Water regime influence on trace gas emissions following
spreading of waste
V. Magliulo1, A.Goossens2, R. R. Sharpe3, L.A. Harper3
CNR – ISAFOM, Via Patacca, 85 - 80056 Ercolano (NA), Italy. Ph. +390817717325,
fax +39062331095, V.Magliulo@ispaim.na.cnr.it
1
2
Ghent University, Faculty of Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences, Laboratory
of Applied Physical Chemistry, Coupure links 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
3
USDA-ARS, Southern Piedmont Conservation Research Center, 1420 Experiment
Station Road, Watkinsville, GA 30677, USA
Abstract: Waste products are valuable resources as fertilizers and suitable to be applied to crops and
pastures. When concentrated into a small geographical area or applied in excessive amounts however, they
can have detrimental environmental effects. Excess application, can result in enhanced CO 2, CH4, NH3 and
N2O emissions to the atmosphere influencing global warming and destruction of the ozone layer. These
gases have long atmospheric lifetimes, are consequently fairly well-mixed and therefore of global as well
as local or regional importance. They represent a most serious treat to global climate in terms of
greenhouse effect. NH4 emitted following waste applications can be transported in remote areas and
contribute to acidification processes. Atmospheric impact of animal waste in the Mediterranean area was
never assessed and few papers can be found in the literature. Reliable inventories of emissions cannot be
carried out since emission factors were never assessed locally. In order to improve understanding of trace
gas emissions as a function of agronomic techniques in this environment, a study was conducted to
quantify emissions of ammonia, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, and methane from an alfalfa field in
Southern Italy. Three 35 m circular plots were established in a two-year-old crop. Two plots were fertilized
with chicken manure and one plot was irrigated. Ammonia fluxes were calculated using an Integrated
Horizontal Flux mass balance technique. A Photo Acoustic Infrared Detector was used to measure N 2O,
CO2, and CH4 fluxes from vented closed chambers. Ammonia volatilization peaked about 4.1 kg ha -1 d-1
and returned to background levels within 72 hours. Irrigation with 25 mm of water increased NH3 emission
rates by about 67%. Emission rates of N2O, CO2, and CH4 were short-lived and returned to the same levels
as the control plot within 7 days. Total gaseous N losses were about 19.1 and 15% of the applied N in the
irrigated and non-irrigated plots, respectively.
INTRODUCTION
Ammonia (NH3) emissions to the atmosphere are a threat
to the environment. Ammonia can combine with nitrate
(NO3) and sulphate (SO4) to form particulate (Asman et
al., 1998) which can cause haze and be hazardous to
human health. The addition of NH3 to the soil can lead to
acidification (van Bremen et al., 1982) and in low nutrient
ecosystems can cause unwanted changes in plant species
in natural environments (van Hove et al., 1987).
Livestock farming is a major source of atmospheric NH3,
contributing as much as 70% in areas of intensive farming
(Jarvis and Pain, 1990) and it has been estimated that land
application of manure contributes about 10% of the total
NH3 emissions in Europe (Asman, 1992). Surface
application of animal manures may lead to significant
NH3 volatilisation. Knowledge of NH3 emission rates is
necessary for the efficient crop utilization of manure N.
Underestimation of NH3 loss can lead to N deficiency in
the crop, while over estimation can result in over
fertilization and N loss to the environment.
Land application of manures can also increase nitrous
oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions (Egginton and Smith, 1994; Mosier, 1998;
Sharpe and Harper, 2002). Nitrous oxide is a radiatively
active trace gas that contributes to global warming. The
primary biogenic sources of N2O are nitrification
denitrification of soil N (Knowles, 1982; Poth and Focht,
1985). Studies have shown that N2O emissions can be
figure 1: Wind and temperature profiles and air pumping
station
increased by the addition of manures because of their
high organic carbon (C) as well as N to stimulate
Atti del Convegno CNR-ISAFOM, Portici (NA), 23-24 Settembre 2002
microbial activity (Beauchamp et al., 1996; Sharpe and
Harper, 2002). Anthropogenic sources account for about
70% of the total annual CH4 emissions, with 16% coming
from animal waste (IPCC, 1994). Little is known about
the impact of animal waste in the Mediterranean area.
The purpose of this study was to improve understanding
of gas emissions associated with manure applications in a
Mediterranean environment.. The research is a part of
national project (CNR National Research Program on
agro-industrial waste), aimed at improving the efficiency
of use of animal waste, while minimizing environmental
hazards (Magliulo, 2002a;.2002b; Magliulo et al, 2000;
Goosens et al, 2000).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted in an alfalfa (Medicago
sativa L) field in Southern Italy. Three circular plots were
figure 2: Gas washing bottles for the determination of
ammonia concentration profiles
hours. Ammonia collected in the gas washing bottles was
measured by a technique described by Weier et al. (1980).
Windspeed was measured at the same heights using
sensitive cup anemometers (fig. 1). The vertical NH 3 flux
(F) was calculated as (Ryden and McNeill, 1984):
Zp
1
F   (UC  UCb)dz
X Z0
where X = radius of treated circle (m), U = windspeed
(cm sec-1), C = atmospheric NH3 concentration (µg m-3)
in the center of the circle, Cb = atmospheric NH3
concentration (µg m-3) in the check plot, Z = height of
samplers (m).
Fluxes of N2O, CH4, and CO2 were measured from vented
closed chambers (inner diameter = 165 mm; height = 170
mm), placed on a collar permanently inserted in the soil
(fig. 3). Fluxes were measured in four replicates in the N
plot, 2 in the C plot, and 3 in the S plot. After closing the
chamber, the concentrations in the headspace were
measured every 3 minutes over a total period of 30
minutes, using a Photo Acoustic Infrared Detector,
(Multi-Gas Monitor Type 1302, Bruel & Kjaer, Denmark)
equipped with optical filters allowing the measure of
N2O, CH4, and CO2, and water vapor. The fluxes were
calculated through linear regression of the headspace
concentration increases. Chambers of the different plots
were measured at different times. Measurements started
the day after the N plot was fertilized and irrigated for the
second time. During the first two days after the
fertilization/irrigation, fluxes were measured twice a day
on the N plot (morning between 0930 and 1230,
afternoon between 1430 and 1700). All fluxes were
subjected to a parametric t-test to evaluate the effect of
time and treatment. The significance of all tests was
evaluated at the 0.05 level
established in May, 1999. On June 2, the Northern (N)
and Southern (S) plots were fertilized with 30 kg N ha -1
with chicken manure and the N plot was irrigated with 25
mm of water on June 3. The alfalfa was abut 83 cm tall
when fertilized. The third plot (C) was the control plot
and did not receive fertilization or irrigation. All plots
were mowed on June 7. The N plot received on June 9 an
additional 30 kg N ha-1 as chicken manure and was
irrigated with about 30 mm of water.
An Integrated Horizontal Flux (IHF) mass balance
method was used to measure NH3 fluxes (fig. 1, 2). In this
technique, the vertical NH3 flux is calculated from the
differences in the amount of NH3 transported across the
windward boundary and the center of the experimental
plots. Ammonia concentrations were measured at five
heights (75, 125, 175, and 225 cm) above the canopy at
the center of the circular plot. Ammonia concentrations of
the air samples were measured by drawing unfiltered air
at a rate of 4 L min-1 through gas washing bottles (fig. 2)
containing 80 mL of 0.1 M H 2SO4 for a period of 6 to 12
figure 3: Soil passive chambers and the photoacustic
multigas detector
Atti del Convegno CNR-ISAFOM, Portici (NA), 23-24 Settembre 2002
The crop was about 0.83 m tall when chicken manure was
first applied. There was a larger and more rapid loss of
NH3 from the irrigated (N) plot than the non-irrigated plot
(S). In the N plot, NH3 volatilization peaked at about 4.1
kg ha-1 d-1 (fig. 4) and then rapidly decreased to
background levels within 48 hr following application.
Ammonia volatilization rates were lower in the S plot but
did not return to background levels until 72 hr after
application. Total N losses during the first three days
following application were 7.7 and 4.6 kg ha-1 in the N
and S plots, respectively.
The larger loss with irrigated than non-irrigated is in
contrast to other studies which have shown decreased
volatilization with rain or irrigation (Klarenbeck and
Bruing, 1991; Cabrera and Vervoort, 1998). The
After the rapid NH3 volatilization associated with
application, there was a small net uptake of NH3 in both
the N and S plots. Uptake of atmospheric NH3 even in
well fertilized soils has been reported in other studies
(Hutchinson, et al., 1972; Sharpe and Harper, 2002). Net
NH3 losses during the study were 9.2 and 5.3 kg ha -1 for
the N and S fields, respectively. This was about 15 and 18
% of the total N applied to the N and S fields,
respectively.
The N2O emissions peaked the first day after fertilization
40
µg N2O-N m-2 min-1
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
N
M
S
10/6
a.m.
10/6
p.m.
15/6
30
20
10
0
-10
9/6
a.m.
Total NH3 losses after the second manure/irrigation
application were much smaller. Peak volatilization rate
was about 1 kg N ha-1d-1 and total loss during the 48
hours following application was 1.4 kg N ha-1. The
smaller loss after the second application was probably
due to the movement of N into the soil. The alfalfa was
cut on DOY 158. This allowed most of the manure to
reach the soil surface and the irrigation leached the some
of the N into the soil, reducing NH3 volatilization.
and irrigation. Measured rates dropped rapidly on the
second day and were about zero 7 days after fertilization
(Fig. 5). The S plot which received the addition of
chicken manure but did not receive irrigation, was not
significantly different from the control plot. Two and
12
-1
N
10
-2
increased volatilization in this study may have been due
to canopy interception and subsequent re-wetting of the
dried manure. Chambers et al. (1997) reported that rewetting of dried manure increased NH3 losses due to
increased hydration of uric acid to NH3 which can than be
volatilized. Of the 30 kg N ha-1, 5 kg was inorganic N. As
previously noted, N loss in the N plot was 7.7 kg ha-1
which indicates at least some of the organic N was
rapidly hydrolyzed and subsequently lost as NH3.
Assuming that all of the 4.6 kg N ha-1 lost from the S plot
was inorganic N since the field was not irrigated, then as
much as 92% of the inorganic N in the manure was lost
within 72 hours of application.
figure 4: N2 O average emission from the Northern,
Middle(control) and Southern plot. Bars are standard error
of the mean
8
mg CO2-C m min
figure 4 : daily NH4 emission rates from the North and
South plots, as a function of day of yea r(DOY).
Irrigations are indicated by arrows
9/6
p.m.
M
S
6
4
2
0
9/6
a.m.
9/6 10/6 10/6 15/6
p.m. a.m. p.m.
figure6: CO2 average emission from the Northern, Middle
Atti del Convegno CNR-ISAFOM, Portici (NA), 23-24 Settembre(control)
2002 and Southern plot. Bars are standard error of
the mean
seven days after fertilization emission rates from the N
plot were not significantly different from the control or S
plot. Total N2O emissions over the measurement period
(6.1 days) was 32.3 ± 5.3 mg N2O-N m-2, which
represented about 1.1% of the applied N.
Carbon dioxide emissions from the N plot followed a
µg CH 4-C m-2 min-1
60
50
N
M
S
authors (Coyne et al., 1995; Mosier et al., 1986; Sharpe
and Harper, 2002). The addition of N and C in
combination with water from irrigation, conditions
favoring emissions, resulted in short-lived emissions of
N2O, CO2, and CH4 which had returned to near zero
within seven days. Irrigation after chicken manure
application resulted in NH3 losses of about 67% greater
than without irrigation. Total gaseous N losses (NH 3 plus
N2O) was about 19.1 and 15% of the applied fertilizer N
in the N and S plots, respectively
REFERENCES
40
Asman, W.A.H. 1992. Ammonia emissions in Europe:
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30
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10
0
-10
9/6 9/6 10/6 10/6 15/6
a.m. p.m. a.m. p.m.
figure 5: : CH4 average emission from the Northern,
Middle (control) and Southern plot. Bars are standard
error of the mean
similar pattern as the N2O emissions (Fig. 6). The largest
emissions were on the morning following fertilization
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Average emissions from the N plot on day 1 and 2 were
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