Uses/Potential applications
Lambing, calving (post-partum
healing)
Healing of cuts and injuries
Appetite stimulant
Worm/parasite control
Appetite stimulant;
Rheumatism, joint problems
Lambing, calving (post-partum
healing)
Bruising, wound healing
Bronchitis
Toothache, gum disease
Infections
During pregnancy (Turner, 1955) and
post-partum
Good for growth of progeny
Salad burnet
Anti-haemorrhagic
Antibacterial
Tonic
Externally : poultice for sores, wounds
Lambing, calving (post-partum
healing)
Caraway
(seeds)
Galactagogue
Anti-microbial
Warming
Tranquiliser,
Sedative
Increases milk flow
Colic, diarrhoea
Appetite stimulant
Calming nervous or flighty stock
Easier livestock handling
Valerian (root)
When prescribed for humans, herbal remedies are usually designed to be taken for at least
a fortnight, which suggests that their incorporation into herbal leys, and thus their
continuous ingestion in small amounts by livestock, might be an appropriate method of
administration. As they are not being 'dosed' as such, it presumably would not be
regulated. However, do forage herbs then count as 'routine prophylactics', and therefore
not seen as acceptable to organic farmers or certification bodies ?
7. Conclusions
The case for inclusion of forage herbs into some of the leys on an organic beef and sheep
farm appears strong in terms of the various benefits derived for soil and forage
production. However, where such plants are already established on permanent or hill
grazings, deliberate sowing inbye might be unnecessary, unless stock spend significant
time on conserved forage.
It might be useful to selectively sow forage herbs, depending on the type of pasture and
its management : a general herbal ley mix on permanent pasture; and chicory, plantain
and burnet in inbye and silage field mixes, with yarrow and sheep's parsley strip-sown at
the field edges, and only opened up for periodic grazing, especially by ewes in spring and
ewes and lambs in autumn.
The main area where research would be useful, in order to further justify the inclusion of
herbs in the mix, is that of livestock health, welfare and productivity. Scottish organic
beef and sheep farmers are concerned with the first two of these, and all livestock farmers
with the latter.
Bibliography
Bartram, T. (1995), Bartram's Encyclopaedia of Herbal Medicine, Robinson : London
Brunetti, J. (2003), 'Benefits of Biodiverse Forage', Acres USA, Vol.33 No. 10
Elliot, R.H. (1908), The Clifton Park System of Farming and Laying Land Down to Grass (4th
edition), J. and J.H. Rutherford : Kelso
Fisher, G.E.J., Baker, L.J. and Tiley, G.E.D. (1996), 'Herbage production from swards containing
a range of grass, forb and clover species and under extensive management', Grass and Forage
Science, Vol.51:58-72
Foster, L. (1988), 'Herbs in pastures : development and research in Britain, 1850-1984',
Biological Agriculture and Horticulture, Vol.5:97-133
Frame, J. (1994), Improved Grassland Management, Farming Press : Ipswich
Henry Doubleday Research Association (HDRA) (2006),
http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/organicweeds/weed_information/
http://www.gardenorganic.org.uk/organicweeds/weed_management/
HDRA (2006), Garden Organic seed catalogue
Lampkin, N. (2002), Organic Farming (6th edition), Old Pond Publishing : Ipswich
Newton, J. (1999), Organic Grassland, Chalcombe Publications : Welton
Newton, J. (1999), Organic Grassland and Sheep Husbandry, Newton Publishing : Exeter.
Robinson, D.H. (1954), Good Grassland, English Universities Press Ltd. : London
Ruiz-Jerez, BE, Ball, PR, White, RE, Gregg, PEH (1991). Comparison of a herbal ley with a
ryegrass-white clover pasture and pure ryegrass sward receiving fertiliser nitrogen, Proceedings
of the New Zealand Grassland Association 53: 215-219.
Sanderson, M.A. and Elwinger, G.F. (2000), 'Forages : Seedling Development of Chicory and
Plantain', Agronomy Journal 92:69-74 : American Society of Agronomy
Sanderson, M.A., Labreuveux, M., Hall, M.H. and Elwinger, G.F. (2003), Forage and grazing
lands : Forage yield and persistence of chicory and English plantain, Crop Science, 43:995-1000.
Sheldrick, R.D., Newman, G. and Roberts, D.J. (1995), Legumes for Milk and Meat, Chalcombe
Publications : Kingston
Soil Association (1967), Organic Standards.
Stewart, A.V. (1996), 'Plantain : a potential pasture species', Proceedings of the New Zealand
Grassland Association, 58:77-86, in Sanderson, M.A., Labreuveux, M., Hall, M.H. and Elwinger,
G.F. (2003)
Thomas, B., Rogerson, A. and Armstrong, R.H. (1956), 'The influence of mineral-rich herbs on
the yields and nutritive value of swards', Journal of the British Grassland Society 11:10-15 and
82-85, in Foster (1988)
Trzaskos M. and Czyz, H. (2001), 'The effect of carum carvi L. and valeriana officinalis L. sown
in mixtures with grasses on the crude protein and mineral content of the herbage', Grassland
Science in Europe, Vol 6:120-122
Turner, N. (1955), Fertility Pastures, Faber and Faber : London, in Newton, J. (1999).