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Issue 363, 27 February 2014
Science for Environment Policy
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In this issue
Aircraft noise at night may lead to long-term health impacts
Exposure to aircraft noise at night for more than 20 years could increase the risk of heart
disease and stroke, according to research conducted around six European airports. Risk also
increased for those constantly exposed to road traffic, but this may have been caused by air
pollution rather than noise.
(more...) Download article (PDF)
Plastic pollution measured in Mediterranean seabirds
Endangered Mediterranean seabirds are suffering from ingestion of plastic litter, a recent
study has shown. Overall, 66% of 171 seabirds studied were found to have plastic fragments
in their stomachs and the critically endangered Balearic shearwater was among the worst
affected.
(more...) Download article (PDF)
Social marketing to improve community-level green behaviour
A community-level initiative in the UK has successfully used social marketing techniques to
encourage participants to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. On average, participants
reduced their emissions footprint by 2 tonnes every year. Based on the initiative, the authors
of this study propose a framework to guide future community engagement.
(more...) Download article (PDF)
Crayfish plague detection: new techniques tested
Crayfish plague, spread by invasive North American crayfish, is currently devastating native
European populations. However, while the disease is commonly diagnosed on the basis of
diseased animals, free-living infective spores can contaminate water bodies. In the first
study to test detection techniques for this disease in natural waterways, researchers found
that invasive signal crayfish release low levels of plague spores, allowing it to spread
undetected.
(more...) Download article (PDF)
Waste's environmental impacts measured with new method, but better data
needed
Life-cycle indicators to monitor selected waste streams' impacts on the environment have
been developed by the European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC). These are
presented in a recent study which describes a method for analysing waste's impacts using
these indicators. The study also reveals the need for better statistics and more detailed
categorisation of waste streams to effectively inform decision making in waste management.
(more...) Download article (PDF)
Plastic litter can pass on pollutants and chemical additives to marine wildlife
New research has provided the first conclusive evidence that microplastics ingested by
marine wildlife can transfer toxic pollutants to their tissues. The researchers studied
lugworms fed on PVC particles contaminated with either widespread marine pollutants or
plastic additives and found that these 'earthworms of the sea' absorbed the chemicals into
their gut tissue, which reduced their ability to perform essential functions.
(more...) Download article (PDF)
The contents and views included in this News Alert are based on independent,
peer-reviewed research and do not necessarily reflect the position of the European
Commission.
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Full articles
Aircraft noise at night may lead to long-term health impacts
Exposure to aircraft noise at night for more than 20 years could increase the risk of heart
disease and stroke, according to research conducted around six European airports. Risk also
increased for those constantly exposed to road traffic, but this may have been caused by air
pollution rather than noise.
This study, part-funded by the EU-project ENNAH1, investigated the possibility of a link
between aircraft or road traffic noise and 'heart disease and stroke' defined as a medical
diagnosis of angina, heart attack or stroke. The researchers took into account other possible
influences on health, such as age, gender, body mass index, alcohol consumption and
smoking.
To explore this link, the study analysed data from the earlier HYENA 2 project, also EUfunded, which was one of the largest studies to investigate noise exposure of people living
near airports. HYENA studied 4816 adults aged between 45 and 70 years who had lived near
airports for more than five years in Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden or the
UK, for the period 2004-2006. It estimated the level of noise exposure from aircraft and
roads using well-established models and collected medical data from participants, including
reports of chronic diseases.
The ENNAH study, which involved 4712 of the original HYENA participants, found that there
was a significant association between night-time aircraft noise and heart disease and stroke
for those who had lived for 20 years or more at the same address. If the daytime exposure
was also considered, the association between noise and health problems was less clear,
suggesting that is it the night-time effects that are relevant in this case.
There was also an association between 24-hour exposure to road traffic noise and heart
disease and stroke. However, when the researchers examined air pollution levels for a subset
of 2401 participants in the Netherlands, Sweden and the UK, they concluded that the health
problems could potentially also be explained by traffic-related air pollution.
The researchers also investigated whether air pollution was a driving factor in the association
found between these health problems and night-time aircraft noise for those living at the
same address for 20 years or more. However, in this case air pollution did not have any
effect.
Based on findings from previous studies, the researchers suggest that the apparent health
impacts of night-time aircraft noise may be due to negative effects on sleep, as lack of sleep
has been linked to cardiovascular risk factors. Aircraft noise also causes high levels of
annoyance, which can increase stress, again putting people at risk of heart disease or stroke.
The researchers note that aircraft noise causes greater annoyance than road traffic noise,
which could explain the weaker association of road traffic noise with these health problems.
1. ENNAH (The European Network for Noise and Health) is supported by the European Commission under the Seventh
Framework Programme. See http://www.ennah.eu/home?lang=en
2. HYENA (Hypertension and Exposure to Noise near Airports) was supported by the European Commission under the Fifth
Framework Programme. See http://www.hyena.eu.com.
Source: Floud, S., Blangiardo, M., Clark, C. et al. (2013). Exposure to aircraft and road traffic noise and associations with
heart disease and stroke in six European countries: a cross-sectional study. Environmental Health. 12:89.
DOI:10.1186/1476-069X-12-89.
Contact: a.hansell@imperial.ac.uk
Read more about: Environment and health, Noise
Plastic pollution measured in Mediterranean seabirds
Endangered Mediterranean seabirds are suffering from ingestion of plastic litter, a recent
study has shown. Overall, 66% of 171 seabirds studied were found to have plastic fragments
in their stomachs and the critically endangered Balearic shearwater was among the worst
affected.
Plastic pollution in marine ecosystems is recognised as a key problem in the Marine Strategy
Framework Directive1 and can have many damaging effects. A wide array of species, such as
turtles, sea mammals and birds, may ingest fragments either accidently or because it
resembles their prey. These fragments may then damage or block the digestive system or
release toxic chemicals, seriously affecting the health of these animals. The Mediterranean
Sea is particularly at risk from plastics pollution with its large areas of industrialised coastline
and enclosed nature.
This study is the first to investigate the amount of plastic ingested by Mediterranean
seabirds. The researchers collected 171 birds accidently caught by longliners (fishing boats
using lines of baited hooks) between May 2003 and June 2010 along the Catalan coast in the
western Mediterranean Sea. Nine species were caught in all, and included shearwaters,
gannets, gulls, kittiwakes and skuas. The birds were dissected and the stomach contents
were removed, sieved and identified.
The results showed that 113 of the birds (66%) had at least one piece of plastic in their
stomachs. The average size of plastic fragment was 3.5 mm with an average weight of 2.26
milligrams. Assorted 'post-consumer' fragments – hard pieces of plastic from litter such as
bottles or boxes – were the most common, followed by pieces of plastic bags or wrappings.
The researchers also found that numbers of pellets, used industrially to transport plastic
before being used to produce goods, were very low. This is in line with other studies
suggesting the occurrence of this type of plastic pollution has been falling since the 1980s,
possibly as a result of policy measures. Recreational activities now seem to be the main
source of pollution in the Mediterranean.
Cory's shearwaters (Calonectris diomedea) were worst affected, with 94% of these birds
containing plastic fragments. They also contained relatively high numbers of fragments, 15
on average. Other species badly affected were Balearic shearwaters (Puffinus mauretanicus)
and Yelkouan shearwaters (Puffinus yelkouan); in both species 70% of birds contained
plastic fragments. The researchers suggest these effects may be because shearwaters are
less able to regurgitate plastics than, for example, gulls.
All three of the worst affected are of conservation concern: the Balearic shearwater is listed
as critically endangered by the IUCN2, the Yelkouan shearwater is considered vulnerable and
the Cory's shearwater is listed as vulnerable within Spain.
Long-term monitoring is needed to assess the effects of plastic pollution on marine wildlife,
the researchers conclude. They also recommend developing stricter controls on waste
dumping, aided by bodies such as the Marine Strategy Framework Directive's technical
subgroup on marine litter.
1. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/marine/directive_en.htm
2. www.iucn.org
Source: Codina-GarcÃa, M., Militão, T., Moreno, J. González-SolÃs, J. (2013). Plastic debris in Mediterranean seabirds.
Marine Pollution Bulletin. 77: 220–226. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.10.002.
Contact: marina.codinag@gmail.com and jgsolis@ub.edu
Read more about: Biodiversity, Marine ecosystems, Waste
Social marketing to improve community-level green behaviour
A community-level initiative in the UK has successfully used social marketing techniques to
encourage participants to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. On average, participants
reduced their emissions footprint by 2 tonnes every year. Based on the initiative, the authors
of this study propose a framework to guide future community engagement.
There is increasing emphasis on the role of community-level movements to reduce
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this study, researchers examine an initiative which used
'social marketing' to encourage a shift towards pro-environmental behaviours in the city of
York, UK. This practice applies marketing principles to change behaviour for the benefit of
society.
The York Green Neighbourhood Challenge1 was conducted from May 2009 to September
2010. It first quantified GHG emissions across the city from housing, transport, food,
shopping/consumables and services. The analysis showed that the average York resident had
an emissions footprint of 17 tonnes, measured in terms of the climate impact equivalent to
tonnes of CO2 per year (CO2 eq/yr).
Since housing and transport made up over half the typical resident's footprint, the initiative
targeted those neighbourhoods with high housing and transport impacts. To identify
neighbourhoods with the most potential to reduce their footprints, the initiative selected
those that had access to transport links and the means to improve the energy efficiency of
their houses. This narrowed the selection down to two neighbourhoods.
In total, 89 participants completed an initial questionnaire to provide a description of their
existing behaviours. The participants formed six 'teams' and over the six-month period they
were encouraged to meet on a monthly basis. As well as this they had three milestone
events to share experiences and reinforce a common purpose. There was also access to
experts to advise on subjects including domestic energy saving, locally-sourced food and
composting.
At the end of six months, 49 participants remained, and these individuals completed a
second questionnaire on changes they had made to their behaviour.
Those who completed the challenge achieved an average carbon footprint reduction of 2
tonnes of CO2 eq/yr, meaning a total reduction for the initiative of 98 tonnes of CO2 eq/yr.
The largest reductions were in relation to shopping and housing behaviours, however, there
was no significant reduction in travel footprint and not all teams achieved a reduction.
The long-term success of the project depends on the continuation of behaviours and this
would require a follow-up study. However, using insights from this piece of research,
researchers propose a model of community engagement which is summarised below:
Targeting and recruiting: Target specific groups, especially those with pro-environmental
attitudes that have not yet been translated into action. Recruit from existing community
groups, such as local churches or youth groups.
Go beyond carbon: The focus on CO2 reduction will only appeal to a minority; therefore
CO2 reduction should be placed in the wider context of improving general wellbeing and
reducing inequalities.
Specifying goals: Have a clear target and establish a baseline from which to measure its
achievement.
Initial engagement: Provide information on the social and environmental value of actions
and encourage participants to pledge to undertake specific actions. Produce a programme of
activities and use mentors and local champions.
1. See: www.greenneighbourhood.co.uk For the York Neighbourhood Challenge report, see:
www.sei-international.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Rethinking-development/SEI-GreenNeighbourhoodChallenge-Project_report.pdf
Source: Haq, G., Cambridge, H. & Owen, A. (2013). A targeted social marketing approach for community proenvironmental behavioural change. Local Environment 18(10): 1134-1152. DOI: 10.1080/13549839.2013.787974.
Contact: gary.haq@york.ac.uk
Read more about: Climate change and energy, Environmental information services, Sustainable consumption and
production
Crayfish plague detection: new techniques tested
Crayfish plague, spread by invasive North American crayfish, is currently devastating native
European populations. However, while the disease is commonly diagnosed on the basis of
diseased animals, free-living infective spores can contaminate water bodies. In the first
study to test detection techniques for this disease in natural waterways, researchers found
that invasive signal crayfish release low levels of plague spores, allowing it to spread
undetected.
Native European crayfish are under threat from invasive North American crayfish that not
only compete for food, but also carry a parasite, Aphanomyces astaci, which typically kills
infected European crayfish within just a few weeks. This 'crayfish plague' has had a
substantial impact on native populations and the most common native crayfish in Europe,
noble crayfish (Astacus astacus), is now listed as vulnerable by the IUCN.
In this study, researchers investigated the techniques for detecting crayfish plague spores
from the water itself rather than diseased animals. They used water samples from Finland,
Norway and Sweden and studied five areas, each including several individual sites, between
2010 and 2011. Twelve sites were studied in total.
The water bodies studied were: a Finnish crayfish farm where signal crayfish (Pacifastacus
leniusculus, the most common invasive crayfish) are produced commercially for food, lakes
in Finland, Norway and Sweden that are known to contain invasive signal crayfish
populations and, finally, a river in Finland in which the local population of noble crayfish have
suffered an outbreak of crayfish plague. The researchers detected the disease in both
samples of the water and in signal crayfish.
The water samples, between 5 and 100 litres each, were filtered using filtration methods
which can sample large amounts of water to capture even low concentrations of plague
spores. The filtered particles were then tested for the presence of plague spores using DNA
techniques.
The results showed that the levels of infection ranged from 70% to 87% in the populations of
signal crayfish. The number of water samples that tested positive for crayfish plague spores
ranged from 17% to 92% for signal crayfish areas. However, spores were detected in all
water samples from the Finnish river in which the epidemic of crayfish plague had occurred
and numbers of spores in this area were 43 times higher than the average of the other sites.
Importantly, the researchers showed that there were typically low numbers of spores in
signal crayfish areas, often less than one spore per litre of water. This is worrying because
although concentrations are low, they still represent a significant risk to noble crayfish. This
suggests that water bodies should be monitored for early signs of crayfish plague rather than
the animals themselves. This is possible using filtration techniques, say the researchers.
However, large quantities of water will need to be filtered to stand a good chance of
detection.
Overall, this study provides a method that can be effectively used in monitoring, risk
assessments and to improve conservation management. For example, this method can be
used to evaluate habitats before reintroducing native crayfish or prior to moving commercial
stock to prevent more widespread transmission of the disease.
Source: Strand, D. A., Jussila, J., Johnsen, S. I., et al. (2013). Detection of crayfish plague spores in large freshwater
systems. Journal of Applied Ecology. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12218.
Contact: trude.vralstad@vetinst.no
Read more about: Biodiversity, Environmental technologies, Risk assessment, Water
Waste's environmental impacts measured with new method, but better data
needed
Life-cycle indicators to monitor selected waste streams' impacts on the environment have
been developed by the European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC). These are
presented in a recent study which describes a method for analysing waste's impacts using
these indicators. The study also reveals the need for better statistics and more detailed
categorisation of waste streams to effectively inform decision making in waste management.
The EU-27 generates nearly 300 million tonnes of waste every year and the expanding
number of different waste streams has made management an increasingly complex process.
New approaches are needed to provide a scientific evidence-base for decisions on how best
to deal with waste. In particular, a systematic and quantitative evaluation of the
environmental impact (both positive and negative) of various waste management systems is
required.
The Institute for Environment and Sustainability of the JRC is promoting the use of macrolevel indicators to quantify and monitor the environmental impacts of selected waste
streams. The developed set of indicators covers a broad range of environmental aspects,
such as impact on climate change, land use, human health, eutrophication and resource use.
This study reports on the process used by an EU-funded pilot project1 to conduct a life-cycle
analysis (LCA) on waste management using environmental impact indicators developed by
the JRC. Waste management was assessed for the EU-27 as a whole and a single Member
State, Germany, which was chosen because of expected good data availability.
The analysis focused on 12 relevant waste streams from the 48 waste categories provided by
the Waste Statistics Regulation2. There were insufficient data to calculate indicators for five
streams for the EU-27 and three streams for Germany. Notably, discarded electrical and
electronic equipment did not have sufficient data at either the EU or German level.
Using the available data, the LCA consisted of two obligatory tests: classification and
characterisation, and two optional steps: normalisation and weighting.
Classification and characterisation involves calculating the impact of the management of
waste streams using the chosen indicators, for example, impact on climate change, impact
on ozone levels or impact on eutrophication.
Normalisation and weighting. Normalisation allows indicators to be compared in terms of
impacts per person or per area. The weighting step is optional, and involves allocating a
relative weighting to the different environmental impacts according to their importance, so
they can be combined into one overall environmental impact score.
The LCA allows the impacts of different waste streams and different management steps, such
as collection, landfill and recycling, to be evaluated. For example, at the EU-level, climate
change and freshwater eutrophication impacts were the most significant of the impacts
associated with household and similar waste. These impacts were mainly caused by
emissions of methane and CO2 from landfills and waste incineration plants.
The study highlights a number of limitations in current waste statistics. For example, there
are not enough data for some waste streams and treatments. Furthermore, to provide a
more complete picture, additional waste streams, such as used oils and batteries, also need
to be considered.
1. The life cycle indicators pilot project was funded by the European Commission, DG Joint Research Centre and DG
Eurostat.
2. See: http://rod.eionet.europa.eu/instruments/528
Source: Manfredi, S. & Goralczyk, M. (2013). Life cycle indicators for monitoring the environmental performance of
European waste management. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 81:8-16. DOI: 10.1016/j-resconrec.2013.09.004.
Contact: simone.manfredi@jrc.ec.europa.eu and malgorzata.goralczyk@jrc.ec.europa.eu
Read more about: Environmental information services, Sustainable consumption and production, Waste
Plastic litter can pass on pollutants and chemical additives to marine wildlife
New research has provided the first conclusive evidence that microplastics ingested by
marine wildlife can transfer toxic pollutants to their tissues. The researchers studied
lugworms fed on PVC particles contaminated with either widespread marine pollutants or
plastic additives and found that these 'earthworms of the sea' absorbed the chemicals into
their gut tissue, which reduced their ability to perform essential functions.
Plastic waste has been recognised as an area of high policy concern as evidenced by the
recent Green Paper on a European Strategy on Plastic Waste in the Environment1 and
concerns are now being raised regarding the transfer of potentially harmful chemicals from
plastics to marine wildlife.
Microplastics, micrometre-sized particles formed by disintegration, can contain two types of
chemical: additives from manufacture and pollutants from urban runoff that have attached
themselves to the surface of the plastic. Previous research has shown correlations between
levels of ingested plastics and concentrations of potentially harmful chemicals in animals, but
this study is the first to demonstrate the actual transfer of chemicals from microplastics into
gut tissue.
This study investigated the impact on lugworms (Arenicola marina), which maintain coastal
biodiversity through digesting sediment and are eaten by wading birds, forming an important
part of the food chain. The study focused on PVC (polyvinyl chloride) plastic, which is used in
construction, clothing and upholstery and is commonly found in estuary sediment.
The researchers exposed particles of PVC to two widespread marine pollutants: nonylphenol
(present in detergents) and phenanthrene (present in urban runoff from cars), at levels
similar to those found in the environment. To investigate the impact of additives commonly
used in plastic manufacture, a sample of PVC particles were exposed to PBDE-47 (a flame
retardant) and triclosan (an anti-microbial agent).
Mixtures of microplastics and sand sediments (at a ratio of 5% microplastic to 95% sand)
were then fed to lugworms over a period of ten days. Concentrations of all four chemicals in
the gut indicated that both the pollutants and the additives had been transferred into the
tissues. Concentrations were between 326% and 3770% greater in the gut tissues than in
the contaminated mixtures. The additive PBDE-47 showed the greatest increase in
concentration from particles to gut tissue at 3770%.
The researchers also investigated the effects of ingesting the contaminated microplastics on
mortality, feeding and immunity of these animals. Results showed that the uptake of
nonylphenol reduced the worms' ability to remove disease-causing bacteria by more than
60%. The uptake of the additive triclosan reduced the ability of lugworms to digest
sediments by more than 50% and also increased mortality rates.
This study has provided evidence that ingestion of microplastics transfers pollutants and
additives to tissues at concentrations sufficient to disrupt the health of lugworms. This is
likely to have implications for biodiversity and ecosystem health as lugworms play an
important role in maintaining the structure and functioning of diverse soft-sediment habitats.
If marine litter is not strongly reduced or even stopped, with an increase of 33 billion tonnes
of plastic produced by 2050, the results raise serious concerns for the future.
1. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/plastic_waste.htm
Source: Browne, M.A., Niven, S.J., Galloway, T.S. et al. (2013). Microplastic Moves Pollutants and Additives to Worms,
Reducing Functions Linked to Health and Biodiversity. Current Biology. 23:2388-2392. DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.10.012.
Contact: markanthonybrowne@gmail.com
Read more about: Biodiversity, Chemicals, Marine ecosystems, Waste