Go over papers and scholarly source
Review com abstracts, journal articles and APA w/ julie’s powerpoint
“Language which does not convey a clear meaning fails to perform the very
function of language.”
Aristotle
Nothing is more common than for men to think that because they are
familiar with words, they understand the ideas they stand for.”
-John
Henry Newman
“Our care must be not that the audience will understand us, but the audience
will find it impossible to miss understand us.” – Quintillian
Language: a collection of symbols governed by rules and used to convey
messages between individuals.
Where does language come from?
Steven Pinker writes in The Language Instinct about the amazing and natural
ability of humans to form language and follow language rules.
There are prescriptive rules- how we ought to talk that we are taught in
school
And
Descriptive rules- describe how people do talk.
They are completely different things.
Most language rules are not taught to you. – yet we do not say things like –
“apples the boy eat” or “who did you meet john and?”
He goes on to criticize those who insist we must follow ridged rules of
grammar for he believes that it is more of a natural process and language
should only be what makes sense.
 Many linguistic researchers believe that there only a few patterns of
languages, we are born with these “formulas” –incoded genetically – and
as babies we just fill in the specific language to the formula.
3 characteristics of the nature of language:
1. symbolic- arbitrary constructions that represent a communicator’s
thoughts.
2. Meaning resides in people, not words!
*What a particular word means to you depends on your cultural background,
personal history, and psychological characteristics.
Ex. The word “Capitalism” means different things to different people.
For one person, it might mean “Business, Free Enterprise, Entrepreneur,
Wealth, Opportunity…”
For another person it might mean “Class warfare, Inequality, or Greed…”
But dictionary defines it as:
“An economic system in which the means of production and distribution are
mostly privately owned and operated for profit.”
One of most important skills you’ll learn in college is how to: Define terms
correctly…Which not easy!
In order to make logical and persuasive arguments you must be able to
define your terms and defend your definition as being the best definition.
So effective communication requires that words be clearly defined. We
cannot have an intelligent discussion until we agree what we are talking
about.
3. Language is “Rule Governed.”
If you know the rules and use them, you will seem credible and people will
trust you, listen to your arguments.
(1) Phonological Rules-Govern Pronunciation.
Ex. Von’s has fresher produce than Ralph’s…
-American workers make more money per hour than South American
workers because they produce at a higher level.
-The parking at CSUF often brings me to tears…
If that guy in the red car takes my spot I’m going to tear his head
off.
(2) Syntactic Rules-Deal with the structuring of words
(Ex. In English, every sentence must have noun & verb)
(3) Semantic Rules- These deal with the meaning of words
(But remember, not everybody uses dictionary definition of word…
Not all words are in the dictionary- seek agreement)
(4) Pragmatic Rules- Deal with what messages are appropriate in what
situations. (Ex. At work or in classroom, sexual humor usually
inappropriate. , how do I interpret a message?)
Power of Language-
Language shapes Attitudes
We label things we value- and our labels reveal our values
What are God terms? (Weaver)- family values, freedom, liberty
NamingWe talked about the importance of naming in terms of labels we assign
Symbols carry meaning.
Even the right name is important
-children with “normal” popular names receive higher grades.
- How does this affect people from minority cultures who live and
interact with the dominate culture?
- movies are often hits or flops based on their title and not their content
- In the 1970’s there was a diet product, brown chewy squares that were
supposed to suppress appetite- called Ayds- They were dropped from
the market in the 1980s when the disease AIDS became recognized.
Not many people would want to buy and eat a heath product called
Ayds.
- Racial identity can be an issue of names- what do I call my self? Does
it give me pride? Identity? History? A people ? respect?
- Black v. African American
- Sometimes an identical action or situation may be called by a new
name to receive attention or value. International law dictates that The
UN, will not always step in and stop a civil war with military action,
but if we beleive genocide is going on , we will intervene. In BosniaHerzegovina, civil war had been happening for sometime and people
groups were killing other groups across religious and ethnic lines.
Only when this was finally called genocide did the UN and USA step
in.
- We can study the power of language and names when we look at our
recent presidents
- -Clinton – “did not have sexual relations” names were very tricky
- President Bush – names terrorists as evil, those who oppose us part of
the axes of evil. – names shape our perception of political truth
Language allows us to conceive of and communicate the abstract.
Adler –only way to know religion is through language.
 we cannot talk about the supernatural with our symbols- language
helps us transcend.
BurkeNegative does not exist in nature- We can point to a stake and our dog
understands .
Cannot point to the absence of something, like what if there was a world
with out death?
Must have language to form our ideas of these bigger concepts.
“Thou Shalt not Kill”- it is only a concept, the absence of something that we
would not have with out symbols, language
But these bigger concepts are shaped by language.
Language can communicate power and status
We make assumptions about peopel based on thier use of language.
-think about when you hear a southern Drawl
-someone stuggling w/ english as their second language
-a small/ simple vocabulary
- a person who uses big words confidently
all these uses of language communicate something about the person
WE can communicate power by the words we chose and the structure of our
language.
WE don’t always want dominance in a conversation
-usually use communication to build relationships
-language can display power of lack of it
powerless language uses:
Give me examples:
(call by name on page 81)
hedges: “I am kinda upset” “I guess I would like...”
hesitation: “ well, I wish I could..” Um, you wouldnt mind if...”
Intensifers: “I am really really sorry”
Polite form: “excuse me but, would you mind...”
Tag Questions: “Don’t you think we should eat now?”
Disclaimer “I am not sure if this is the answer..”
Again the key is always flexibilty: combine polite speech with power
speech, adjust to the person and situation.
 Linguistic accommodation convergence: can show power, when
members of a close group adapt language use to be similar- shows
intimacy, or solidarity, in –group.
Might identify with others by:
(1) Using a similar vocabulary as other person
(2) Adapting their speech rate to other person’s rate of speaking
(3) Mimicking number and placement of pauses other person uses
(4) Adopting level of politeness of other person
 Divergence can also show power: communicators set themselves apart
from others by speaking in a way that emphasizes differences.
 Taking responsibility with your language can express power – for
yourself or transfer the power.
“I finished my homework” v. “My homework is done”
“I was angry with you” v. “You made me angry”
- languages differ in how responsibility is expressed.
- – exp. Spanish –reflexive- me gusta- literally- it pleases me. Not “I
like it”
Remember that the language choices we make can either increase or
decrease our persuasive power in relationships and interactions.
Obviously, there are many factors that affect who has more power in
relationship- but communication choices are important.
If you rent your house or apartment, the landlord always has more power
than you.
Your boss at work almost always has more power than you.
Your professors always have grading power over you no matter what
language style you use with them…
BUT, while particular people may have general control over certain facets of
your life, you can increase power you have in single interactions with them
by avoiding “Powerless Language.”
For example, your Boss may have general control over how much money
you make, your assignments at work, or your schedule…
But, if you ask for a bonus, schedule change or position transfer, you can
increase likelihood he or she will comply w/ your request by avoiding
powerless language and using powerful language instead.
Do ch. 3 Activity 1 page 53 in groups
Those who control language control power-
For our discussion I want us not to focus on “what is politically correct” for
even that is a controversial term, but I think we would all agree that we want
to examine our language to identify any language that might exclude or
offend. Only when we recognize that, can we make the choice to exclude it
from our vocabulary. But in our conversation, I want us to be open, please
don’t be afraid to bring something up, as long is it is talk about in a spirit of
respect in an effort to understand.
Who chooses the language of a culture?
Suppress people by preventing from speaking their language.
People are not able to gather, have a voice, learn in schools if do not share a
language.
Ebonics-late 1990s controversy over whether ebonics is its own language, or
dialect, should it be taught in schools? – proponents like Rev. Jessie Jackson
argued that such language expresses cultural pride and individuality.
Spanish in school- controversy here in CA
Is there power in allowing students to learn in their “mother tongue?” are we
taking away their power by not teaching “accepted rules of English,” the
dominate language spoken in US?
Gender language- Does reference to Mankind communicate value or status
of women?
-women , do you feel left out of mankind? Do you like human kind or
woman kind better?
-Is it offensive or non-inclusive to refer to neutral issues as male? Ie
“manpower, man-made, one should place his name at the top of the paper”
--- write down as many words as you can think of that are meant to mean ,
men and women, but only mention men.
There is a long history to this language. Men were more valuable in society,
men voted, were citizens, owned property etc. When declaration of
Independence wrote about the inalienable rights of man, it meant men, but
we have expanded that definition. Even when I was in grade school, taught
to use “he” and “him” when referring to both males and females.
As text states, traditional English almost ignores the existence of women
w/ words like “Congressman, Chairman, Fireman, Mailman, and
Policeman…list goes on and on.
- Elizabeth Cady Stanton- women’s suffragette- big controversy over her
first gender friendly Bible
Racism-
*Racist speech another example of how language can create a reality that
simply isn’t accurate and communicate power or the lack of power.
Ex. Studies have shown that even people who aren’t racist can have
their perceptions altered when others use racist language.
In our western culture we label good things as white and bad things as black.
We have men in white hats, snow white, white knight in shining armor
and the dark side,
black cats and witches, people are black mailed, blacklisted,
Do you think that has any implications to people’s skin color?
Pass out handout “Is our language sexist and racist?”
As competent communicators, we need to remember that what we say
reflects who we are, and people judge us not only by what we do, but by
what we say as well.
We can only have power over our communication when we examine it and
make conscious choices about how to use it.
Troublesome language
Malaprop
Euphemism
Examining our language to reveal how it shapes our thinking.
Language and culture-
Linguistic determinism: the notion that the worldview of a culture is shaped
and reflected by the language its members speak.
Classic expm. Eskimos have estimated from 17-100 different words for
snow.
-- we think differently based on our surroundings and our values. we adapt
our language to fit
Whorf-sapir hypothesisBenjamine Lee Whorf and Edward Sapir developed idea that language
constitutes a sort of logic, a general frame of refernce, and so molds the
thought of its habitual users. Where a culture and language have developed
together, there are significant relationships between general aspects of the
grammar and the characteristics of the culture taken as a whole. P.2
Empl. Hopi native americans- Something might be represented as a noun in
one language and as a verb in another.
Leads to idea of Linguistic realativism- notion that language exerts a strong
influence on perceptions.
We view the world, through certain lens, because of the language we are
given to use.
I have been trying to learn Spanish- I love that the word esperar means to
hope, wait and wish, all in one- that tells us a little about how we should
wait- with hope.
-tranquillo- Belize and Mexico- command, descriptive- peaceful , tranquil,
chill- they value these descriptions.
-people often say they think different when using different languages
Commands to children from parents on page 105English- “be good”
French- “be wise”
Swedes- “be friendly, be kind”
German- “ be of your own kind: conform to your roll as a child”
When we inherit a language, we are also inheriting a way of thinking and
seeing the world. In this little example we can see how it is hard to pass
judgement of a persons behavior when we do not understand the language
and culture they are operating from.
Our humor is obviously different depending on what language we use and
what culture we are in. – popular movie out right now called, “lost in
translation”
-story of a Japanese/English translator – translating for an American speaker
to a Japanese audience, the speaker began with humorous anecdotes about
his experiences in Japan. The translator’s version of these anecdotes was,
“the speaker is telling phrases that are considered funny in English but not in
Japanese. I will tell you when he is finished so that you can laugh.”
Gill- Irian Jaya =seat of emotions are in the liver not the heart.
Cliches – crutches we use, like short hand, but may not really communicate
what we want.
Ask- does this cliche really get my point across?
say what we mean and mean what we say
Euphemisms: mild or vague substitute for a blunt expression or disagreeable
truth
rhetoric of war- we de humanize the people on the other side, by the labels
we give them. They are the enemy- not Robert and his son Tim. We launch
strategic attacts, not drop bombs on peoples houses. We expereince
causalties, we do not talk about the man who died and will not be coming
home to his baby girl.
 These euphemisms allow distance – our language prevents us from
dealing with the horrible truth of war. Otherwise, we could not cope.
Metaphors and similes- (this may sound like English class) but- it is very
important to examine our similes and metaphors to reveal how they affect
the way we think.
Definitions?
Simile: a is like b- your eyes are like the moon
Metaphor- a is b- the playground is a battlefield.
Our language is embedded with metaphors.
We can hardly think of abstract concepts (something you cannot touch) with
out metaphors.
Susan Sontag
Write in Illness as metaphor and AIDS and its metaphors, about the Rhetoric
of war and illness“Military metaphors have more and more come to infuse all aspects of the
description of the medical situation.”
We describe disease as a struggle and a war- we are “victims” which
suggests innocence.
AIDS has a science fiction flavor, “in the ear of Star wars and Space
Invaders, AIDS has proved an ideally comprehensible illness.
This language of war is found many areas of our language. ‘we have had
wars against poverty, wars on drugs, cancer etc.
-we all understand what it is to fight a war- it gives power to an argument
that we must stop, wipe out, get rid of what we see as a problem. It implies
that if we do not stop it, it will stop/ kill us.
Does this make us a more violent culture?
It is very important that we examine our metaphors when we want to have
new ways of approaching a subject.
People end to view the world through metaphors and act accordingly.
If you veiw life as a game- how would you act?
If you view life as a journey- would you behave differently?
How about a dance?
What are other metaphors people use to describe life?
Lakoff and Johnson write in Metaphors we live by,
about how the most fundamental values in a culture will be coherent with the
metaphorical structure of the most fundamental concepts in a culture .”
 values are demonstrated by the metaphors we use. More is better, the
future is bright-ie better activity is up- ie good, improving
 They reveal how we think
 He broke down (implies the mind is a machine)
 He cracked up (implies the mind is a brittle object)
--we use prepositions/ locations to describe abstract concepts
 We are IN love
 But OUT of trouble
 We FALL INTO depression
 We slowly GET IN shape
The study of communication is Epistemic, it tells us what we know and how
we know- it reveals our patterns of thinking.
Do words have power aside from what they symbolize? Or the power we
wish to give them?
This is a controversial subject. Our book tells us that words are arbitrary
symbols, that the meaning lies only in the people and what we decide a word
means. This is more of a deconstructivist or nominalist view of the world
and language.
But we talked with chapter one about how it seems some words and
meanings are not completely arbitrary. That there may be sense and meaning
and power in the words themselves.
We use words/ language to label phenomenon that occure, and often when
we finally do label something, it makes it somehow more real.
Have you ever had a feeling about something, and then someone else gives
you the name for it, and suddenly that feeling is so much more real and easy
to understand?
-counselors do this for us, we may describe how we are feeling and they are
able to label it, as anxiety or depression, and by giving it a word, we are then
better able to treat it.
-Before AIDS was diagnosed, people were dying of pneumonia, wasting
away, but not AIDS, now that we have a name for it, and can treat it as a
separate disease, it is more manageable.
- sadly there are many parts of the world, where AIDS is an
unmentioned killer, it is taboo to even say the word, and so people go
untreated, die of many complications, but never AIDS
- There is power in words.
As the English language continues to evolve, so does the need to name and
describe new phenomena. For example, the term sexual harassment did not
emerge until the 1970s; it was generated by feminists who wanted a term to
correspond to a very real behavior many people experienced in the
workplace. Words give us tools to create and understand our world by
naming and labeling what we experience.
Most of us would agree; Not everything in our world is material, tangible.
But words allow us to identify those intangibles.
Names give validity and somehow make something more real.
The spoken word is an action
- Walter Ong write about the power of the spoken word- He mentions how most religions think of God as speaking to people,
not writing to them
We use phrases like, that music or that message really “spoke” to me, we do
not say it wrote to me.
“The Hebrew dabar which means word, also means event and this refers
directly to the spoken word. The spoken word is always an event, a moment
in time.”
Takes place in history
Orality and Literacy P.75
I believe there is a Mysterious element in the spoken word,
Think about magic- Magicians say spells, chants, the spoken word has
power over people and events –because it is an action. Most cultures have
folklore, stories, traditions about the power of words.
 Many cultures/ people have “rules” about what you may say outloud
- never takl about someone’s death
- Jews- traditionally dont say the name of God aloud, doesnt show
reverence, holiness.
Religions emphasis this, we say chants together, prayers aloud, read or recite
scripture out loud.
Our book hints at this- The Judeo Christian Tradition especially recognizes
the power of words, language as action
Read intro to JohnFrom a modern translation of the Bible by theologeon Eugene Peterson. I am
not going to actually read to you from the Bible, but his description of how
historically Jews and Christians have placed emphasis on the power of
spoken word especially in connection to their God. The Christian tradition of
course grew out of the Jewish tradition. He compares the first book of the
Jewish and Christian scriptures, Genesis, with John, the fourth gospel of the
Christian New Testament , which tells the story of Jesus.
Discussion
What do you think? Is there power in the spoken word?
Do you come from cultures that emphasises this idea?
Are there words you never say out loud?
Is this just superstition?