Intervention for Teaching Phonemic Awareness
Phonemic Awareness: The ability to hear and manipulate sounds in words.


Phonemic awareness is not phonics.
Phonemic awareness is auditory and does not involve words in print
Teaching Phonemic Awareness:
Critical features of Phonemic Awareness instruction
Intervention: Reinforcing Alphabet Names/Sounds
Age: K-2
Materials: alphabet cards, music, hat
Intervention: The student will say the letter and something that begins with that
sound to their neighbor. The children sit in a circle. Each child draws an alphabet
letter out of a hat. Have them identify the letter as they draw it out of the hat
and think of something that begins with that sound. Place letters on the floor and
stand up. Play a musical march and children march around the circle until the music
stops. When the music stops, the children sit down by a new letter and repeat the
above procedure. You can spot check to save time and have the kids help each
other if they don't know the letter. Repeat the procedure several times. You
could use words, shapes, math facts, anything you want to reinforce.
Reference: Good, R. H., Simmins, D.C., Smith, S.B. (1998). Effective academic
intervention in the United States: Evaluating and Enhancing the Acquisition of
Early Reading Skills. School Psychology Review 27 (1) 45-56.
Website: http://www.usd.edu/cpe/schoolpsych/interventions.cfm
Intervention: Word learning activity to help children become very familiar with
print.
Reading new texts and rereading familiar texts ensure that students in these
programs engage in meaningful, connected reading. This program also includes
activities that help students focus on and become familiar with printed words. For
example, the Winston-Salem Project uses a procedure called "Making Words"
(Cunningham, 1991; Cunningham & Cunningham, 1992). Students are presented with
the letters that form a word from a selection they read. Words are selected
because of their interest and because they contain word identification elements
that will be useful to the students. For example, students might be presented with
the letters a c e e h r t. (Students delight in trying to guess the "long" word, a
word that uses all the letters and is from a recently read story.) Progressively
longer words are built from the letters. A teacher might begin by asking students
to take two letters and form the word at. Next, they might be asked to add a
letter to form rat, to change a letter to form cat, to rearrange the letters to form
act. Using similar directions they might move through eat, ate, tea, tear, rate,
crate, create, to teacher. (See Cunningham & Cunningham, 1992, for further details
and more examples.)
Resources: Cunningham, P. M. (1991). Phonics they use: Words for reading and
writing. New York: HarperCollins.
Cunningham, P. M., & Cunningham, J. W. (1992). "Making words: Enhancing the
invented spelling-decoding connection." The Reading Teacher, 46, 106-113.
From: Pikulski, J.J. (1997) Preventing Reading Problems: Factors Common to
Successful Early Intervention Programs. Retrieved April 27, 2006 from
http://www.eduplace.com/rdg/res/prevent.html
From: Pikulski, J.J. (1997) Preventing Reading Problems: Factors Common to
Successful Early Intervention Programs. Retrieved April 27, 2006 from
http://www.eduplace.com/rdg/res/prevent.html
Tips:
1. Phonemic Awareness is a critical component of reading instruction but not an
entire reading program. It absolutely needs to be taught, but should only be
10-15 minutes per day of your reading instruction.
2. If you focus on just a few types of phonemic awareness, you get better
results. There are a lot of skills in phonemic awareness, but research has
found that blending and segmentation are the 2 critical skills that must be
taught. Instruction must focus on blending and segmenting words at the
phoneme, or sound level. This is an auditory task.
3. Research has found that you get better results when teaching phonemic
awareness to small groups of children rather than an entire class.
4. Phonemic awareness needs to be taught explicitly. The instructional program
must show children what they are expected to do. Teachers must model
skills they want children to perform before the children are asked to
demonstrate the skill.
5. Teachers increase effectiveness when the manipulation of letters is added
to phonemic awareness tasks. Phonemic awareness is an auditory skill, but
once children start to become familiar with the concept, teachers can
introduce letter tiles or squares and manipulate them to form sounds and
words.
Teaching Sound Isolation:
Use Conspicuous Strategies
1. Show children how to do all the steps in the task before asking children
to do the task.
Example: (Put down 2 pictures that begin with different sounds and say the
names of the pictures.) "My turn to say the first sound in man, /mmm/.
Mmman begins with /mmm/. Everyone, say the first sound in man, /mmm/."
Non-example: "Who can tell me the first sounds in these pictures?"
2. Use consistent and brief wording.
Example: "The first sound in Mmman is /mmm/. Everyone say the first sound
in man, /mmm/."
Non-example: "Man starts with the same sound as the first sounds in
mountain, mop, and Miranda. Does anyone know other words that begin with
the same sound as man?"
3. Correct errors by telling the answer and having children repeat the
correct answer.
Example: "The first sound in Man is /mmm/. Say the first sound in mmman
with me, /mmm/. /Mmmm/."
Non-example: Asking the question again or asking more questions. "Look at
the picture again. What is the first sound?"
Teaching Blending
Scaffold Task Difficulty
1. When children are first learning to blend, use examples with continuous
sounds, because the sounds can be stretched and held.
Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a broken way. When he says
/mmm/ - /ooo/ - /mmm/ he means mom."
Non-example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a broken way. When he
says /b/ - /e/ - /d/ he means bed."
2. When children are first learning the task, use short words in teaching
and practice examples. Use pictures when possible.
Example: Put down 3 pictures of CVC words and say: "My lion puppet wants
one of these pictures. Listen to hear which picture he wants, /sss/ - /uuu/ /nnn/. Which picture?"
Non-example: ".../p/ - /e/ - /n/ - /c/ - /i/ - /l/. Which picture?" (This is a
more advanced model that should be used later.)
3. When children are first learning the task, use materials that reduce
memory load and to represent sounds.
Example: Use pictures to help children remember the words and to focus
their attention. Use a 3-square strip or blocks to represent sounds in a word.
Non-example: Provide only verbal activities.
4. As children become successful during initial learning, remove scaffolds
by using progressively more difficult examples. As children become
successful with more difficult examples, use fewer scaffolds, such as
pictures.
Example: Move from syllable or onset-rime blending to blending with all
sounds in a word (phoneme blending). Remove scaffolds, such as pictures.
"Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/ - /p/. Which picture?"
"Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/ - /p/. What word?"
Non-example: Provide instruction and practice at only the easiest levels with
all the scaffolds.
Teaching Phoneme Segmentation
Strategically Integrate Familiar and New Information
1. Recycle instructional and practice examples used for blending. Blending
and segmenting are sides of the same coin. The only difference is
whether children hear or produce a segmented word. Note: A
segmenting response is more difficult for children to reproduce than a
blending response.
Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to say the sounds in words. The sounds
in mom are /mmm/ - /ooo/ - /mmm/. Say the sounds in mom with us. "
2. Concurrently teach letter-sound correspondences for the sounds children
will be segmenting in words.
Example: Letter sound /s/ and words sun and sit. Put down letter cards for
familiar letter-sounds. Then, have children place pictures by the letter that
begins with the same sound as the picture.
Non-example: Use letter-sounds that have not been taught when teaching
first sound in pictures for phoneme isolation activities.
3. Make the connections between sounds in words and sounds of letters.
Example: After children can segment the first sound, have them use letter
tiles to represent the sounds.
Non-example: Letters in mastered phonologic activities are not used. Explicit
connections between alphabetic and phonologic activities are not made.
4. Use phonologic skills to teach more advanced reading skills, such as
blending letter-sounds to read words.
Example: (Give children a 3-square strip and the letter tiles for s, u, n.) Have
children do familiar tasks and blending to teach stretched blending with
letters.
Resources: Adams, M. J., Foorman, B. R., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. (1998). The
elusive phoneme: Why phonemic awareness is so important and how to help children
develop it. American Educator, 22(1-2), 18-29.
Felton, R. H., & Pepper, P. P. (1995). Early identification and intervention of
phonological deficits in kindergarten and early elementary children at risk for
reading disability. School Psychology Review, 24, 405-414.
Website: http://reading.uoregon.edu/index.php
Intervention for Teaching the Alphabetic Principle
Alphabetic Principle: The ability to associate sounds with letters and use these
sounds to form words.
Teaching the Alphabetic Principle:
Critical Alphabetic Principle skills
Teaching Sounding Out Words
Judicious Review




Prior to reading the words, review the letter-sound correspondences that
have been recently introduced or are problematic for learners.
As you progress to each new phase of word reading (sounding out > saying
whole word > sounding out the word in your head), students may need a
reminder of the procedure.
Once students learn a number of word types (e.g., CVC with continuous, CVCC
with continuous, CVC with stop), include examples of all taught word types in
the list.
Keep the word lists to a manageable length (6-8 words per list).
Simple Regular Words - Listed According to Difficulty
Word Type
Reason for
Relative
Ease/Difficulty
Examples
VC and CVC words that begin Words begin with a continuous
with continuous sounds
sound
it, fan
VCC and CVCC words that
begin with a continuous
lamp, ask
Words are longer and end with a
consonant blend
sound
CVC words that begin with a
stop sound
Words begin with a stop sound
CVCC words that begin with
a stop sound
Words begin with a stop sound and
dust, hand
end with a consonant blend
CCVC
Words begin with a consonant
blend
crib, blend,
snap, flat
CCVCC, CCCVC, and CCCVCC
Words are longer
clamp, spent,
scrap, scrimp
cup, tin
Example: (Teacher points to the word map on the board, touches under each sound
as the students sound it out, and slashes finger under the word as students say it
fast.) "Sound it out." (/mmmmmmmmaaaaaaap/) "Say it fast." (map)
Instructional Design Considerations
Conspicuous Strategies
Use the following systematic progression to teach word reading so as to make
public the important steps involved in reading a word:
1. Students orally produce each sound in a word and sustain that sound as they
progress to the next.
2. Students must be taught to put those sounds together to make a whole
word.
3. Students sound out the letter-sound correspondences "in their head" or
silently and then produce the whole word.
Each step must be modeled and practiced!!
Mediated Scaffolding
For students to learn and apply knowledge of letter-sound correspondences and use
that knowledge to reliably decode words, words must be carefully selected for
both (a) the letters in the words, and (b) the complexity of the words.
Letters in words for initial sounding-out instruction should:


consist of continuous sounds as these sounds can be prolonged in the voice
stream.
be ones students know.
Words in sounding-out practice and instruction should:




progress from short vowel-consonant and consonant-vowel-consonant (2- or
3-letter) words in which letters represent their most common sounds to
longer words (4- or 5-phoneme words) in which letters represent their most
common sound.
not contain consonant blends (e.g., /st/, /tr/, /pl/) until students are
proficient with consonant-vowel-consonant configurations.
begin with continuous sounds in early exercises to facilitate blending. Stop
sounds may be used in final positions of words.
represent vocabulary and concepts with which students are familiar.
Teaching Letter-Sound Correspondences
Example:
(Teacher points to letter m on board). "The sound of this letter is /mmmmm/. Tell
me the sound of this letter."
Instructional Design Considerations
Conspicuous Strategies

Teacher actions should make the task explicit. Use consistent and brief
wording.
Mediated Scaffolding




Separate auditorily and visually similar letters.
Introduce some continuous sounds early.
Introduce letters that can be used to build many words.
Introduce lower case letters first unless upper case letters are similar in
configuration.
Strategic Integration - Simple Before Complex
1. Once students can identify the sound of the letter on two successive trials,
include the new letter-sound correspondence with 6-8 other letter sounds.
2. When students can identify 4-6 letter-sound correspondences in 2 seconds
each, include these letters in single-syllable, CVC, decodable words.
Review Cumulatively and Judiciously
Use a distributed review cycle to build retention:
NKNKKNNKKKKN
N = new sound; K = known sound
Example (r = new sound; m, s, t, i, f, a = known sounds): r m r s t r r i f a m r
Teaching Reading Connected Text
Instructional Design Considerations



A primary goal of beginning reading instruction is to prepare learners to
read passages in order to communicate that print has purpose and meaning.
Once students can accurately decode CVC and VC word types, these words
should be introduced in short, highly controlled passages.
Do not assume that learners will automatically transfer from reading words
correctly in lists to reading words in passages. When introducing passage
reading, they will need prompts and procedures for transferring word
recognition skills to passages.
Conspicuous Strategies
The explicit teaching procedure consists of two components:

In the first component, teachers provide direct wording for students to
"figure out the word, say the sounds in the word to yourself." This
component generally lasts 1-2 weeks.


The second component of transitioning to passage reading involves a
modified prompt where teachers give a direction at the beginning of the
passage. For example, the teacher says, "Figure out the first word" and then
asks students to read the word. Note the prompting to say the sounds is
eliminated.
A final technique is to increase the pace of word reading. In initial passage
reading exercises, allow 3 seconds of "think time" per word. As students
become proficient (i.e., reading the passage with no errors), reduce the think
time to 2 seconds and later to 1.5 seconds.
Mediated Scaffolding
When introducing passage reading, it is important to:






Ensure students can read the words in lists at a rate of one word per 3
seconds.
Include only words students can decode in passages.
Include repeated opportunities to read passages to develop accuracy and
fluency.
Make clear the connections between sounding out the words in lists and
reading those words in passages.
Progress from the highly prompted sight reading strategy to the lessprompted strategy.
Reduce the time for sight reading words from 3 seconds to 2 seconds to 1.5
seconds.
Strategic Integration


Teach words first in word lists before integrating into passages.
Use both the sounding out strategy and sight reading strategy for a few
weeks to communicate their connection.
Resources: Juel, C. (1991). Beginning reading. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B.
Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 759-788).
New York: Longman.
Kame'enui, E. J., Simmons, D. C., Baker, S., Chard, D. J., Dickson, S. V., Gunn, B.,
Smith, S. B., Sprick, M., & Lin, S. J. (1997). Effective strategies for teaching
beginning reading. In E. J. Kame'enui, & D. W. Carnine (Eds.), Effective Teaching
Strategies That Accommodate Diverse Learners. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Website: http://reading.uoregon.edu/index.php
Another great resource:
Virginia Department of Education (1998). Ideas and activities for developing
phonological awareness skills: A teacher resource supplement to the Virginia Early
Intervention Reading Initiative. Retrieved April 27, 2006 from
http://www.pen.k12.va.us/VDOE/Instruction/Reading/findings.pdf
Following reviewed by Kristi Henning
Phonemic Awareness Interventions
Discrete Trial Training
Each training trial, regardless of the skill objective, consists of four major components:
1. The teacher or therapist presents a brief, distinctive instruction or question (stimulus).
2. The instruction is followed by a prompt, if the child needs one, to elicit the correct
response.
3. The child responds correctly or incorrectly (response).
4. The teacher or therapist provides an appropriate "consequence." Correct responses
receive a reward, which may be an edible treat, a toy, hugs or praise; incorrect
responses are ignored and/or corrected.



Data are collected
After five correct responses, the skill is considered to be learned.
Discrete Trial Training can be used when teaching letter sound correspondence, letter
recognition, and other tasks associated with reading.
References
http://www.asatonline.org/about_autism/autism_info06.html
A Brief Explanation of Discrete Trail Training
Contributed by Steve Buckmann
Given the increasing interest in early behavioral interventions for children with autism spectrum
disorders, it is not surprising that the Indiana Resource Center for Autism receives almost daily
requests for information about such interventions. Two frequent questions asked by individuals
requesting information are, "What is discrete trial training?" and "What is the difference between
discrete trial training and the Lovaas Method?" The following is a brief explanation of discrete
trial training and a basic contrast of the two.
Discrete trial training (DTT) is a method of providing intervention. According to Anderson et al.
(1996), the discrete trial method has four distinct parts: (1) the trainer's presentation, (2) the
child's response, (3) the consequence, and (4) a short pause between the consequence and the
next instruction (between interval trials). For some readers, these four parts are perhaps more
familiar when presented in the following model:
This model is the basic framework used fairly consistently across DTT programs. The primary
difference among discrete trial training programs is found in what they teach, rather than how
they teach. For example, the UCLA Young Autism Project (aka Lovaas Method) is one
treatment program directed mainly at pre-school aged children with autism. It uses discrete trials
as its main instructional method and follows a fairly set progression of instructional programs
beginning with early receptive language and "terminating" with programs focused on achieving
skills in self help, community and school situations. Not all programs using DTT follow the same
program sequences or curriculum as the UCLA project.
Many readers may also be asking the question, "Don't ALL educational programs involve some
use of the discrete trial method?" The answer is yes—at least to a limited degree. Instructional
situations and interactions can generally be described in terms of this basic teaching model.
However, there is often confusion between an informal or periodic use of this teaching model
and "doing discrete trial training." What distinguishes DTT programs is the intensity and duration
of the training and the primary role of the discrete trial method for instruction. DTT programs
generally involve several hours of direct 1:1 instruction per day (including high rates of discrete
trials) over many months or years.
Though the basic model for DTT appears relatively straightforward, applying the model
effectively is not. A casual understanding of applied behavior analysis is insufficient for applying
DTT programs. Given the high stakes of early intervention, the controversy surrounding discrete
trial training programs, and the effort and knowledge required to effectively deliver DTT, parents,
administrators and teachers must invest the time and energy to understand all aspects of
discrete trial training programs. This includes not only understanding how to implement such a
program, but having the ability to evaluate the effectiveness and appropriateness for each child.
The following resources can assist this effort.
http://www.iidc.indiana.edu/irca/behavior/discretetrl.html
Reference
Anderson, S. R., Taras, M., & Cannon, B. O. (1996).Teaching new skills to young children with
autism. In C. Maurice (Ed.), Behavioral intervention for young children with autism. Austin, TX:
Pro-Ed.
Resources
Guralnick, M. J. (Ed.). (1996). The effectiveness of early intervention. Baltimore, MD: Paul H.
Brookes Publishing Co.
Harris, S., & Handleman, J. (1994). Pre-school programs for children with autism. Austin, TX:
Pro-Ed.
Maurice, C. (Ed.). (1996). Behavioral intervention for young children with autism. Austin, TX:
Pro-Ed.
Siegel, B. (1996). The world of the autistic child: Understanding and treating autistic spectrum
disorders. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Phonemic Awareness: An Important Early Step in Learning
To Read
Author: Roger Sensenbaugh
With little or no direct instruction, almost all young children develop the ability to understand
spoken language. While most kindergarten children have mastered the complexities of speech,
they do not know that spoken language is made up of discrete words, which are made up of
syllables, which themselves are made up of the smallest units of sound, called "phonemes."
This awareness that spoken language is made up of discrete sounds appears to be a crucial
factor in children learning to read.
This Digest discusses the concept of the awareness that spoken language is made up of
discrete sounds, why this concept is so important to early childhood educators, its relation to the
debate on the best type of reading instruction, and finally, teaching methods that may help
children in developing such an awareness.
What Is Phonological/Phoneme Awareness?
Stanovich (1993-94) defines "phonological awareness" as the ability to deal explicitly and
segmentally with sound units smaller than the syllable. He also notes that researchers "argue
intensely" about the meaning of the term and about the nature of the tasks used to measure it.
Harris and Hodges (1995) present a brief essay on phonemic awareness. Another oft-cited
source (Adams, 1990) uses "phonemic awareness" almost exclusively. Phonological awareness
sometimes refers to an awareness that words consist of syllables, "onsets and rimes," and
phonemes, and so can be considered as a broader notion than phonemic awareness. Each
term is widely used and perhaps (if incorrectly) used interchangeably. In preparing this Digest,
both terms were used to search the ERIC database. For the purposes of this Digest, each
author's use will be followed.
Adams (1990) describes 5 levels of phonemic awareness in terms of abilities:

to hear rhymes and alliteration as measured by knowledge of nursery rhymes

to do oddity tasks (comparing and contrasting the sounds of words for rhyme and
alliteration)

to blend and split syllables

to perform phonemic segmentation (such as counting out the number of phonemes in a
word)

to perform phoneme manipulation tasks (such as adding, deleting a particular phoneme
and regenerating a word from the remainder).
Back to the Table of Contents
Why Is It So Important?
Educators are always looking for valid and reliable predictors of educational achievement. One
reason why educators are so interested in phonemic awareness is that research indicates that it
is the best predictor of the ease of early reading acquisition (Stanovich, 1993-94), better even
than IQ, vocabulary, and listening comprehension.
Phonological awareness is not only correlated with learning to read, but research indicates a
stronger statement is true: phonological awareness appears to play a causal role in reading
acquisition. Phonological awareness is a foundational ability underlying the learning of spellingsound correspondences (Stanovich, 1993-94). Although phonological awareness appears to be
a necessary condition for learning to read (children who do not develop phonological awareness
do not go on to learn how to read), it is not a sufficient condition. Adams (1990) reviews the
research that suggests that it is critical for children to be able to link phoneme awareness to a
knowledge of letters.
Once beginning readers have some awareness of phonemes and their corresponding graphic
representations, research has indicated that further reading instruction heightens their
awareness of language, assisting then in developing the later stages of phonemic awareness
mentioned above. Phonemic awareness is both a prerequisite for and a consequence of
learning to read (Yopp, 1992).
Instruments to test for a child's phonemic awareness tend to be short, easy to administer,
reliable, and valid. Stanovich also provides a quick (7-minute) and easy-to-administer
phonological awareness test in an article in which he discusses his career as a researcher.
Yopp (1995) presents a similarly brief assessment instrument and offers detailed evidence for
its validity and reliability.
Back to the Table of Contents
Relation To The "Great Reading Wars"
Phonological awareness and its role in beginning reading has the potential to confound
supporters at both extremes of the whole language vs. phonics "debate" over reading
instruction. Regardless of instructional technique, phonological awareness is an essential
element for reading progress (Griffith and Olson, 1992). In another study, Griffith et al. (1992)
found that children with high phonemic awareness outperformed those with low phonemic
awareness on all literacy measures, whether they were taught using a whole language
approach or traditional basal instruction. Whole language advocates need to admit that not all
children develop this necessary ability simply through immersion in a print-rich environment,
and that some children will need direct instruction in phonological awareness. "Phonics first"
supporters (and perhaps even "phonics only" supporters) need to admit that teaching students
letter-sound correspondences is meaningless if the students do not have a solid visual
familiarity with the individual letters and if they do not understand that the sounds (which can
be complex, shifting, and notoriously rule-breaking) paired with those letters are what make
up words (Adams, 1990).
What is needed, and what many practitioners probably already actually implement, is a
balanced approach to reading instruction--an approach that combines the language- and
literature-rich activities associated with whole language activities aimed at enhancing
meaning, understanding, and the love of language with explicit teaching of skills as needed to
develop fluency associated with proficient readers. Honig (1996) offers a review of reading
research supporting such a balanced approach and presents detailed guidelines on how to
integrate whole language principles with the necessary foundation reading skills.
Back to the Table of Contents
Teaching Methods
Research indicates that phonological awareness can be taught and that students who
increased their awareness of phonemes facilitated their subsequent reading acquisition
(Lundberg et al, 1988). Teachers need to be aware of instructional activities that can help their
students become aware of phonemes before they receive formal reading instruction, and they
need to realize that phonemic awareness will become more sophisticated as students' reading
skills develop.
The following recommendations for instruction in phonemic awareness are derived from
Spector (1995):

At the preschool level, engage children in activities that direct their attention to the
sounds in words, such as rhyming and alliteration games.

Teach students to segment and blend.

Combine training in segmentation and blending with instruction in letter-sound
relationships.

Teach segmentation and blending as complementary processes.

Systematically sequence examples when teaching segmentation and blending.

Teach for transfer to novel tasks and contexts.
Yopp (1992) offers the following general recommendations for phonemic awareness activities:
a. Keep a sense of playfulness and fun, avoid drill and rote memorization.
b. Use group settings that encourage interaction among children.
c. Encourage children's curiosity about language and their experimentation with it.
d. Allow for and be prepared for individual differences.
e. Make sure the tone of the activity is not evaluative but rather fun and informal.
Spending a few minutes daily engaging preschool, kindergarten, and first-grade children in
oral activities that emphasize the sounds of language may go a long way in helping them
become successful readers and learners.
Back to the Table of Contents
References
Adams, Marilyn Jager (1990). Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print.
Cambridge, MA: Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, Inc. ED 317 950
Griffith, Priscilla, and Mary W. Olson (1992). "Phonemic Awareness Helps Beginning Readers
Break the Code." Reading Teacher, 45(7), 516-23. EJ 439 120
Griffith, Priscilla, et al. (1992). "The Effect of Phonemic Awareness on the Literacy
Development of First Grade Children in a Traditional or a Whole Language Classroom."
Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 6(2), 85-92. EJ 460 128
Harris, Theodore L., and Richard E. Hodges (1995). The Literacy Dictionary: The Vocabulary
of Reading and Writing. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. ED 385 820
Honig, Bill (1996). Teaching Our Children to Read: The Role of Skills in a Comprehensive
Reading Program. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. CS 012 479
Lundberg, I. et al. (1988). "Effectiveness of an Extensive Program for Stimulating
Phonological Awareness in Preschool Children." Reading Research Quarterly, 23(3), 263-84.
EJ 373 262
Olson, Mary W., and Priscilla Griffith (1993). "Phonological Awareness: The What, Why, and
How." Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 9(4) 351-60. EJ 474
132
Spector, Janet E. (1995) "Phonemic Awareness Training: Application of Principles of Direct
Instruction." Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 11(1), 37-52.
EJ 496 026
Stanovich, Keith E. (1993-94). "Romance and Reality (Distinguished Educator Series)."
Reading Teacher, 47(4), 280-91. EJ 477 302
Yopp, Hallie Kay (1992). "Developing Phonemic Awareness in Young Children." Reading
Teacher, 45(9), 696-703. EJ 442 772
-------------- (1995). "A Test for Assessing Phonemic Awareness in Young Children." Reading
Teacher, 49(1), 20-29. EJ 513 301
Letter-Naming
Interventions for Acquisition and Fluency
Bingo
A fun way to teach letter-names, but was originally meant to teach letter-sounds.
Materials:
One (1) bingo card per child
Several bingo chips per child
Directions:
1) Make copies of the bingo cards and the picture and letter squares (Found in
Interventions for Reading Problems, pages 67-71)
2) Give each student his or her own bingo card.
3) Place the picture and letter squares in a box or bag.
4) Draw out one square at a time and show it to the students. If a picture square is
drawn, the students should name the picture and give the first letter of the name. Any
student who has that letter on his or her card should place a bingo chip on it. If a
letter square is drawn, without showing the students the card, read the letter-name to
the student. Any student who has that letter on their card should place a bingo chip
on it.
5) The teacher should decide in advance whether the students need to cover a single row
or the entire card to get “bingo.”
(For letter-sound bingo directions, please see directions on page 66 of Interventions for Reading
Problems)
Source:
Daly, Edward J., Chafouleas, Sandra, & Skinner, Christopher, H. (2005). Interventions
for Reading Problems. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Discrete Trial Training-Letter Naming
Materials:
Flashcards with the letters of the alphabet printed one letter on each card.
Directions:
1. Give the student a letter-naming probe. Note the letters the student is unable to name
correctly.
2. Two “known” letter cards (letters the student got right) and 1 “unknown letter” card (a
letter the student got wrong) are placed in front of the student.
3. The examiner, tells the student to point to the “unknown” card.
4. A) If the correct letter is named, the cards are mixed and placed in front of the student
who is asked to point to the “unknown” letter again. When the student is able to correctly
point to the “unknown” letter five times, the letter becomes “known.” Then, one of the
original “known” cards is removed leaving the new “known” card and the old “known”
card. Finally, a new “unknown” is added to the grouping.
B) If an incorrect letter is named, the student is told the correct name and asked to repeat
the correct letter name. Then, the cards are mixed and placed in front of the student
again. The examiner asks the student to point to the “unknown letter.”
5. Steps 2 & 3 are repeated until all of the “unknown” cards are considered “known.”
Resource:
Gary L. Cates, Ph.D.
Immediate Feedback-Letter Naming
Materials:
Curriculum Based Assessment Probes in Letter-Naming
Directions:
1. Inform the student that they will be taking a letter-naming probe. Also, let them know
that you will correct any errors that they make, but that once the correction has occurred,
they should continue with the naming of the probe.
2. Administer the Curriculum-Based-Assessment Probe in Letter-Naming. Anytime the
student names a letter incorrectly, note it on the examiner copy and say the correct letter
name. If necessary, prompt the student to continue the probe.
3. Repeat the process, with different probes, as many times as desired.
Source:
Gary L. Cates, Ph.D.
Post Office
Materials:
Picture Cards (see page 67-71 of Interventions for Reading Problems for examples)
Envelopes or pouches, each labeled with a different letter of the alphabet and able to fit
the picture cards.
Directions:
1. Place the envelopes in front of the child. Or, if targeting a few, specific letters, only
place those envelopes in front of the child.
2. Place the picture cards in front of the child. If only targeting a few letters, only place the
relevant picture cards in front of the child.
3. Ask the child to name each picture.
4. Ask the child to name the first letter of the picture’s name.
5. Then, the child “mails” the picture card in the appropriately marked envelope.
6. The child picks a new picture card and the process is repeated until all picture cards are
placed in their appropriate envelopes.
**This process can also be used for letter sounding. Just add letter-cards to the picture cards and
ask the child to name the first sound of the picture card. Then, when success is experienced, ask
the student to give the sound for each letter card.**
Source:
Blachman, B.A., Ball, E.W., Black, R.S., & Tangel, D.M. (2000). Road to the code: A
phonological awareness program for young children. Baltimore: Brookes.
Daly, Edward J., Chafouleas, Sandra, & Skinner, Christopher, H. (2005). Interventions
for Reading Problems. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Immediate Feedback with Repetition
Materials:
Curriculum-Based-Assessment Letter-Naming Probe
Directions:
1. Place Curriculum-Based-Measurement Letter-Naming Probe in front of student.
2. Ask the student to read the probe.
3. When the student makes a mistake, immediately correct them and ask them to repeat the
correct answer. When the student repeats the letter-name correctly, they may proceed
with the remainder of the probe. If the probe is timed, pause the stopwatch when the
student is corrected, and restart the stopwatch when they continue with the probe.
4. Repeat, with different probes, as often as needed.
Sources:
Gary L. Cates, Ph.D.
Dowhower, S.L. (1987). Effects of repeated reading on second-grade transitional readers’
fluency and comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 389-406
Herman, P.A. (1985). The effects of repeated readings on reading rate, speech pauses,
and word recognition accuracy. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 553-565
Rasshotte, C.A. & Torgesen, J.K. (1985). Repeated reading and reading fluency in
learning disabled children. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 180-188.
Rasinski, T.V. (1990). Effects of repeated reading and listening-while-reading on reading
fluency. Journal of Educational Research, 83(3), 147-150.