Klontz, B., Bivens, A., Leinart, D., & Klontz, T. (2007). The effectiveness of equine-assisted
experiential therapy: Results of an open clinical trial. Society & Animals, 15(3), 257-267.
This article describes an equine-assisted experiential therapy approach and presents
treatment outcomes in 31 participants in an equine-assisted, experiential therapy program.
Participants completed psychological measures prior to treatment, immediately following
treatment, and 6 months after treatment. Reported reductions in psychological distress and
enhancements in psychological well being were significant immediately following treatment
and were stable at 6-month follow-up. The article discusses the clinical implications and
limitations of the present study and directions for further research.
Nimer, J. & Lundahl, B. (2007). Animal-assisted therapy: A meta-analysis. Anthrozoös, 20(3),
225-238.
Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) has been practiced for many years and there is now increasing
interest in demonstrating its efficacy through research. To date, no known quantitative review
of AAT studies has been published; our study sought to fill this gap. We conducted a
comprehensive search of articles reporting on AAT in which we reviewed 250 studies, 49 of
which met our inclusion criteria and were submitted to meta-analytic procedures. Overall,
AAT was associated with moderate effect sizes in improving outcomes in four areas: Autismspectrum symptoms, medical difficulties, behavioral problems, and emotional well-being.
Contrary to expectations, characteristics of participants and studies did not produce
differential outcomes. AAT shows promise as an additive to established interventions and
future research should investigate the conditions under which AAT can be most helpful.
**Interestingly, a different meta-analysis was published a few months ago in the same
publication, looking at a smaller number of studies which covered both AAT and AAA, with
similar results.
Souter, M.A. & Miller, M.D. (2007). Do animal-assisted activities effectively treat depression?
A meta-analysis. Anthrozoös, 20(2), 167-180.
We conducted a meta-analysis to determine the effectiveness of animal-assisted activities
(AAA) and animal-assisted therapy (AAT) for reducing depressive symptoms in humans. To
be included in the meta-analysis, studies had to demonstrate random assignment, include a
comparison/control group, use AAA or AAT, use a self-report measure of depression, and
report sufficient information to calculate effect sizes, a statistical standardization of the
strength of a treatment effect. Five studies were identified for analysis. The aggregate effect
size for these studies was of medium magnitude and statistically significant, indicating that
AAA/AAT are associated with fewer depressive symptoms. This analysis revealed gaps in the
research on AAA/AAT, which we attempted to identify in order to better understand the
factors that make AAA and AAT effective at reducing depression.
How dogs influence the evaluation of
psychotherapists.
Schneider, M. S.; Harley, L. P.
Anthrozoos. 2006. 19: 2, 128-142.
Research has shown that the presence of a companion animal reduces anxiety, encourages
interaction among humans and enhances the way in which people are perceived. These are
all effects which would be useful in a psychotherapeutic setting. On this basis the current
study investigated the effect of the presence of a dog on the way in which people perceive
psychotherapists. The study utilized an experimental design in which participants viewed a
videotape of one of two therapists who were either with or without a dog.
Title: Therapeutic recreation for exceptional children: Let me in, I want to play (2nd ed.).
Article: Broadening the impact of services and recreational therapies. Author(s): Fine, Aubrey
H.;Lee, Julie;Zapf, Susan;Kriwin, Sherry
McPherson Library -- RJ53 R43T46; AVAILABLE
Title: Working with traumatized youth in child welfare / edited by Nancy Boyd Webb ;
foreword by James R. Dumpson
ISBN: 159385224X (cloth)
McPherson Library -- RJ506 P66W67; AVAILABLE
Journal: Child & Youth Care Forum
Vol/Issue: 23 (2), Date: Apr 1, 1994, Page: 89 Article: Some of our best therapists are dogs.
Author(s): Mallon, Gerald P.
Call Number: HV701 C52, Location: McPherson Library
Journal: American Journal of Occupational Therapy
Vol/Issue: 60 (3), Date: May 1, 2006, Page: 268 Article: Occupational Therapy Incorporating
Animals for Children With Autism: A Pilot Investigation. Author(s): Sams, Mona J.;Fortney,
Elizabeth V.;Willenbring, Stan
Call Number: RM735 A1A5, Location: McPherson Library; Current issues in Periodicals
Journal: Psychological Reports
Vol/Issue: 96 (3), Date: Jun 1, 2005, Page: 713 Article: Measuring Stress and Immune
Response in Healthcare Professionals Following Interaction With a Therapy Dog: A Pilot
Study. Author(s): Barker, Sandra B.;Knisely, Janet S.;McCain, Nancy L.;Best, Al M.
Call Number: BF1 P84, Location: McPherson Library; Current issues in Periodicals
Journal: Western Journal of Nursing Research
Vol/Issue: 24 (6), Date: Oct 1, 2002, Page: 657 Article: Animal-assisted therapy for children
with pervasive developmental disorders. Author(s): Martin, FranA&ois;Farnum, Jennifer
Call Number: RT81.5 W4, Location: McPherson Library
Journal: Exceptional Parent
Vol/Issue: 35 (10), Date: Oct 1, 2005, Page: 38 Article: Why Animal Assisted Therapy Is
Important for Children and Youth Author(s): Pitts, John L.
Call Number: HQ773 E93, Location: Basement Compact Shelving; Order cancelled
Dimensions of critical care nursing
Location: McPherson Library Call Number: RT120 I5D5
Connor K, Miller J. Animal-assisted therapy: an in-depth look. Dimens Crit Care Nurs
2000;19(3): 20-6.
Title: Children and their environments: Learning, using and designing spaces. Article: Is
contact with nature important for healthy child development? State of the evidence.
Author(s): Taylor, Andrea Faber;Kuo, Frances E.
McPherson Library -- BF723 S63C4355; AVAILABLE
Title: Companion animals in human health. Article: The role of companion animals in human
development. Author(s): Melson, Gail F.
McPherson Library -- RC931 A65C65; AVAILABLE
Cute and cuddly and a whole lot more? A call for empirical investigation into the therapeutic
benefits of human-animal interaction for children.
Fawcett, Nicholas R., Monash U, Monash, VIC, Australia
Gullone, Eleonora
Behaviour Change, Vol 18(2), 2001. pp. 124-133.
There are many indications that humans have a tendency to affiliate with nature and to
connection emotionally with non-human species. Research has also shown that humans can
benefit significantly from their relationships with non-human animals (NHAs). For example,
studies have indicated that even the mere observation of NHAs can result in reduced
physiological responding to stressors and increased positive mood. The present review
proposes that findings such as these may provide important information regarding the
potential benefits to be derived from incorporating NHAs into intervention strategies,
particularly for children. Of specific relevance for children is their fascination with, and
attraction to, NHAs. There is also the very nonjudgmental nature of human-animal
interactions (i,e., unconditional positive regard) that has been argued, among other benefits,
to serve as a useful 'bridge' for the establishment of rapport between therapist and child.
However, despite promising avenues of investigation, the area of animal-assisted
intervention remains largely neglected by researchers. This paper also calls for sound
empirical investigation into proposals regarding the potential therapeutic benefits of
incorporating NHAs into psychological intervention programs for children.
Companion animals alleviating distress in children.
Hansen, Kristine M., U Nebraska, Medical Ctr, Omaha, NE, US
Messinger, Cathy J.
Baun, Mara M.
Megel, Mary
Anthrozoös, Vol 12(3), 1999. pp. 142-148.
Physiological arousal and behavioral distress in children aged 2-6 yrs undergoing a physical
examination were examined with and without the presence of a companion dog. Thirty-four
(14 males, 20 females) children were assigned randomly either to a treatment group in which
a therapy dog was present during their examinations or to a control group which had the
usual pediatric exam without a dog present. Physiological variables (systolic, diastolic, and
mean arterial pressures, heart rate, and finger tip temperatures) were measured at baseline
and at 2-minute intervals during each examination. Ss were videotaped during the
examination for analysis of behavioral distress, using the Observation Scale of Behavioral
Distress (OSBD). Physiological measurements were not statistically significantly different
between the dog and no-dog groups but were found no to be good measures of physiologic
arousal in this age group. There was statistically significantly less behavioral distress when
the dog was present. These findings indicate that the presence of a companion dog could
lower the behavioral distress of children during a laboratory simulated physical examination.
Journal: Child & Youth Care Forum
Vol/Issue: 23 (2), Date: Apr 1, 1994, Page: 89 Article: Some of our best therapists are dogs.
Author(s): Mallon, Gerald P.
Call Number: HV701 C52, Location: McPherson Library
Journal: Journal of Child & Youth Care
Vol/Issue: 8 (3), Date: Jan 1, 1993, Page: 87 Article: Talking to the animal. Author(s):
Hoelscher, Kathleen;Garfat, Thom
Call Number: HV701 J6, Location: McPherson Library; Current issues in Periodicals
Journal: American Journal of Occupational Therapy
Vol/Issue: 60 (3), Date: May 1, 2006, Page: 268 Article: Occupational Therapy Incorporating
Animals for Children With Autism: A Pilot Investigation. Author(s): Sams, Mona J.;Fortney,
Elizabeth V.;Willenbring, Stan
Call Number: RM735 A1A5, Location: McPherson Library; Current issues in Periodicals
Journal: Activities, Adaptation & Aging
Vol/Issue: 30 (1), Date: Jan 1, 2005, Page: 61 Article: The Evaluation of an Animal Assisted
Therapy Intervention for Elders with Dementia in Long-Term Care. Author(s): Sellers, Debra
M.
Call Number: RC952 A1A25, Location: McPherson Library; Order cancelled
Journal: Psychological Reports
Vol/Issue: 83 (3), Date: Dec 1, 1998, Page: 1011 Article: Pets and health. Author(s): Brasic,
James Robert
Call Number: BF1 P84, Location: McPherson Library; Current issues in Periodicals
Journal: Childhood Education
Vol/Issue: 81 (3), Date: Mar 1, 2005, Page: 152 Article: 'WHAT ARE ALL THESE DOGS DOING
AT SCHOOL?'. Author(s): Jalongo, Mary Renck
Call Number: LB1141 C5, Location: McPherson Library; Current issues in Periodicals
Introduction to working with animal assisted crisis response animal handler teams.
Greenbaum, Susan D.,
International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, Vol 8(1), Win 2006. pp. 49-64.
Animal Assisted Crisis Response (AACR) is a discipline closely related to Animal Assisted
Therapy (AAT), which gives crisis intervention teams, counselors, clergy, and other trained
professionals an additional means with which to help people affected by crisis. AACR is a
relatively new field, but can be effective when utilized as part of an overall incident response
program. AACR teams can be used, for example, to establish rapport, build therapeutic
bridges, normalize the experience, and act as a calming agent or as a catalyst for physical
movement. Effective AACR requires a common language between the AACR teams and crisis
counselors. The training requirements, versatility, limitations, and establishment of AACR
teams are also addressed.
Prison-Based Animal Programs: A National Survey.
Furst, Gennifer,
Prison Journal, Vol 86(4), Dec 2006. pp. 407-430.
Although animals appear to be increasingly incorporated into correctional programming, the
field has failed to systematically study the phenomenon. The present research is an initial
attempt to capture the extent to which these types of programs are being administered in
U.S. prisons through a national survey of state correctional systems. The research regarding
the potential therapeutic effects of animals and what we know about prison-based animal
programs (PAPs) are reviewed. Among the results: The programs are in most states, are
most commonly of a community service design that uses dogs, are more likely to involve
male than female participants, and most were established after 2000. Livestock care/prison
farms emerge as a unique type of PAP.
Occupational Therapy Incorporating Animals for Children With Autism: A Pilot Investigation.
Sams, Mona J.,
Fortney, Elizabeth V.,
Willenbring, Stan,
American Journal of Occupational Therapy, Vol 60(3), May-Jun 2006. pp. 268-274.
This investigation compared language use and social interaction in children with autism
receiving two forms of occupational therapy: occupational therapy using standard
techniques, and occupational therapy incorporating animals. Twenty-two children between
the ages of 7 and 13 received both forms of therapy in a school-based occupational
therapy program for children with autism. Results suggest that the children demonstrated
significantly greater use of language and significantly greater social interaction in sessions
incorporating animals when compared to sessions using exclusively standard occupational
therapy techniques. Findings are discussed in the context of recent research that has
highlighted the importance of enhancing the motivation of children with autism to engage
actively in therapeutic and learning processes.
Pet therapy and institutionalized elderly: A study on 144 cognitively unimpaired subjects.
Colombo, Giovanni,
Buono, Marirosa Dello,
Smania, Katya,
Raviola, Roberta,
De Leo, Diego,
Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Vol 42(2), Mar-Apr 2006. pp. 207-216.
The aim of this study was to assess whether a pet therapy program had a favorable effect
on psychopathological status and perception of quality of life in cognitively unimpaired
institutionalized elderly. Seven elderly rest homes in Veneto Region of Northern Italy
participated in the project, which was conducted on 144 cognitively intact elderly residents
(97 females and 47 males). The participants were randomly divided into three groups: 48
subjects were given a canary, 43 subjects were given a plant, and 53 subjects were given
nothing. The observation period (t0-t1) lasted for 3 months. At time t0 and t1 participants
were administered the mini mental state examination (MMSE) to assess their cognitive status,
the LEIPAD II-Short Version (LEIPAD-SV), to gauge subjective perception of quality of life in
the elderly, and the brief symptom inventory (BSI), for self-evaluation of the presence of
psychopathological symptoms. At the end of the 3-month trial, tests were re-administered,
without removing the experimental condition. Even if the group that received a plant seemed
to benefit from the experience, they did not achieve the same positive results on BSI and
quality of life subscales exhibited by the group that received a pet. This study reinforces the
hypothesis that pet therapy may have a beneficial effect on the psychological well being of
institutionalized elderly, in particular on aspects related to depressive symptoms and
perception of quality of life.
Alternative Therapies for Children and Youth With Special Health Care Needs.
Gasalberti, Denise,
Journal of Pediatric Health Care, Vol 20(2), Mar-Apr 2006. pp. 133-136.
Aside from the well-known interventions, there are many other therapies Children and youth
with special health care needs (CYSHCN) can be helped with. Animals have been used with
success in therapies such as animal-assisted psychotherapy, in which animals such as
dogs, cats, and birds are used to help those with psychological problems. Positive interaction
with animals, even if it is just one's physical presence with them or an empathetic feeling
toward them, seems to benefit children. Hippotherapy uses the unique movement of a horse
to achieve a child's health care goals. Children receive a therapeutic benefit simply by sitting
on the horse. As they work to maintain balance, they receive numerous additional therapeutic
benefits--physical, developmental and social. Music therapy uses music as a tool to induce
positive behavioral changes. It is particularly useful with autistic children in the area of
speech remediation. There is much in the scientific literature to illustrate the positive effects
of music. The goal of most massage therapy is relaxation. Massage therapy has been
shown to benefit children with a wide variety of disorders. Craniosacral massage corrects and
restore the flow of cerebral spinal fluid through the head and spine and lymphatic massage
improves the flow of lymph. Light therapy has for many years been used to treat newborn
jaundice and seasonal affective disorder. Color therapy uses human sensitivity to color to
identify imbalances in energy patterns. Color is believed to have specific physical, emotional,
and spiritual effects on human beings
Hatch, A. (2007). The view from all fours: A look at an animal-assisted therapy
program from the animals' perspective. Anthrozoos, 20(1), 37-50.
In recent decades, animal-assisted therapy (AAT) and animal-assisted activity (AAA)
programs have gained in popularity. A growing literature documents the benefits of AAT/AAA
for humans. The prevalent perspective for AAT/AAA research is "what can non-human
animals do for us?" with no apparent consideration to what such programs may do for, or to,
the animals involved. Ample research reveals that animals are minded actors with the
capacity to feel complex emotions. Consequently, AAT/AAA programs should benefit the
animals as well as the humans involved. Based on interviews with human volunteers in an
animal shelter's AAA program and participant observation in the same program, this paper
investigates the animals' experience in AAA. Specifically, this study discusses the use of
shelter animals as "volunteer therapists" and concludes that AAT/AAA programs raise
numerous concerns for the animals involved. These findings indicate the need for more
attention to the experience of animals in AAT/AAA programs.
The Moral Basis of Animal-Assisted Therapy.
:Zamir, Tzachi,’
Zamir, T. (2006). The moral basis of animal-assisted therapy. Society & Animals, Vol 14(2),
2006. pp. 179-199.
Is nonhuman animal-assisted therapy (AAT) a form of exploitation? After exploring
possible moral vindications of AAT and after establishing a distinction between "use" and
"exploitation," the essay distinguishes between forms of animal-assisted therapy that are
morally unobjectionable and those modes of it that ought to be abolished.
Haubenhofer, D. K.; Kirchengast, S. (2006). Physiological arousal for companion dogs working with
their owners in animal-assisted activities and animal-assisted therapy. Journal of Applied Animal
Welfare Science, 9(2), 165-172.
This study investigated the physiological reactions of companion dogs (Canis familiaris) used in animal-assisted
activities and animal-assisted therapy by measuring salivary cortisol concentrations. The dog caregivers
(owners) collected saliva samples (a) at 3 control days without therapeutic work, (b) directly before and after
each therapeutic session during 3 consecutive months, and (c) again at 3 control days without therapeutic work.
The study used an enzyme immunoassay to analyze the samples. Cortisol concentrations were significantly
higher during therapy days than on control days. Dogs working during the first half of the day produced higher
cortisol concentrations after therapeutic sessions than before, whereas dogs working in the afternoon produced
lower cortisol concentrations. Cortisol concentrations were higher in short sessions than in long ones and
increased relative to the number of therapeutic sessions done during the sampling period. The results indicate
that therapeutic work was physiologically arousing for the dogs in this study. Whether these physiological
responses are indicative of potentially negative stress or of positive excitement remains an open question.
Haubenhofer, D.; Mostl, E.; Kirchengast, S. (2005). Cortisol concentrations in saliva of humans and
their dogs during intensive training courses in animal-assisted therapy. Wiener Tierarztliche
Monatsschrift. BWK Public Relations - Brigitte Weber-Kraus, Wien, Austria: 92:3, 66-73.
This study was conducted to investigate the levels of disturbances that affected dog owners and their dogs while
attending a 5 day training course of the Animals as Therapy in Vienna, Austria to become therapeutic teams in
animal-assisted therapy. Cortisol samples were taken from 32 humans and their dogs (18 female and 15 male
animals) during 3 training courses (11-15 August 2002, 18-22 April 2003 and 11-15 August 2003). The
concentration of cortisol in saliva was measured using an enzyme immunoassay. It was observed that the
cortisol concentrations of the dogs were significantly lower than the humans. Cortisol concentration was also
higher in humans at day 5 of the training which was the day of the final examination. However, the level of
cortisol in saliva of the dogs did not differ during the course of the training. The animals showed an insignificant
trend of increased salivary cortisol levels during the first 3 days of the courses when compared with the other
days of their training and even had the lowest cortisol-median of all investigated days on day 5. This may be
caused by the fact that the dogs got used to the new socio-ecologic circumstances that had bothered them at
the beginning of their training. Age and sex did not significantly affect the cortisol levels in both humans and
dogs, but more female dogs completed their training than male dogs. The results indicate that the training
courses for working in animal-assisted therapy provided disturbance for the participating humans on the day of
their examinations. On average, no such disturbing situations could be detected among the dogs and that the
training is not stressful for the animals. It is recommended that further studies should be performed to evaluate
the cortisol levels in human and dog teams during their therapeutic work in animal-assisted therapy to gain
related information and possible comparisons.
'Animal-Assisted Prolonged Exposure: A Treatment for Survivors of Sexual Assault Suffering
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder': Erratum.
Lefkowitz, Carin,
Prout, Maurice,
Bleiberg, James,
Paharia, Indira,
Debiak, Dennis,
Society & Animals, Vol 14(1), 2006. Special issue: Language Matters. pp. No Pagination
Specified.
Reports an error in the original article by Carin Lefkowitz et al (Society & Animals, 2005, Vol
No 13[4], 275-296). The names of the authors of this article were not published in their
proper order. The correct order and mailing address of the first author is provided in this
erratum. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 2005-15308-001).
This paper proposes the development of a new model of treatment for survivors of sexual
abuse suffering from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, and
Murdock (1991) and Foa, Rothbaum, and Furr (2003) support Prolonged Exposure (PE) as a
highly effective treatment for PTSD. However, PE can be intimidating to survivors,
contributing to hesitancy to participate in the treatment. This paper posits that animalassisted therapy (AAT) will decrease anxiety, lower physiological arousal, enhance the
therapeutic alliance, and promote social lubrication. The paper also posits that AAT will
enhance the value of PE by making it more accessible to survivors, increasing social
interaction, and perhaps decreasing the number of sessions required for habituation to the
traumatic memories.
Ethotest: A new model to identify (shelter) dogs' skills as service animals or adoptable pets.
Lucidi, Pia,
Bernabò, Nicola,
Panunzi, Michela,
Villa, Paolo Dalla,
Mattioli, Mauro,
Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Vol 95(1-2), Nov 2005. pp. 103-122.
The paucity of dogs dedicated to animal-assisted therapy (AAT) for disabled people
creates long waiting lists worldwide and compromises the health of the few certified animals
by demanding too much work from them at times, thus jeopardizing their future as service
dogs. In an attempt to obviate this situation, a mathematical model has been conceived to
select animals endowed with a set of specific inborn skills from a population of sheltered
dogs. The model is able to select dogs capable of creating a special bond with humans and
able to work anywhere and with any human partner or team; it represents a rapid,
inexpensive and coherent method and has been validated after 1 year of observation. The
algorithm consists of three steps. Step A is a test assessing the aggressiveness and
temperament of animals and selection occurs based on a binary criterion (yes or no). Step B
is a test comprising three items and selects animals able to interact with humans; dogs have
to fulfil two conditions to pass on to Step C. Step C is a test evaluating the animal's ability to
respond appropriately to easy commands (trainability) given by different partners; dogs have
to fulfil two interrelated conditions judged more flexibly than in test B. The aims of the
Ethotest are: (a) to prevent aggressive animals from entering animal-assisted activity
and/or Therapy programmes; (b) to select dogs with the right aptitude and especially to
restrict selection to dogs that offer consistent responses; (c) to include both male and female
purebreds or mix breeds older than 1 year of age; (d) to identify animals able to work with
different partners. Moreover, the aim of this contribution is to share with the scientific
community an easy method to select shelter dogs as safe companion animals.
Randomised controlled trial of animal facilitated therapy with dolphins in the treatment of
depression.
Antonioli, Christian,
Reveley, Michael A.,
BMJ: British Medical Journal, Vol 331(7527), Nov 2005. pp. No Pagination Specified.
Objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of animal facilitated therapy with dolphins,
controlling for the influence of the natural setting, in the treatment of mild to moderate
depression and in the context of the biophilia hypothesis. Setting: The study was carried out
in Honduras, and recruitment took place in the United States and Honduras. Design: Single
blind, randomised, controlled trial. Participants Outpatients, recruited through announcements
on the internet, radio, newspapers, and hospitals. Results: Of the 30 patients randomly
assigned to the two groups of treatment, two dropped out of the treatment group after the
first week and three withdrew their consent in the control group after they had been
randomly allocated. For the participants who completed the study, the mean severity of the
depressive symptoms was more reduced in the treatment group than in the control group
(Hamilton rating scale for depression, P = 0.002; Beck depression inventory, P = 0.006). For
the sample analysed by modified intention to treat and last observation carried forward, the
mean differences for the Hamilton and Beck scores between the two groups was highly
significant (P = 0.007 and P = 0.012, respectively). Conclusions: The therapy was effective
in alleviating symptoms of depression after two weeks of treatment. Animal facilitated
therapy with dolphins is an effective treatment for mild to moderate depression, which is
based on a holistic approach, through interaction with animals in nature.
Measuring Stress and Immune Response in Healthcare Professionals Following Interaction
With a Therapy Dog: A Pilot Study.
Barker, Sandra B.
Knisely, Janet S.,
McCain, Nancy L.,
Best, Al M.,
Psychological Reports, Vol 96(3), Jun 2005. pp. 713-729.
This study investigated the optimal time for measuring stress and immune function in 20
healthcare professionals (19 women and 1 man) following interaction with a therapy dog. A
nonclinical sample of healthcare professionals was assigned to 20 min. of quiet rest, and 5
and 20 min. with a therapy dog. Serum cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine were
collected at baseline, 5, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min. postcondition. Salivary cortisol, salivary IgA,
and blood for lymphocytes were collected at baseline, 30, 45, and 60 min. postcondition.
Analysis indicated significant reductions in serum and salivary cortisol. The optimal time for
measuring serum or salivary cortisol following interaction with a therapy dog was 45 min.,
with changes in salivary cortisol reflecting serum cortisol changes. Findings also suggest
stress reduction in healthcare professionals may occur after as little as 5 min. of interaction
with a therapy dog and warrants further investigation.
Resident and therapist views of animal-assisted therapy: Implications for occupational
therapy practice.
Velde, Beth P
Cipriani, Joseph
Fisher, Grace,
Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, Vol 52(1), Mar 2005. pp. 43-50.
Animal-assisted therapy is offered in a wide variety of settings. The literature contains few
studies investigating animal-assisted therapy from an occupational therapy perspective. More
information is needed to describe the use of animals as a therapeutic modality in occupational
therapy. Three qualitative case studies were analysed to describe the perceptions of clients
and therapists regarding animal-assisted therapy. This analysis was synthesised with an
extensive literature review to produce a perspective of animal-assisted therapy for
occupational therapy. Animal-assisted therapy could be a beneficial modality for occupational
therapy. The Lifestyle Performance Model provides a useful framework for analysis and
interpretation of the positive outcomes of animal-assisted therapy in an occupational therapy
context.
All Creatures Great and Small: Utilizing Equine-Assisted Therapy to Treat Eating Disorders.
Christian, Jo Ellen
Journal of Psychology and Christianity, Vol 24(1), Spr 2005. pp. 65-67.
The author describes her experience working at a Christian treatment center for women with
eating disorders using equine-assisted therapy, an approach using horses to bring
emotional issues in the life of the resident to the surface. God plays a major role in the
treatment sessions, which specifically address spiritual matters.
The Evaluation of an Animal Assisted Therapy Intervention for Elders with Dementia in
Long-Term Care.
Sellers, Debra M.
Activities, Adaptation & Aging, Vol 30(1), 2005. pp. 61-77.
This study examined the effects of animal assisted therapy (AAT) on the social and
agitated behaviors of elders with dementia residing in long-term care. A purposefully selected
sample of four elders from one skilled nursing facility in a rural community participated in the
study. Utilizing an A-B-A-B design, elders were videotaped for 15 minutes each day of the
study and two coders tallied the presence and frequency of each of the designated behaviors
for each elder. A statistically reliable difference in the social behavior category (t = -29.36, p
< .0001) and the total agitated behaviors category (t = 7.05, p < .0001) indicated that the
behaviors targeted by the intervention were successfully modified. This intervention
demonstrates potential for increasing the quality of life for elders with dementia in long-term
care facilities through increasing social and decreasing agitated behaviors.
Analysis of child-dog play behavior in child psychiatry.
Prothmann, Anke,
Albrecht, Konstanze,
Dietrich, Sandra,
Hornfeck, Ulrike,
Stieber, Saskia,
Ettrich, Christine,
Anthrozoös, Vol 18(1), 2005. pp. 43-58.
Children have a natural affinity for animals and most often communicate with them
nonverbally; nonverbal communication is authentic and difficult to influence deliberately. This
study examines whether characteristic interaction patterns exist during pet-facilitated
therapy with dogs, and whether these can be used for diagnosing psychiatric disorders in
children and adolescents. Forty children and adolescents with anorexia, bulimia, anxiety
disorder or autism (classified according to the International Classification of Diseases - ICD10)
were monitored while in the same room as a therapy dog; their behavior during a 25-minute
encounter was video-recorded and analyzed. The patients demonstrated significant diagnosisspecific behavioral differences; the greatest differences were found when the autistic patients
were compared with the anxiety and eating disorder patients. The autistic children's behavior
was characterized by many brief interaction phases, whereas anxiety disorder patients
interacted less often, with longer lasting episodes. While autistic children showed greater fear
of the dog, anxiety disorder patients were more afraid of inter-human contact. A discriminant
analysis assigned 77.5% of the patients to the correct diagnostic group. Child-dog interaction
analysis can provide a valuable contribution to the psycho-diagnosis of children and
adolescents.
Effects of a pet visitation program on the behavior and emotional state of adjudicated female
adolescents.
Conniff, Kathryn M.,
Scarlett, Janet M.,
Goodman, Shawn,
Appel, Leslie D.,
Anthrozoös, Vol 18(4), 2005. pp. 379-395.
This study was designed to assess the impact of an ongoing pet visitation program on the
behavior and emotional state of adjudicated female adolescents at a medium secure
residential facility over an eight-week period. To our knowledge, this study is the first
randomized trial with a pretest-posttest design aimed at determining whether unstructured
animal-assisted activities (AAA) have a positive impact on this unique population of
adolescents. Using a random number table, 23 residents were randomly assigned to
participate either in the pet visitation program (n = 13) or the facility's usual activities (n =
10). The program entailed weekly one-hour sessions during which participants were involved
in activities such as grooming the animals, giving commands, playing fetch, and talking to
the animals' handlers. To assess the program's effects on participants' behavior and
emotional state, two quantitative instruments, the Youth Self-Report for Ages 11-18 (YSR)
and the Resident Behavior Assessment (RBA), and a qualitative survey (designed by the
researchers) were administered to the participants both prior to the pet visitation program
and following its completion. Results from the two quantitative measures suggested that the
pet visitation program did not have a significant effect on the behavior or emotional state of
the pet visitation participants. Qualitative results indicated that most of the participants
enjoyed some aspect of the pet visitation program. In light of the small sample size and the
unanticipated difficulties encountered in the conduct of the study, this research should be
considered a pilot study. The limitations inherent to studying the effects of AAA programs in
adjudicated adolescents are discussed
Animal-Assisted Therapy Ameliorates Anhedonia in Schizophrenia Patients.
Nathans-Barel, Inbar
Feldman, Pablo,
Berger, Barry,
Modai, Ilan,
Silver, Henry,
Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Vol 74(1), 2005. pp. 31-35.
Background: Anhedonia, a component of the negative symptom dimension and a core
phenomenon in schizophrenia, is associated with poor social functioning and is resistant to
treatment. We tested the hypothesis that animal-assisted therapy (AAT) may improve
anhedonia. Objective: To compare the effect of psychosocial treatment sessions in which a
dog was an active participant (AAT) with comparable sessions without a dog, using a
controlled protocol. Method: The hedonic tone of 10 chronic schizophrenia patients who
participated in 10 weekly interactive sessions of AAT was compared to a control group
treated without animal assistance. The hedonic tone was measured with the Snaith-Hamilton
Pleasure Scale. Subjective quality of life variables and clinical symptoms were also assessed,
Results: The AAT group showed a significant improvement in the hedonic tone compared to
controls. They also showed an improvement in the use of leisure time and a trend towards
improvement in motivation. Conclusion: AAT may contribute to the psychosocial rehabilitation
and quality of life of chronic schizophrenia patients.
Animal-Assisted Prolonged Exposure: A Treatment for Survivors of Sexual Assault Suffering
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.
Lefkowitz, Carin,
Paharia, Indira,
Prout, Maurice,
Debiak, Dennis,
Bleiberg, James,
Society & Animals, Vol 13(4), 2005. pp. 275-295.
This paper proposes the development of a new model of treatment for survivors of sexual
abuse suffering from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, and
Murdock (1991) and Foa, Rothbaum, and Furr (2003) support Prolonged Exposure (PE) as a
highly effective treatment for PTSD. However; PE can be intimidating to survivors,
contributing to hesitancy to participate in the treatment. This paper posits that animalassisted therapy (AAT) will decrease anxiety, lower physiological arousal, enhance the
therapeutic alliance, and promote social lubrication. The paper also posits that AAT will
enhance the value of PE by making it more accessible to survivors, increasing social
interaction, and perhaps decreasing the number of sessions required for habituation to the
traumatic memories.
Companion animals in palliative care: Stories from the bedside.
Geisler, Annette M.,
American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Medicine, Vol 21(4), Jul-Aug 2004. pp. 285-288.
Research has shown that a companion animal or pet can help a person better cope with
stressful life events, prevent loneliness, decrease depression, improve activities of daily living
(ADLs), and increase social interactions. Pets in nursing homes have been associated with
decreased psychotropic medication usage and a greater than 50 percent reduction in
healthcare costs. Despite research in other areas of healthcare, there is limited data
concerning the use of companion animals in palliative care. This article presents an overview
of companion-animal-associated medical research as well as patient stories that illustrate the
roles of companion animals in end-of-life care.
Animal assisted therapy for people with dementia.
Motomura, Naoyasu,
Yagi, Takayoshi,
Ohyama, Hitomi,
Psychogeriatrics, Vol 4(2), Jun 2004. pp. 40-42.
Background: The effects of animal assisted therapy on patients with dementia were
investigated through the use of mental state batteries. Methods: The subjects were eight
patients admitted in a local nursing home. Their mean age was 84.8 years ±7.0; four were
dementia of Alzheimer's type patients, and the others were vascular dementia patients.
Mental state tests included the apathy scale, the irritability scale, the depression scale, the
activities of daily living and mini-mental state examination. Dog therapy with two dogs from
the Japanese Rescue Association took place for 1 h over four consecutive days. Results: The
patients could communicate with and observe the dogs, and the dogs could interact with the
humans. The results indicated no significant difference in the irritability scale, the depression
scale, activity of daily living and mini-mental state examination. However, most patients had a
good impression of dog therapy, and all improved their apathetic state. Conclusions: These
results might imply that animal assisted therapy has the possibility to influence the mental
state of patients with dementia.
Can a week of therapeutic riding make a difference?-A pilot study.
Kaiser, Lana,
Spence, Linda J.,
Lavergne, Annique G.,
Bosch, Kerrie L. Vanden,
Anthrozoös, Vol 17(1), 2004. pp. 63-72.
The objective of this research was to determine the effect of a five-day therapeutic riding day
camp on children's anger, quality of life and perceived self-competence. Our study sample
involved 16 able-bodied individuals (11±4.4 years) with no known physical or psychological
disability, and no known history of psychotropic medications. The Children's Anger Inventory,
Peds Quality of Life, and Self Perception Profile for Children were administered prior to riding
on day one and after riding on day five. Results show that after five days of therapeutic riding
camp, the total score of the anger inventory and scores for all sub-scales except frustration
decreased significantly. No other differences were noted. Data analysis suggests that five
days of therapeutic riding day camp can significantly impact on anger. These changes may be
related to the child's relationship with the horse, the social environment of camp, the horse
and riding, increased contact with nature, or a combination of these factors.
Effects of animal-assisted therapy on agitated behaviors and social interactions of older
adults with dementia.
Richeson, Nancy E.,
American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias, Vol 18(6), Nov-Dec 2003. pp.
353-358.
The effects of a therapeutic recreation intervention using animal-assisted therapy (AAT)
on the agitated behaviors and social interactions of older adults with dementia were
examined using the Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory and the Animal-Assisted Therapy
Flow Sheet. In a pilot study, 15 nursing home residents with dementia participated in a daily
AAT intervention for three weeks. Results showed statistically significant decreases in
agitated behaviors and a statistically significant increase in social interaction pretest to posttest.
Companion Animals and Persons With Dementia of the Alzheimer's Type: Therapeutic
Possibilities.’
Baun, Mara M.,
McCabe, Barbara W.,
American Behavioral Scientist, Vol 47(1), Sep 2003. Special issue: Human-Animal Interaction
& Wellness. pp. 42-51.
Companion animals have the potential to create new meaning and bring comfort in the lives
of persons who experience the devastating effects of dementia of the Alzheimer's type (DAT).
Research studies conducted using companion animals with persons diagnosed with DAT
provide evidence that the presence of a companion animal can increase socialization and
decrease agitation behaviors. In addition, caregivers can benefit from reduced physiological
stress by petting a companion animal. Using Reisberg's staging system, a caregiver can plan
activities with companion animals that correspond to the functional and cognitive ability of
the person with DAT.
A Case of Refractory Borderline Personality Disorder Improved with Animal Assisted
Therapy.
Sato, Yuka,
Senjo, Masanori,
Tanaka, Ryouichi,
Miyazaki, Takuya,
Seishin Igaku (Clinical Psychiatry), Vol 45(6), Jun 2003. pp. 659-661.
Reports the case of a 19-yr-old female patient with refractory borderline personality disorder
who improved with animal assisted therapy in Japan
The proposed benefits of incorporating non-human animals into preventative efforts for
Conduct Disorder.
Gullone, Eleonora,
Anthrozoös, Vol 16(2), 2003. pp. 160-174.
Conduct disorder (CD) is among the most intractable mental health problems and has been
found to be increasingly prevalent throughout childhood, and into adolescence. Although
many of the behaviors that comprise CD have been researched, there has been limited focus
on preventative interventions for childhood conduct problems. This article reviews risk factors
for the development of CD, which include the characteristics of early-starting conductdisordered children, their parents and families. I then discuss directions for future
preventative efforts with particular focus on the promotion of concern for others, and the
development of positive interpersonal relationships. To this end, I provide a detailed rationale
for the proposal that animal-assisted preventative efforts are an optimal vehicle for
promoting positive functioning, and thereby interrupting the development of CD.
Effect of aquariums on electroconvulsive therapy patients.
Barker, Sandra B.,
Rasmussen, Keith G.,
Best, Al. M.,
Anthrozoös, Vol 16(3), 2003. pp. 229-240.
This study investigates the effect of an aquarium on pre-treatment anxiety, fear, frustration,
and depression in electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) patients. Forty-two patients consecutively
referred for ECT were rotated between rooms with and without aquariums. Self report
measures of depression, anxiety, fear, and frustration were obtained, along with heart rate
and blood pressure measurements. Preliminary mixed-model, repeated measures analysis of
variance (ANOVA) revealed no significant differences between the aquarium and control
conditions on any of the dependent measures. A trend toward significance was found for self
=0.08) and further data were collected. Subsequent reported anxiety (p mixed model,
repeated measures ANOVA confirmed the trend toward =0.08) in anxiety between the
aquarium and control differences (p conditions. Factoring out demographic factors, the
average patient experienced 12% less anxiety in the presence of an aquarium.
Case studies of adults receiving horse-riding therapy.
Burgon, Hannah,
Anthrozoös, Vol 16(3), 2003. pp. 263-276.
The purpose of this study was to examine the psychotherapeutic effect of riding therapy
(RT) on a group of adult users of a social services mental health team in South Devon. The
benefits of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) and pet ownership on human health and wellbeing are well documented. A further objective was to find out whether these benefits, if
identified, were transferable to other areas of the riders' lives. The study was conducted
utilizing a case study, participant observational methodology following the progress of six
women with various mental health problems receiving RT on a weekly basis. The sessions
comprised of learning to look after the horses and carrying out stable management tasks, in
addition to the riding; the chief instructor was aware that an important factor of the RT was
building up a relationship and trust with the horses on the ground. The prime objective of the
study was for the riders' experience of the therapy to be expressed in their own words. It
was found that the participants benefited in areas ranging from increased confidence and
self-concept, and that the therapy aided social stimulation and led to transferable skills
being acquired.
Behavior of dolphins towards adults and children during swim-with-dolphin programs and
towards children with disabilities during therapy sessions.
Brensing, Karsten,
Linke, Katrin,
Anthrozoös, Vol 16(4), 2003. pp. 315-331.
In recent years, dolphin-assisted therapy has become very popular and an increasing
number of facilities worldwide offer therapy programs with dolphins. In contrast to other
animal-assisted therapy programs, dolphins are not domestic animals; they are mostly
caught in the wild and there are still no studies on their behavior during these therapies.
However, there is speculation that the behavior of dolphins toward people with mental and
physical disabilities may play an important role in the success of the therapy. We observed
83 sessions with five untrained dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) at Dolphins Plus, a fenced area
with ocean water in the Florida Keys, USA. Our detailed observations of contact and distance
behavior between dolphins and different groups of swimmers (adults, children, and children
with mental and physical disabilities) show that, in general, dolphins prefer small humans to
adults. One dolphin showed a clear preference toward children with mental and physical
disabilities, and we conclude that she showed assisting behavior.
Effects of animal-assisted therapy on patients' anxiety, fear, and depression before ECT.
Barker, Sandra B.,
Pandurangi, Anand K.,
Best, Al M.,
Journal of ECT, Vol 19(1), 2003. pp. 38-44.
Examined whether animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is associated with reductions in fear,
anxiety, and depression in psychiatric patients before electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).
Before their scheduled ECT treatment, 35 patients (aged 21-85 yrs) were assigned on
alternate days to the treatment condition, consisting of a 15-min AAT session, and the
standard (comparison) condition, consisting of 15 min with magazines. Visual analogue scales
were used to measure anxiety, fear, depression before and after treatment and standard
conditions. Results show that the effect of AAT on fear was significant in both the mixedmodel, repeated-measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) (p=0.0006) and the secondary
analysis (p=0.0050), which covaried out all of the demographic conditions (gender, race,
marital status, pet ownership, age), condition order, and the pretest rating. The effect of AAT
on anxiety approached significance in the ANCOVA (p=0.0982), but in the secondary analysis,
the effect was not significant (p=0.6498). The AAT effect on depression was not significant in
ANCOVA (p=0.7665) or in the secondary analysis (p=0.9394). A least squares mean analysis
showed that AAT reduced fear by 37% and anxiety 18%. There was no demonstrated effect
of AAT on depression.
Animal-assisted therapy for children with pervasive developmental disorders.
Martin, François,
Farnum, Jennifer,
Western Journal of Nursing Research, Vol 24(6), Oct 2002. Special issue: Human-Animal
Interaction. pp. 657-670.
Evaluated the effects of interaction with dogs on children with pervasive developmental
disorders (PDD) characterized by lack of social communications and abilities. While interacting
with a therapist, 10 3-13 yr olds (with PDD, autistic disorder, or Asperger's syndrome) were
exposed to 3 different conditions: (1) a nonsocial toy (ball), (2) a stuffed dog, and (3) a live
dog. Prosocial and nonsocial interactions were evaluated in terms of both behavioral and
verbal dimensions. Results show that children exhibited a more playful mood, were more
focused, and were more aware of their social environments when in the presence of a
therapy dog. These findings indicate that interaction with dogs may have specific benefits
for PDD children and suggest that animal-assisted therapy may be an appropriate form of
treatment.
A dog and a 'happy person' visit nursing home residents.
Kaiser, Lana,
Spence, Linda J.,
McGavin, Lily,
Struble, Laura,
Keilman, Linda,
Western Journal of Nursing Research, Vol 24(6), Oct 2002. Special issue: Human-Animal
Interaction. pp. 671-683.
Determined if elderly nursing home residents had a preference for the type of visitor (dog vs
person) when both visits were nonobligatory and nonjudgmental. Human visits were from a
nonjudgmental, outgoing, enthusiastic young adult ("a happy person"); the dog was a 6 yr
old male certified as a Pet Partner. Behaviors were evaluated to determine if the human or
animal visitor was more likely to influence prosocial behaviors (moving closer, patting,
smiling). Six residents (aged 74-98 yrs) were visited by both the dog and the happy person; 5
of 6 completed the final interview. Residents were equally likely to smile at and move closer
to both visitors. Residents were more likely to pat the dog. Three residents liked both visits
equally; 1 preferred the dog, and 1 preferred the happy person. These data suggest that
nonobligatory visits to nursing home residents from a happy person may be as beneficial to
the resident as visits from a dog.
Resident dog in the Alzheimer's special care unit.
McCabe, Barbara W.,
Baun, Mara M.,
Speich, Denise,
Agrawal, Sangeeta,
Western Journal of Nursing Research, Vol 24(6), Oct 2002. Special issue: Human-Animal
Interaction. pp. 684-696.
Studied the effect on problem behaviors of a resident therapy dog in an Alzheimer's special
care unit. A within-participants repeated-measures design was used for the study. The
Nursing Home Behavior Problem Scale was used to document behaviors (on days and
evenings) 1 wk before and 4 wks after placement of the dog. There were 22 68-96 yr old
residents whose records were reviewed. Results show that participants on the day shift
exhibited significantly fewer problem behaviors across the 4 wks of the study. There was no
significant change in behaviors on the evening shift. There were no differences noted in the
administration of pharmacological agents to treat mood and behavioral problems. It is
concluded that the findings support the long-term therapeutic effects of dogs for persons
residing in Alzheimer's special care units.
Animal-assisted therapy and nutrition in Alzheimer's disease.
Edwards, Nancy E.,
Beck, Alan M.,
Western Journal of Nursing Research, Vol 24(6), Oct 2002. Special issue: Human-Animal
Interaction. pp. 697-712.
Examined the influence of animal-assisted therapy, specifically fish aquarium observation,
on nutritional intake and body weight in 62 individuals (mean age 80.1 yrs) with Alzheimer's
disease who lived in specialized units. Baseline nutritional data were obtained followed by a
2-wk treatment period when the aquariums were introduced. The treatment data were
collected daily for 2 wks then weekly for 6 wks. Results show that nutritional intake increased
significantly when the aquariums were introduced and continued to increase during the 6 wk
weekly follow-up. Weight increased significantly over the 16-wk period. In addition,
participants required less nutritional supplementation, resulting in health care cost savings.
The effects of animal-assisted therapy on loneliness in an elderly population in long-term
care facilities.
Banks, Marian R.,
Banks, William A.
Journals of Gerontology: Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, Vol 57A(7), Jul
2002. pp. M428-M432.
Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is claimed to have a variety of benefits, but almost all
published results are anecdotal. The authors characterized the resident population in longterm care facilities desiring AAT and determined whether AAT can objectively improve
loneliness. Of 62 residents, 45 met inclusion criteria for the study. These 45 residents were
administered the Demographic and Pet History Questionnaire (DPHQ) and Version 3 of the
UCLA Loneliness Scale (UCLA-LS). They were then randomized into three groups (no AAT;
AAT once/week; AAT three times/week; n=15/group) and retested with the UCLA-LS near the
end of the 6-week study. Use of the DPHQ showed residents volunteering for the study had a
strong life-history of emotional intimacy with pets and wished that they currently had a pet.
AAT was shown by analysis of covariance followed by pair-wise comparison to have
significantly reduced loneliness scores in comparison with the no AAT group. The desire for
AAT strongly correlates with previous pet ownership. AAT reduces loneliness in residents of
long-term care facilities
Transfiguration of the collectivity by animal assisted therapy: A case of dog therapy at a
geriatric hospital.
Kato, Kensuke,
Atsumi, Tomohide,
Japanese Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Vol 41(2), Apr 2002. pp. 67-83.
Investigated the effects of dog therapy (i.e., animal assisted therapy using dogs; DT) on
elderly clients at a geriatric hospital from the view of collective transfiguration. Subjects (Ss)
were 55 elderly inpatients with senile dementia, in Japan, who did not have an animal
allergy and who were not afraid of dogs. Ss were divided into 2 groups and Ss in one group
participated in DT sessions 3 times between April 1998 and February 1999 at the hospital in
which Ss were staying; Ss in the other group did not participate in DT. The results showed
that: (1) the Ss changed their "Hyoujou" (e.g., look, atmosphere; Hiromatsu, 1989), and the
relation between Ss and staff members at the hospital was transfigured by DT; (2) the
variations in members' behavior was derived from the changes of tacit premises in the
hospital caused by collective transfiguration; and (3) DT had an impact on collectivity at the
hospital and generated new tacit premises and collective behaviors.
Animal assisted activities for geriatric patients.
Steed, Heather N.,
Smith, Barbara S.,
Older individuals may experience decreased quality of life and increased stress related to life
transitions. These include change of residences, the loss of a spouse and/or personal
possessions. With these transitions, a decline in physical and emotional health may occur due
to social isolation, loss of independence, institutionalization, and family breakdown. Studies
that use animal assisted activities were evaluated for the effectiveness of improving various
parameters in the geriatric population undergoing these transitions. Interactions with
animals decreased blood pressure and heart rate, decreased depression, and increased life
satisfaction. Animal assisted activities appear to improve the quality of life of aging
individuals. Future research should focus on outcomes of using different types of animals
and the amount of time spent with the animals.
The Influence of a Stuffed and Live Animal on Communication in a Female With Alzheimer's
Dementia.
Curtright, Angela,
Turner, Greg S.
Journal of Medical Speech-Language Pathology, Vol 10(1), Mar 2002. pp. 61-71.
Alzheimer's disease is a debilitating illness that impairs communication. The use of animalassisted therapy (AAT) within long-term care facilities has been the center of promising
research over the last decade. Animals, either stuffed or live, are hypothesized to positively
influence the communication ability of individuals with dementia of the Alzheimer's type
(DAT). In this study, a stuffed and then a live animal were introduced into the environment
of an individual with DAT. Conversations elicited in the presence and absence of the animals
were analyzed to determine change in communication output. Conversations were grouped
into information units and further described as complete, incomplete, and noninformation
units. Complete information units representing a complete thought were, therefore, deemed
most meaningful. The presence of both types of animals within the communicative
environment of the individual with DAT was associated with a slight increase in total and
complete information units and no change in incomplete and noninformation units. These
findings were similar for both animal types. Based on these results, the presence of both
stuffed and live animals appeared to have minimal impact on the communication of one
individual with DAT.
Methodological issues in studying the anxiety-reducing effects of animals: Reflections from a
pediatric dental study.
Schwartz, Angela,
Patronek, Gary,
Anthrozoös, Vol 15(4), 2002. pp. 290-298.
This article reports observations made during a study investigating the role of a therapy dog
in reducing anxiety in urban children visiting the dentist. The design and execution of the
study were affected by methodological issues such as the reaction of urban children to the
dog in the clinic, the tools used to measure anxiety in the children, the age and petownership status of the children, and the personality of the therapy dog. Suggestions made
for researchers designing similar studies include allowing children to become comfortable with
the therapy dog before beginning formal data collection, working with younger children who
have made fewer visits to the dentist, and using or developing more accurate tools for
measuring behavioral and physiological anxiety.
Influence of the Eden Alternative-super( TM ) on the Functional Status of Nursing Home
Residents.
Hinman, Martha R.,
Heyl, Deborah M.,
Physical & Occupational Therapy in Geriatrics, Vol 20(2), 2002. pp. 1-20.
The Eden Alternative was initiated to reduce feelings of loneliness, boredom, and
helplessness among nursing home residents through interactions with plants, animals, and
children in their environment. This study assessed the effects of the Eden Alternative on
residents' physical, mental, emotional, and social function. Data were collected from
observations of residents' interactions, ratings from selected functional indicators in the
Minimum Data Set (MDS), and interviews with staff members. Data from on-site observations
and staff views interviews indicate that the added stimuli in the Edenized environment helped
promote function among residents, particularly in the physical and social domains. However,
no significant changes were found in most of the MDS indicators.
Coping skills interventions with adolescents in anger management using animals in
therapy.
Hanselman, Jan L.,
:Journal of Child & Adolescent Group Therapy, Vol 11(4), Dec 2001. pp. 159-195.
Pet therapy reduces apprehension and is, therefore an important tool in working with
children and adolescents. Treatment of animals by children is also indicative of their mental
health and healthy development. Cruelty to animals may foretell later abuse to humans
providing the link between child and animal abuse. Understanding the role of pets as
indicators of individual and family problems enable therapists and other professionals to
provide the proper counseling for the situation. This paper presents and describes a group
work program cognitive behavioral approach with adolescents in pet therapy as an adjunct
to treatment in anger management.
Animal-assisted therapy for elderly schizophrenic patients: A one-year controlled trial.
Barak, Yoram,
Savorai, Osnat
Mavashev, Svetlana
Beni, Avshalom
American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, Vol 9(4), Fal 2001. pp. 439-442.
Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) has been used as a therapeutic tool in various psychiatric
populations, but there have been no published studies with elderly schizophrenic patients.
The authors evaluated, in a blinded, controlled manner, the effects of AAT in a closed
psychogeriatric ward over 12 months. Subjects were 10 elderly schizophrenic patients and 10
matched patients (mean age 79.1 yrs). The outcome measure was the Scale for Social
Adaptive Functioning Evaluation (SAFE). AAT was conducted in weekly 4-hour sessions.
Treatment encouraged mobility, interpersonal contact, and communication and reinforced
activities of daily living (ADLs), including personal hygiene and independent self-care, through
the use of cats and dogs as "modeling companions." The SAFE scores at termination showed
significant improvement compared with baseline scores and were significantly more positive
for the AAT group on both Total SAFE score and on the Social Functions subscale. AAT
proved a successful tool for enhancing socialization, ADLs, and general well-being.
A day care program and evaluation of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) for the elderly with
senile dementia.
Kanamori, Masao
Suzuki, Mizue
Yamamoto, Kiyomi
Kanda, Masahiro
Matsui, Yoshimi
Kojima, Emi
Fukawa, Hirono
Sugita, Tomomi
Oshiro, Hajime
American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, Vol 16(4), Jul-Aug 2001. pp. 234-239.
Examined the use of a combination of methods for evaluating the effects of animal-assisted
therapy (AAT) for the elderly with senile dementia in an adult day care center. AAT was
implemented for a total of 6 biweekly sessions with 7 Ss (average age 79.4 yrs) with
dementia of the Alzheimer type (DAT) or vascular dementia. There was a control group of 20
Ss. Evaluation methods included the Mini-Mental State Exam, Nishimura's Activities of Daily
Living, family interviews to assess behavioral pathology and endocrinological stress evaluation
by assessment of salivary chromogranin A. Case illustrations are provided for a 76 yr old
female and an 88 yr old female. Overall results show that behavioral assessments were
lowered in the AAT group and were slightly worse in the control group. Salivary chromogranin
A was relatively reduced in the last AAT session. Specific changes for each type of
assessment are provided. It is concluded that a combination of assessment methods is a
useful way to examine changes in dementia patients given AAT.
The use of choice theory in animal assisted therapy for children and young adults.
Missel, Michelle R. Jenkins,
International Journal of Reality Therapy, Vol 20(2), Spr 2001. pp. 40-41.
Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT) is the utilization of an animal that meets specific criteria
to facilitate therapy within a goal-oriented treatment plan that is designed and administered
by a professional. AAT is very useful to counselors, and the integration of choice theory into
AAT is especially beneficial for the psychotherapist when working with children or young
adults. This article explores the use of choice theory in AAT when obedience courses and
animal maintenance are part of the treatment plan. The fulfillment of basic needs by AAT is
also briefly examined and personal responsibility and effective control are emphasized.
Cute and cuddly and a whole lot more? A call for empirical investigation into the therapeutic
benefits of human-animal interaction for children.
Fawcett, Nicholas R.,
Gullone, Eleonora,
Behaviour Change, Vol 18(2), 2001. pp. 124-133.
There are many indications that humans have a tendency to affiliate with nature and to
connection emotionally with non-human species. Research has also shown that humans can
benefit significantly from their relationships with non-human animals (NHAs). For example,
studies have indicated that even the mere observation of NHAs can result in reduced
physiological responding to stressors and increased positive mood. The present review
proposes that findings such as these may provide important information regarding the
potential benefits to be derived from incorporating NHAs into intervention strategies,
particularly for children. Of specific relevance for children is their fascination with, and
attraction to, NHAs. There is also the very nonjudgmental nature of human-animal
interactions (i,e., unconditional positive regard) that has been argued, among other benefits,
to serve as a useful 'bridge' for the establishment of rapport between therapist and child.
However, despite promising avenues of investigation, the area of animal-assisted
intervention remains largely neglected by researchers. This paper also calls for sound
empirical investigation into proposals regarding the potential therapeutic benefits of
incorporating NHAs into psychological intervention programs for children.
Find More Like ThisA comparison of the effects of toys versus live animals on the
communication of patients with dementia of the Alzheimer's type.
Greer, Kari L.,
Pustay, Karen A.,
Zaun, Tracy C.,
Coppens, Patrick,
Clinical Gerontologist, Vol 24(3-4), 2001. pp. 157-182.
Examined the effect of toy vs live cat stimuli on the verbal communication of nursing home
residents with dementia. The Ss' verbal communication was analyzed for total number of
words, meaningful information units, and initiations. The measurements were recorded in 3
conditions: without stimuli, in the presence of 2 toy cats, and in the presence of 2 live cats.
Six female nursing home residents (aged 84-90 yrs) with moderate dementia were randomly
assigned into 2 groups to counterbalance the order of the conditions. The results indicated
that live cats had the greatest influence on average S performance across all 3
measurements.
An evaluation of therapeutic horseback riding programs for adults with physical impairments.
Farias-Tomaszewski, Sarah,
Jenkins, Sharon Rae
Keller, Jean
Therapeutic Recreation Journal, Vol 35(3), 2001. pp. 250-257.
Several methods have been developed over the years that employ animals as adjuncts in
psychotherapeutic interventions; therapeutic horseback riding is one such example. The
purpose of this exploratory study was to assess the outcome of a 12-week therapeutic
horseback riding program for persons with physical disabilities. 22 adults (aged 17-61 yrs old)
with a variety of physical impairments were participants in a therapeutic horseback riding
program. A one group pre-test/post-test design was used to evaluate changes in levels of
physical and global self-efficacy. Behavioral indices of self-confidence also were collected over
the course of the intervention on 18 of the 22 participants. Physical self-efficacy and
behavioral self-confidence were found to increase from pre-test to post-test while global selfefficacy did not change over time. Findings from this exploratory study provide evidence in
support of the psychological value of this type of intervention for adults with physical
impairments.
The experience of pet ownership as a meaningful occupation.
Allen, Jessica M.,
Kellegrew, Diane Hammon
Jaffe, Deborah
Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, Vol 67(4), Oct 2000. pp. 271-278.
Examined the experience of pet ownership in the everyday lives of 7 men (aged 30-50 yrs)
with HIV or AIDS. Interviews and field observations were analyzed using a grounded theory
approach. The findings demonstrate that the experience of pet ownership is both typical of
any pet owner and yet profoundly impacted by the illness of the owners. The results of this
preliminary study indicate that pet ownership can be a highly valued occupation for some,
and thus has implications for occupational therapy intervention.
Animal-assisted therapy--Magic or medicine?
Odendaal, J. S. J.,
Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Vol 49(4), Oct 2000. pp. 275-280.
Notes that a sound theoretical basis supported by scientifically measured physiological
parameters is needed to gain medical support for animal-assisted therapy. Six
neurochemicals associated with a decrease in blood pressure were measured in 18 humans
and 18 dogs before and after positive interaction. The results indicate that in both species the
neurochemicals involved with attention-seeking or attentionis egens behavior have increased.
It is concluded that this information can be used as a rationale for animal-assisted
therapy.
The use and implications of a canine companion in a therapeutic day program for nursing
home residents with dementia.
Katsinas, René P.,
Activities, Adaptation & Aging, Vol 25(1), 2000. pp. 13-30.
Reports the use and implications of a Canine Companion within a rehabilitation model
program for nursing home residents with dementia. Projected results included elimination of
some restraints for wanderers, social interaction between the animal and individuals,
between group members about the dog, and orientation of individuals to the present in the
presence of the dog. Unexpected results included re-orientation of individuals who had
withdrawn into themselves, and the use of the dog's presence to anchor orientation to the
day of the week by residents. General and specific implications of these findings are
discussed with recommendations for future research.
Effective animal-intervention for long term care residents.
Kogan, Lori R.
Activities, Adaptation & Aging, Vol 25(1), 2000. pp. 31-45.
Discusses the benefits of interactions between animals and the elderly, specifically long-term
care residents. The paper presents clearly delineated steps needed to successfully introduce
"live-in" animals, visiting animals and a human-animal team intervention program.
Emphasis is placed on practical advice for staff and caretakers in residential settings to help
promote positive, smooth transitions toward more animal-friendly and, therefore, humanfriendly facilities
Animal-assisted therapy in psychiatric rehabilitation.
Marr, Carolyn A.,
French, Linda
Thompson, Donna
Drum, Larry
Greening, Gloria
Mormon, Jill
Henderson, Irie
Hughes, Carroll W.
Anthrozoös, Vol 13(1), 2000. pp. 43-47.
69 male and female psychiatric inpatients (aged 20-66 yrs) were randomized to either an
animal-assisted therapy (AAT) psychiatric rehabilitation group or a similarly conducted
control group without AAT, to test if AAT can improve prosocial behaviors. The Social
Behavior Scale was scored daily and patients were monitored for 4 wks. Results show that
there were no baseline differences between the 2 groups, but by week 4, patients in the AAT
group were significantly more interactive with other patients, scored higher on measures of
smiles and pleasure, were more sociable and helpful with others, and were more active and
responsive to surroundings. The data suggest that AAT plays an important role in enhancing
the benefits of conventional therapy, and demonstrates the benefit of including a non-AAT
group for comparison.
Animal-assisted therapy enhances resident social interaction and initiation in long-term
care facilities.
Bernstein, P. L.,
Friedmann, E.
Malaspina, A.
Anthrozoös, Vol 13(4), 2000. pp. 213-224.
A study was undertaken at 2 long-term care facilities to compare the effectiveness of
Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) with Non-Animal Therapy (NAT) at providing
opportunities for patients to engage in social interaction and to initiate social behaviors. 33
patients (in their 70s and 80s), both alert and semi- to nonalert, were observed during
regular recreational therapy sessions. NAT activities included Arts and Crafts and Snack
Bingo, while AAT involved animals from shelters brought to group sessions. Social behaviors
were divided into Brief Conversations, Long Conversations, and Touch. The authors
determined frequencies and rates of the behaviors, who initiated the behaviors and whether
the behaviors were directed at other people or at the animals. During AAT, residents were
involved in as much or more conversation with others, including the animals, as residents in
NAT, and were more likely to initiate and participate in longer conversations. The most
dramatic differences between therapy types were found in rates of touch: touching the
animals during AAT added significantly to resident engagement in, and initiation of, social
behavior. Since touch is considered an important part of social stimulation and therapy, the
enhancement of touch by the animals is an important effect.
Influence of dolphin-assisted therapy sessions on the functional state of children with
psychoneurological symptoms of diseases.
Lukina, L. N.,
Human Physiology, Vol 25(6), Nov-Dec 1999. pp. 676-679.
Explored the use of Black Sea Afalina dolphins, kept in conditions of the oceanarium, for
treatment and rehabilitation of 90 children (aged 4-12 yrs) with infantile neurosis, mental
retardation, or other psychoneurological diseases compared with 57 healthy controls. A
biotechnical complex for dolphin-assisted sanitation and rehabilitation of humans was
created and tested using the author's methods of dolphin therapy. The latter beneficially
influenced Ss' autonomic homeostasis and psychoemotional status, thus facilitating successful
psychophysiological rehabilitation in the family and the collective. Introduction of special
psychotherapeutic methods into the system of treatment and sanitation procedures helped
patients achieve a positive effect from contacts with a dolphin, which led to activation of the
adaptive mechanisms of neurohumoral homeostasis.
The human-animal team approach for children with emotional disorders: Two case studies.
Kogan, Lori R.,
Granger, Ben P.
Fitchett, Jennifer A.
Helmer, Kimberly A.
Young, Kaili J.
Child & Youth Care Forum, Vol 28(2), Apr 1999. pp. 105-121.
The therapeutic potential of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) was assessed in 2 case studies
of emotionally disturbed children. Two males (11 and 12 yrs old) participated in weekly AAT
sessions for 12 wks. Progress of individual goals was assessed through The ADD-H
Comprehensive Teacher Rating Scale (ACTeRS), direct observation and videotapes of the
therapy sessions, Individual Education Plans (IEP), and post-intervention interviews with the
Ss, their families, and educational professionals. Data analysis revealed progress in most
identified goals.
Pet-facilitated therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder.
Altschuler, Eric Lewin,
Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, Vol 11(1), Mar 1999. pp. 29-30.
It is suggested that pet-facilitated therapy (PFT) might be a useful adjuvant on treatment of
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PFT may be helpful in alleviating some of the fear and
anxiety of PTSD patients, who are often refractor to therapy. These patients may tend to
separate themselves from human society, and thus may benefit from interacting with their
animals. Some motivation and rationale for these ideas are given, and a method of testing it
is presented.
Some comments on context embodiment in zootherapy: The case of the Autidolfin project.
Servais, Véronique,
Anthrozoös, Vol 12(1), 1999. pp. 5-15.
The Autidolfijn project was undertaken in 1991 in Bruges, Belgium, to assess the effect of
interactions with captive dolphins on learning in autistic children (AC). The project's
hypothesis was that interactions with dolphins foster learning in AC by increasing their
attention faculty and their motivation. The project lasted 4 years (with 2 sessions lasting 16
and 14 mo) and ended with ambiguous results. Although one group of children did seem to
gain learning benefits from working with the dolphins based on results of a learning task and
measures of attention, difficulties arising from the experimental set-up itself seemed to play a
role in how well the groups performed. The Autidolfijn project was intended as an
experiment, but it was imperfectly controlled and consequently the data could not be used to
answer directly the question of the therapeutic effect dolphins have on children with autism.
Here the data generated from the project are presented as ethnographic data attached to a
particular situation with the aim of describing context embodiment in the context of this
zootherapy program and suggesting how a rigorous experimental context might prevent the
animal's presence from effecting any positive change.
Behavioral assessment of horses in therapeutic riding programs.
Anderson, Marsha K.,
Friend, Ted H.
Evans, J. Warren
Bushong, Diana M.
Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Vol 63(1), Mar 1999. pp. 11-24.
Conducted a behavioral assessment of horses who were being used and not used in
therapeutic riding programs to help determine useful methods of selecting horses for use in
therapeutic riding programs. 76 horses from therapeutic riding centers and 27 nontherapeutic riding horses were used. A temperament survey for each horse was completed by
3 riding instructors at each therapeutic riding center or by the individual most knowledgeable
about the horse at the other sites. Twenty personality traits from the survey were used to
quantify temperament. The therapeutic riding instructors did not often agree on the
temperament of their center's horses. The personality trait ratings made by the therapeutic
riding instructors at each center were on average significantly correlated for only 37.8% of
the horses for any two instructors and 7.8% for 3 instructors. There was also a tendency for
relationships between extremes in temperament (desirable vs undesirable) and the hormone
concentrations, and between extremes in reactivity (low vs high) and the hormone
concentrations. The difference in ratings among riding instructors indicates a need for more
collaboration between instructors when evaluating horse temperament.
Companion animals alleviating distress in children.
Hansen, Kristine M.,
Messinger, Cathy J.
Baun, Mara M.
Megel, Mary
Anthrozoös, Vol 12(3), 1999. pp. 142-148.
Physiological arousal and behavioral distress in children aged 2-6 yrs undergoing a physical
examination were examined with and without the presence of a companion dog. Thirty-four
(14 males, 20 females) children were assigned randomly either to a treatment group in which
a therapy dog was present during their examinations or to a control group which had the
usual pediatric exam without a dog present. Physiological variables (systolic, diastolic, and
mean arterial pressures, heart rate, and finger tip temperatures) were measured at baseline
and at 2-minute intervals during each examination. Ss were videotaped during the
examination for analysis of behavioral distress, using the Observation Scale of Behavioral
Distress (OSBD). Physiological measurements were not statistically significantly different
between the dog and no-dog groups but were found no to be good measures of physiologic
arousal in this age group. There was statistically significantly less behavioral distress when
the dog was present. These findings indicate that the presence of a companion dog could
lower the behavioral distress of children during a laboratory simulated physical examination.
Guest editor's introduction: Animals in children's lives.
Serpell, James,
Society & Animals, Vol 7(2), 1999. Special issue: Children and animals. pp. 87-94.
ntroduces a special theme issue on children and animals. Animals play a prominent role in
the child's world, as described in 4 articles within this theme issue (see records 1999-15443002, 1999-15443-003, 1999-15443-004, and 1999-15443-005). Also discussed are the topics
of animals as a force for good through the invention of the child-pet relationship, the dark
side of the human-animal relationship, animals as therapists, and the resistance on the part
of psychologists and social scientists to study the child-animal relationship
Pets and health.
Brasic, James Robert,
Psychological Reports, Vol 83(3, Pt 1), Dec 1998. pp. 1011-1024.
Discuses the physiological and psychologic effects of pets on health and pet therapy.
Beneficial and adverse effects of pets for individuals in a wide range of circumstances have
been reported. Nevertheless, well-designed unbiased experiments and long-term follow-up
studies are needed. Pets appear to be therapeutic for some individuals and deleterious for
others. The controversies concerning the effects of pets on health merit objective assessment
by unbiased researchers.
Individual counseling for sexually abused children: A role for animals and storytelling.
Reichert, Elisabeth,
Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, Vol 15(3), Jun 1998. pp. 177-185.
This article addresses the use of animal assisted therapy in individual counseling for
sexually abused children. It focuses on how the animal can help the sexually abused child
disclose abuse and express feelings. Storytelling forms a part of the treatment process. The
author's clinical experience at Project Against Sexual Abuse of Appalachian Children in
Knoxville, Tennessee, forms the basis for the article.
The effects of animal-assisted therapy on anxiety ratings of hospitalized psychiatric
patients.
Barker, Sandra B.,
Dawson, Kathryn S.
Psychiatric Services, Vol 49(6), Jun 1998. Special issue: Preliminary Program for the 1998
Institute on Psychiatric Services. pp. 797-801
Examined whether a session of animal-assisted therapy reduced the anxiety levels of
hospitalized psychiatric patients and whether any differences in reductions in anxiety were
associated with patients' diagnoses. Study Ss were 230 patients referred for therapeutic
recreation sessions. A pre- and posttreatment crossover study design was used to compare
the effects of a single animal-assisted therapy session with those of a single regularly
scheduled therapeutic recreation session. Before and after participating in the two types of
sessions, Ss completed the state scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, a self-report
measure of anxiety currently felt. A mixed-models repeated-measures analysis was used to
test differences in scores from before and after the two types of sessions. Statistically
significant reductions in anxiety scores were found after the animal-assisted therapy
session for patients with psychotic disorders, mood disorders, and other disorders, and after
the therapeutic recreation session for patients with mood disorders. No statistically significant
differences in reduction of anxiety were found between the two types of sessions.
Long-term effectiveness of dolphin-assisted therapy for children with severe disabilities.
Nathanson, David E.,
Anthrozoös, Vol 11(1), 1998. pp. 22-32.
Analyzed the long-term effectiveness of dolphin-assisted therapy, as practiced by Dolphin
Human Therapy, 71). = via a 15-item closed form, ratio scale parent questionnaire (n
Children with severe disabilities of many etiologies, from 8 countries, received either 1 or 2
wks of therapy in the multidisciplinary, behavior modification program. Results on 3 clinical
issues indicate: (1) children maintained or improved skills acquired in therapy 50% of the
time even after 12 mo away from therapy; (2) there were no difference in long-term effects
in 3 categories (genetic, brain damage, unknown causes) of etiology; and (3) 2 wks of
therapy produced significantly better long-term results vs 1 wk of therapy.
Nursing home staffs' empathy for a missing therapy dog, their attitudes to animal-assisted
therapy programs and suitable dog breeds.
Crowley-Robinson, Patricia,
Blackshaw, Judith K.
Anthrozoös, Vol 11(2), 1998. pp. 101-104.
The study was conducted at the Returned Soldiers League War Veterans Home at Pinjarra
Hills (Brisbane, Queensland, Australia) where a spayed female Whippet, Heidi, was placed as
a therapy dog. Of the 80 staff members, 47 (58.75%) returned completed questionnaires on
attitudes towards Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) programs and the disappearance of
Heidi 2 days after placement. The Pet Attitude Scale (D. Templer et al, 1981) was used in
conjunction with the staff attitude questionnaire. Ss with high Pet Attitude scores were more
upset and liked dogs more than staff with medium or low scores. The staff with high scores
were also more pleased when Heidi returned. Ss who wanted a program were those who
liked dogs the most and did not think having an AAT program would increase their workload.
Staff who thought a dog should live at the nursing home were pleased when Heidi returned.
Gentle/placid dogs were more frequently chosen than active dogs as suitable for AAT and the
preferred size was medium with a short coat.
A human-animal intervention team approach to animal-assisted therapy.
Granger, Ben P.,
Kogan, Lori
Fitchett, Jennifer
Helmer, Kim
Anthrozoös, Vol 11(3), 1998. pp. 172-176.
A human-animal intervention team approach to animal-assisted therapy is described and
assessed. The effectiveness of this modality is evaluated in 2 case studies of emotionally
disturbed children. Two school age children (both males, 11 and 12 yrs of age) participated in
an average of 12 weekly sessions. Progress of individual goals was assessed through
numerous sources: The ADD-M comprehensive Teacher Rating Scale; observations during
each session from school district researchers and professionals; videotapes of the therapy
sessions; the participants' Individual Education Plans; and post-intervention interviews with
the participants, their families, and the educational professionals involved. Evaluation showed
positive results for the majority of individual goals set.
Dolphin-assisted therapy: Flawed data, flawed conclusions.
Marino, Lori,
Lilienfeld, Scott O.
Comments that in the reports by D. E. Nathanson and Nathanson et al (see records 199804240-002 and 1997-42818-002) on long-term effectiveness of dolphin-assisted therapy
(DAT) for children with severe disabilities a plethora of serious threats to validity and flawed
data analytic procedures render the findings uninterpretable and the conclusions unwarranted
and premature. The present authors suggest that practitioners of DAT and parents who are
considering DAT for their children should be made aware that this treatment has yet to be
subjected to an adequate empirical test, and that Nathanson and colleagues' attention deficit
hypothesis remains an explanation in search of a phenomenon.
Reply to Marino and Lilienfeld.
Nathanson, David
Anthrozoös, Vol 11(4), 1998. pp. 201-202.
In response to the comments made by L. Marino and S. O. Lilienfeld (see record 1999-00469001) regarding the validity of the findings of research (see records 1997-42818-002 and
1998-04240-002) regarding the long-lasting effectiveness of dolphin-assisted therapy, the
author discusses their observations which are contained in the following 3 positions: that they
misinterpret the attention deficit hypothesis, (2) their analysis of validity problems is
emphasized and acknowledged, and (3) the ignorance of or apparent disregard for the
purpose of single subject research..
Use of an aviary to relieve depression in elderly males.
Holcomb, Ralph,
Jendro, Connie
Weber, Barbara
Nahan, Ursula
Anthrozoös, Vol 10(1), 1997. pp. 32-36.
Examined the effect of aviary exposure on the depression levels of 38 elderly males (mean
age 76 yrs) at an adult day health care program. A 4-phase repeated-treatment design
constituting 2 wks for each phase, for a total length of 8 wks, was used. Initial analysis
showed no significant difference on the group's Geriatric Depression Index scores associated
with the presence or absence of the aviary. A subsequent analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
on the difference between treatment and no-treatment depression scores suggested that use
of the aviary by men was significantly associated with reduced depression, with greater
reduction in depression associated with greater utilization of the aviary. These findings
suggest that introduction of an aviary into the physical environment of elderly male day care
participants may produce a reduction in depression among some men, possibly due to
increased social interaction stimulated by the presence of the aviary.
Animal-assisted enhancement of speech therapy: A case study.
Adams, Deborah L.
Anthrozoös, Vol 10(1), 1997. pp. 53-56.
Reports a case study of the use of Animal-Assisted Therapy applied to speech/language
pathology. The S was a 72-yr-old White female who had experienced multiple strokes and
other related medical complications. Following her last stroke, the S was verbal, but apraxic.
The 4-wk treatment utilizing 2 male Blue Merle Shetland Sheepdogs, Charlie and Josh,
increased one-word answers and object identification tasks, as well as verbalization behaviors
in the S. (
Behavior of children with learning disabilities interacting with a therapy dog.
Limond, Jennifer A.,
Bradshaw, John W. S.
Cormack, K. F. Magnus
Anthrozoös, Vol 10(2-3), 1997. pp. 84-89.
Developed a methodology to investigate the effects of a dog on the behavior of children with
severe learning disabilities. It was hypothesized that the Ss would behave differently
depending on whether the real dog or imitation dog was present, but that the direction of the
difference could not be predicted. A repeated measures design was used to observe 8
children with Down's syndrome (aged 7-12 yrs) in controlled sessions, under the direction of
an adult. Each session consisted of 7 min of interaction with a real dog, and 7 minutes with
an imitation dog (stuffed animal). Results show differences in visual attending, and verbal
and non-verbal initiation and response behaviors that indicate that the real dog provided a
more sustained focus for positive and cooperative interactions between the Ss and itself as
well as the adult, than did the imitation dog.
Effectiveness of short-term dolphin-assisted therapy for children with severe disabilities.
Nathanson, David E.,
de Castro, Donny
Friend, Heather
McMahon, Marcia
Anthrozoös, Vol 10(2-3), 1997. pp. 90-100.
Compared the effectiveness of 2 wks of dolphin-assisted therapy with the effectiveness of
6 mo of conventional physical and speech-language therapy. Data were analyzed using a
multiple baseline single S across settings design, for 47 children with severe disabilities (aged
2-13 yrs). 17 Ss were placed in a physical therapy group (group 1) and 30 Ss were placed in
a speech language group (group 2). Ss received therapy in 2 consecutive 20 min sessions,
for 2 wks. In each session, Ss interacted in-water with dolphins as a reward for correct motor
or cognitive responses. Following reinforcement, S and therapist returned to the dock for
more work, with increasing number and complexity of correct responses required prior to
reinforcement. Standardized charting procedures were used to measure acquisition of
independent motor and speech-language skills. Results show that in group 1, 12 of the 17 Ss
were able to independently reach for and touch an object or place a ring on a peg by the end
of 2-wks of dolphin-assisted therapy, compared with 0 of 17 Ss in 6 mo conventional
physical therapy. In group 2, 17 of 30 Ss were able to say their 1st word or phrase by the
end of 2 wks of dolphin assisted therapy, compared to 0 of 30 Ss after 6 mo of speech
therapy.
Use of feral cats in psychotherapy.
Wells, Eileen S.,
Rosen, Lionel W.
Walshaw, Sally
Anthrozoös, Vol 10(2-3), 1997. pp. 125-130.
Describes the use of undomesticated, feral cats as adjuncts to psychotherapy. It is argued
that this approach provides advantages not attainable when domesticated pets are used.
Case examples are provided to illuminate the various applications of this unique therapeutic
technique.
Avian companionship in alleviation of depression, loneliness, and low morale of older adults in
skilled rehabilitation units.
Jessen, Jill,
Cardiello, Frank
Baun, Mara M.
Psychological Reports, Vol 78(1), Feb 1996. pp. 339-348.
Assessed the effects of a companion bird on the depression, morale, and loneliness of 40
older adults (aged 65-91 yrs) in a skilled rehabilitation unit. Self-reported measures of
depression, loneliness, and morale were completed on admission and 10 days later. With the
presence of a companion bird the experimental Ss showed a significant decrease in
depression but none in morale or loneliness from the 20 controls who were without a bird.
Use of a companion bird may lessen negative effects of change of residence for older adults.
A pet therapy intervention with geriatric psychiatry inpatients.
Zisselman, Marc H.,
Rovner, Barry W.
Shmuely, Yochi
Ferrie, Patricia
American Journal of Occupational Therapy, Vol 50(1), Jan 1996. pp. 47-51.
Assessed the efficacy of using animal companionship programs for hospitalized elderly
persons by evaluating the effects of pet therapy intervention (PTI) on 58 geriatric psychiatry
inpatients (mean age 76.4 yrs) with disorders such as depression, dementia, Parkinson's
disease, stroke, and accompanying medical disorders. Ss were randomly assigned to PTI,
including visits with dogs, brief talks about dogs or relating experiences with pets; or an
exercise intervention, for 1 hr per day for 5 days. Ss were evaluated by the Multidimensional
Observation Scale for Elderly Subjects (E. Helmes, R. G. Caspo & J. A. Short, 1987) before
and after the intervention week. Results show no significant treatment differences between
the 2 groups. Majority of the Ss showed nonsignificant improvements in self-care functioning,
and irritable and withdrawn behavior, and a nonsignificant tendency for PTI Ss toward less
irritable behavior after treatment. However, irritable behavior scores improved in women with
dementia.
Pet ownership and the reliability of the Companion Animal Bonding Scale among participants
of the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study.
Angulo, Frederick J.,
Siegel, Judith M.
Detels, Roger
Anthrozoös, Vol 9(1), 1996. pp. 5-9.
Conducted a psychometric evaluation of the Companion Animal Bonding Scale (CABS)
among 896 18-60 yr old male pet owners from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (R. A.
Kaslow et al, 1987; J. S. Chmiel et al, 1987). The CABS is an 8-item, self-administered
questionnaire designed to measure interaction between pet owners and their pets. In 1991,
Ss in Baltimore, Chicago, and Los Angeles completed the CABS for their favorite pet. 228 Los
Angeles Ss completed follow-up questionnaires in 1992 and 1993. Internal consistency and
intraobserver reliability of the CABS were determined by measuring the Cronbach alpha and
test-retest-retest correlation coefficient, respectively. The CABS proved to be a useful
indicator of attachment and showed adequate internal consistency and intraobserver
reliability for dog and cat owners.
A pilot survey of animal-facilitated therapy in Southern California and South Dakota nursing
homes.
Darrah, Joseph P.
Occupational Therapy International, Vol 3(2), 1996. pp. 105-121.
he purpose of this study was to identify the current uses of animal-facilitated therapy
(AFT), in nursing facilities located in Southern California and South Dakota. A mail
questionnaire was sent to a random sample of 105 California and 45 South Dakota nursing
facility administrators. Selection criteria for Southern California nursing facilities included a
geographical location south of 36 degrees latitude, and listing of pet therapy as a facility
activity in the Directory of Nursing Homes (1993). South Dakota nursing facilities were
randomly selected. A total of 56 nursing facility administrators from South Dakota and
California completed the survey resulting in a 40% return rate. The study supported previous
research indicating the multiple benefits of AFT. Both California and South Dakota nursing
facility administrators identified sensory stimulation, facilitation of resident social interaction,
stress reduction, and companionship as the top four therapeutic purposes for using pets and
animals in the nursing home. Administrators also identified patient-therapist interaction,
increasing muscle strength and ROM, pain management, reduction of blood pressure and
heart rate, increasing responsibility, self-esteem, and patient independence as therapeutic
benefits of pet therapy. Further research is needed in the field of pet therapy to
demonstrate the efficacy of AFT. In addition, occupational therapists should become more
involved with the use of AFT for treatment purposes. It has been demonstrated that pet
therapy can be used with a variety of diagnoses and conditions and for implementing
therapeutic goals. It is recommended that occupational therapists participate in research on
pet therapy and consider its use in nursing homes with older patients. It is also
recommended that the use of pets in therapy be incorporated into occupational therapy
curricula.
The effects of a 'pets as therapy' dog on persons with dementia in a psychiatric ward.
Walsh, Paul G.,
Mertin, Peter G.
Verlander, Don F.
Pollard, Cris F.
Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, Vol 42(4), Dec 1995. pp. 161-166.
Assessed the effect of regular contact with a dog, under a pets as therapy program, on a
selected group of 7 chronic ward-bound, aged patients suffering mainly from dementia. A
control group of 7 patients closely matched for sex, diagnosis, and medication was also used.
Assessment measures used included global measures of daily functioning, physiological
measures (BP and heart rate), and a measure of general ward noise levels. Results indicated
significant experimental group changes in heart rate, but not BP, but this latter result could
be due to the various medications the Ss were receiving. There was also a substantial drop in
noise levels in the experimental ward during the presence of the dog.
Tips for practitioners: Pet care: A vehicle for learning.
Law, Sandra
Scott, Sandra
Focus on Autistic Behavior, Vol 10(2), Jun 1995. pp. 17-18.
Discusses pet care programs (PCPs), as educational intervention for students with pervasive
developmental delay/autism. PCP involves care and handling of domestic animals within the
confines of the classroom. Opportunities to work with a variety of pets on a regular basis
serve to reduce or eradicate these children's worry and fear, and results in increased student
confidence and comfort when handling domestic animals. Daily pet routines, where the child
cares for and nurtures a living creature, foster a sense of student responsibility. They also
serve as a vehicle for receptive and expressive language development. Preliminary activities
involve selection of the pet, its actual purchase, and preparation of a step-by-step daily pet
care routine. Among the PCP benefits are development of responsibility, and self-help,
decision making and problem solving skills, social interaction with adults and peers in the
community and school.
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Cow as co-therapist: Utilization of farm animals as therapeutic aides with children in
residential treatment.
Mallon, Gerald P.,
Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, Vol 11(6), Dec 1994. pp. 455-474.
Investigated the experiences of 80 children (aged 7-16 yrs) placed in a residential treatment
center that used farm animals as one of its treatment approaches. Findings from interviews
with children and staff and from observations indicate that the children made use of the farm
animals in the same way that one would use the services of a therapist. Children indicated
that they spoke to the animals, without fear that what they said would be repeated; they
visited the animals to feel better when they felt sad or angry; and they learned about
nurturing and caring for other living things. Issues of aggressiveness, age appropriateness,
separation from the animals, and communication between children and animals are
addressed.
Some of our best therapists are dogs.
Mallon, Gerald P.
Child & Youth Care Forum, Vol 23(2), Apr 1994. pp. 89-101.
Assessed the benefits and drawbacks of introducing dogs into residential treatment centers in
group care programs. Six child care workers and 12 children (aged 6-14 yrs) participated in
qualitative, in-depth interviews. Although both benefits and drawbacks were identified, the
benefits appeared to outweigh the drawbacks by a wide margin.
The training of pets as therapy dogs in a women's prison: A pilot study.
Walsh, Paul G.,
Mertin, Peter G.
Anthrozoös, Vol 7(2), 1994. pp. 124-128.
Describes the Pets as Therapy (PAT) program, which was initiated in a women's prison to
train companion dogs for the elderly and individuals with disabilities. The effect of the
program on the general psychological and emotional well-being of the prisoners participating
in the program was examined. Eight women taking part in the program were responsible for
training 3 dogs each. As part of PAT training, Ss completed the Coppersmith Self-Esteem
Inventory and the IPAT Depression Scale prior to entering and leaving the program. Results
suggested that the program had positive effects on the self-esteem of prisoners with a
concomitant decrease in depression. Ss also reported that they felt worthwhile in that they
were performing a valuable task.
Pets as adjunct therapists in a residence for former psychiatric patients.
Nielsen, Julia A.,
Delude, Lloyd A.
Anthrozoös, Vol 7(3), 1994. pp. 166-171.
A tank of guppies and a cage of guinea pigs were introduced into an interim residence for
former psychiatric patients to assess the reaction of residents. An ABAB experimental design
was used. Residents showed great concern for the animals and quickly developed social
relationships with them. All residents talked to the guinea pigs and most petted them and
commiserated with the surviving guppy after the death of its companion. Presence of the
animals facilitated social interaction on a number of levels. Questionnaire responses
indicated that the residents found the presence of the animals beneficial and strongly
approved of their continued presence. After the study ended, additional fish were acquired by
the residents. In the long term, residents were unable to maintain this level of concern, and
the animals had to be removed from the home.
Animal-assisted therapy and depression in adult college students.
Folse, Eileen B.,
Minder, Carolyn C.
Aycock, Melanie J.
Santana, Ronald T.
Anthrozoös, Vol 7(3), 1994. pp. 188-194.
Investigated the effects of animal-assisted therapy (A-AT) on self-reported depression in
44 college undergraduates. Ss were selected on the basis of scores on the Beck Depression
Inventory (BDI). Ss were assigned to 1 of 3 groups: A-AT in conjunction with psychotherapy
(directive group), A-AT only (nondirective group), and controls. Standardized regressed BDI
posttest scores were used as dependent variables in one-way ANOVA with treatment as the
independent variable. Results revealed significant differences among groups. Results
confirmed the positive influence of A-AT in this cohort.
Play and animal-assisted therapy: A group-treatment model for sexually abused girls ages
9-13.
Reichert, Elisabeth,
Family Therapy, Vol 21(1), 1994. pp. 55-62.
Presents a framework for conducting group therapy for girls aged 9-13 yrs. The model was
developed from the author's clinical experience in conducting a series of groups over 4 yrs at
the Project Against Sexual Abuse of Appalachian Children. Treatment modalities consist of
animal-assisted therapy. There are 3 treatment phases. Phase 1 conveys why it is
necessary to slowly and carefully examine what happened to the children and explain
therapy in the form of metaphor. Phase 2 re-creates the traumatic elements through play
and fantasy in which the children can be victorious survivors rather than victims. Phase 3
integrates education and prevention and deals with termination of the group.
The influence of an animal on social interactions of nursing home residents in a group
setting.
Fick, Katharine M.
American Journal of Occupational Therapy, Vol 47(6), Jun 1993. pp. 529-534.
Investigated the effect of the presence and absence of a dog on the frequency and types of
social interactions among nursing home residents during a socialization group. Point sampling
was used to evaluate the behaviors of 36 male nursing home residents under 2 conditions,
Dog Present and Dog Absent. A significant difference in verbal interactions among residents
occurred with the dog present. Findings provide evidence of the value of animal-assisted
therapy programs as an effective medium for increasing socialization among residents in
long-term care facilities. Because an increase in social interactions can improve the social
climate of an institution and occupational therapists frequently incorporate group process into
their treatment, the therapeutic use of animals is described as a valuable adjunct to
reaching treatment goals.
Talking to the animal.
Hoelscher, Kathleen,
Garfat, Thom
Journal of Child & Youth Care, Vol 8(3), 1993. pp. 87-92.
Demonstrates the potential use of pet visitation in a child and youth care in-home family
support program. The use of a trained poodle by a child and youth care worker during 1 day
is recounted. Through the use of the animal, a child and the youth care worker were able to
make special relationship connections.
Effect of animals on eye contact and vocalizations of elderly residents in a long term care
facility.
Taylor, Eve,
Maser, Sally
Yee, Janice
Gonzalez, Sharon M.
Physical & Occupational Therapy in Geriatrics, Vol 11(4), 1993. pp. 61-71.
Determined the effectiveness of a live puppy in eliciting eye contact and vocalizations from 18
residents (aged 68-96 yrs) in a long-term care facility. A repeated measured design with the
Ss in 2 stimulus conditions, a live puppy and a photograph of a puppy, was used. While the
results do not reveal significant increases in eye contact or vocalizations during the live puppy
condition when compared with the photograph condition, a more global involvement with the
social environment was noted during the live puppy condition. Results are similar to those of
H. M. Hendy (see record 1988-36898-001) and consistent with the conclusion of A. M. Beck
and A. H. Katcher (1984).
Assessment of the effectiveness of a pet facilitated therapy program in a nursing home
setting.
Perelle, Ira B.,
Granville, Diane A.
Society & Animals, Vol 1(1), 1993. pp. 91-100.
Evaluated the effectiveness of a pet facilitated therapy program in a nursing home setting.
Self-selected participants were 53 35-95 yr old residents of a mixed-care nursing home. The
pet visitation program was implemented by student volunteers who were trained in animal
handling. Animals included 4 cats, 2 dogs, and 1 rabbit, with 6 animals brought to the
nursing home each week for 10 wks. Visits were 2 hrs long. Results, measured using the
Patient Social Behavior Scale designed for this study to assess social and self-maintenance
behaviors, were positive. Nursing home residents showed an increase in social behaviors from
pretest to midpoint and from midpoint to posttest, but these behaviors declined 4 wks after
the posttest. Although both males and females showed an increase in social behaviors, males'
and females' response patterns differed.
Ethical issues in animal-assisted therapy programs.
Iannuzzi, Dorothea,
Rowan, Andrew N.
Anthrozoös, Vol 4(3), Win 1991. pp. 154-163.
Analyzes the ethics of keeping companion animals and the more specialized aspect of
animal-assisted therapy (AAT). Responses to an animal-care questionnaire completed by
individuals involved in AAT programs indicate that few ethical concerns have come to these
people's attention. Several specific cases of questionable treatment are discussed. Most AAT
programs appear to have a relatively benign impact on the animals, especially when
compared with the incidence of abuse among companion animals. However, the
appropriateness of programs that use wild animals is questionable. Ethical issues relevant to
the keeping of companion animals are outlined. The need for general guidelines to be
developed and implemented for companion-animal programs is noted.
Pet projects: Animal assisted therapy in nursing homes.
Gammonley, Judith,
Yates, Judy
Journal of Gerontological Nursing, Vol 17(1), Jan 1991. pp. 12-15.
Focuses on the implications of animal assisted therapy (AAT) for both the residents and
caregivers of long-term care facilities. Five categories of AAT are described: functional,
relationship, passive, cognitive, and spiritual. Five responses to pet visitation programs are
included.
Effectiveness of an animal-assisted therapy program in an inpatient psychiatric unit.
Holcomb, Ralph
Meacham, Mary
Anthrozoös, Vol 2(4), Spr 1989. pp. 259-264.
A retrospective analysis of attendance at a major metropolitan inpatient psychiatric unit
indicated that over 2 yrs, the animal-assisted therapy (A-AT) group attracted the highest
percentage of inpatients voluntarily choosing to attend an occupational therapy group. It
was found that A-AT was the most effective of all groups offered in attracting isolated
individuals regardless of diagnosis.
Nurturing with Nature.
Ross, Samuel B., Jr.
Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Problems, v1 n4 p38-40 Win 1993.
Describes Green Chimneys, therapeutic residential farm education and treatment center
where animals help troubled children and adolescents. Contends that human-animal bond can
promote learning and that nurturing animals and receiving back unconditional attention and
love reestablishes the worth of the child. Describes residents of the program, a typical day,
and an outreach program that takes animals to the city.
The Therapeutic Use of Animals with the Handicapped.
Ross, Samuel B., Jr.
1982
Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association (90th,
Washington, DC, August 23-27, 1981).
Green Chimneys, a residential center for emotionally disturbed and learning disabled
children in New York, uses farm animals in the treatment program. Children learn horseback
riding, animal husbandry, gardening, and farming on a working farm. The program seeks to
involve the community and provide training to volunteers, interns, and learning disabled
adolescents. The experience with animals and with the farm is seen to be therapeutic, involve
students with others in a purposeful way, and help establish a sense of responsibility. Staff is
careful to discuss issues of separation or death of an animal. Horseback riding offers a sense
of risk at the same time as opportunities for self confidence building.
Exploring Animal-Assisted Therapy as a Reading Intervention Strategy
Kaymen, Maria S.
Online Submission. 57 pp.
2005
This study is an examination of animal-assisted therapy in an attempt to explore the ways
it may serve as reading intervention program for struggling readers. Due to the low rate of
literacy in the U.S., children are often put into reading intervention programs where they are
required to read to an adult; potentially creating anxiety that may act as a deterrent to
reading regularly, and thus contributing to the condition of aliteracy, that is, possessing the
basic skills to read yet having no desire to do so. The purpose of this qualitative study is to
explore the ways in which remedial readers respond to the activity of reading aloud to a dog
at the resource reading lab at a suburban, public, elementary school in Northern California.
Through observations, interviews and surveys, the feelings, perceptions and beliefs of four
students and their parents, and the two literacy assistants at the research site are
determined. Appendixes include: non-participant observation conducted; semi-structured
audio-taped interviews; and questionnaires given to participating families.
Why Animal Assisted Therapy Is Important for Children and Youth
Pitts, John L.
Exceptional Parent, v35 n10 p38-39 Oct 2005. 2 pp.
Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT) and Activities (AAA) have become well established in
traditional physiological and psychological medicine in North America. While positive animal
interaction is nothing new (Egyptian, Greek, Roman, many eastern and western cultures), the
beneficial calming effects of therapy have only been well documented in the medical
literature in the last 50 years. Animals have become common as hospital visitors and
resident animals for treatment centers for children with special needs and of emotionally
disturbed children. In this article, the author presents some of the reasons why animal
therapy is beneficial for children with pervasive developmental disorders. He also discusses
some of the concerns of parents about the potential risks related to animal ownership.
Dr. Ross' Rx for troubled kids: Love, understanding and 380 animals.
Peterson, Linda
Biography; Nov97, Vol. 1 Issue 11, p30, 6p, 8c, 1bw
Profiles Samuel Ross, the founder of the Green Chimneys Children's Services, a school for
troubled children in Brewster, New York. Ross' approach in treating troubled children; Mission
of the school; Interaction between animals and children at the school; Personal background.
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1066262&site=ehost-live
Heal emotions with fur, feathers and love. (cover story)
Golin, Mark
Walsh, Therese
Prevention; Dec94, Vol. 46 Issue 12, p80, 4p, 1c
Focuses on Green Chimneys Children's Services in Brewster, New York, a residential
treatment center for inner city children who have experienced loss and trauma. How the
center's animal-assisted therapy benefits the children; The Devereux Foundation; The Delta
Society, an animal-assisted-therapy advocacy group.’
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1127770&site=ehost-live
Animal magnetism.
Neill, Michael
McCampbell, Marlene
People; 10/31/94, Vol. 42 Issue 18, p121, 3p, 6c’
Visits the Green Chimneys juvenile rehabilitation center in Brewster, New York, where
troubled children and disabled birds and beasts get better together. Comments by Dr. Samuel
Ross, founder and executive director of the facility; Treatment of injured or orphaned wildlife,
as well as seeing to the daily needs of farm animals, a key to the kids' rehabilitation; Ross'
devotion to Green Chimneys; Number of children that have stayed there over the years.
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Animal-assisted therapy for persons with aphasia: A pilot study.
Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development; May/Jun2006, Vol. 43 Issue 3, p357-365,
9p
This study explored the effects and effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) for
persons with aphasia. Three men with aphasia from left-hemisphere strokes participated in
this study. The men received one semester of traditional therapy followed by one semester
of AAT. While both therapies were effective, in that each participant met his goals, no
significant differences existed between test results following traditional speech-language
therapy versus AAT. Results of a client-satisfaction questionnaire, however, indicated that
each of the participants was more motivated, enjoyed the therapy sessions more, and felt
that the atmosphere of the sessions was lighter and less stressed during AAT compared with
traditional therapy.
THE PET PRESCRIPTION.
Fischman, Josh
U.S. News & World Report; 12/12/2005, Vol. 139 Issue 22, p72-74, 3p, 3c
The article focuses on animal-assisted therapy. The unconditional support shown by a pet
inspires physical benefits. Pet owners are more likely to survive a heart attack than non-pet
owners. Caring for animals reduces antisocial behavior in troubled children and teenagers.
These discoveries have inspired a boom in animal-assisted therapy, in which animals
work to help patients achieve rehabilitation goals. Pet benefits may begin with changes in
body chemistry. The calming effect of having a dog may translate into major health
improvements. Health-care facilities are trying to take advantage of these mind-and-body
responses.
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25167&site=ehost-live
Nontraditional Therapies for the PICU -- Part 2.
McDowell, Betsy M.
Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing; Apr-Jun2005, Vol. 10 Issue 2, p81-85, 5p
Presents an answer to a query about the incorporation of nontraditional therapies such as
pet therapy into pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) setting. Holistic care for children and
families experiencing the stress of hospitalization; Benefits of animal-assisted therapy
(AAT); Considerations for using AAT.
'WHAT ARE ALL THESE DOGS DOING AT SCHOOL?'.
Jalongo, Mary Renck
Childhood Education; Spring2005, Vol. 81 Issue 3, p152-158, 7p
Discusses how registered therapy dogs can motivate and support children as they practice
reading aloud in the company of the dog and with the support of the dog's handler. Claim
that the use of registered therapy dogs in reading activities with children must be consistent
with best practices in literacy instruction such as the Reading Education Assistance Dogs
which is implemented by the Intermountain Therapy Animals; Need for dog handlers to
collaborate with the teachers, reading specialists and librarians to understand the child's
interests and identify books at the correct reading level; Suggestion on how to address
reading difficulties such as language delays or disorders through animal-assisted therapy.
How animal-assisted therapy affects discharge teaching: A pilot study.
Miller, Julie
Connor, Katherine
Deal, Belinda
Duke, Gloria Weber
Stanley-Hermanns, Melinda
Varnell, Gayle
Hartman, Karen
McLarty, Jerry
Nursing Management; Aug2003 Supplement, p36, 5p
Examines the impact of animal-assisted therapy during discharge teaching for post-openheart surgical patients with a median sternotomy incision. Benefits from animal-assisted
therapy; Presence of anxiety in patients undergoing postoperative median sternotomy
discharge teaching; Evaluation of retention of discharge teaching.
Pets: UNCONDITIONAL Love.
Blum Barish, Ellen
Current Health 2; Nov2002, Vol. 29 Issue 3, p16, 2p, 2c
Examines the relevance of pets on the family's health. Revelation from a teenagers having a
pet; Benefits derived from a human-animal connections; Impact of the animal assisted
therapy on troubled teens.
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1169&site=ehost-live
Animal-Assisted Therapy.
Stanley-Hermanns, Melinda
Miller, Julie
American Journal of Nursing; Oct2002, Vol. 102 Issue 10, p69, 5p, 4c
Focuses on the use of animals in treating chronically ill patients in the U.S. Development of
Pet-Assisted therapy; Benefits of the therapy; Efficacy of the treatment.
Jorgenson J. Therapeutic use of companion animals in health
care. Image J Nurs Sch 1997;29(3):249-54.
Anderson WP, et al. Pet ownership and risk factors for cardiovascular
disease. Med J Aust 1992;157(5):298-301.
Allen K. Dog ownership and control of borderline hypertension:
a controlled randomized trial [Web site]. Delta Society.
[2002]. http://www.deltasociety.org/dsx409.htm.
Collins LF. Pets in therapy? How animal assisted therapy can
be a part of the healing process. OT Practice 1996;5:38-43.
Connor K, Miller J. Animal-assisted therapy: an in-depth
look. Dimens Crit Care Nurs 2000;19(3):20-6.
Hasenauer H. Dogs for the disabled. Soldiers 1998; Jul:28-32.
Emmett P. Animal-assisted therapy: unleashing the power of
pets. Healthweek 1997 [October 20]; 18-9.
Waltner-Toews D, Ellis A. Good for your animals, good for
you: how to live and work with animals in activity and
therapy programs and stay healthy. Renton, Wash.:
University of Guelph; distributed by Delta Society; 1994.
Child Development and the Human-Companion Animal Bond.
Melson, Gail F.,
American Behavioral Scientist, Vol 47(1), Sep 2003. Special issue: Human-Animal Interaction
& Wellness. pp. 31-39.
Companion animals are more common in households with minor children than in any other
household type. More than 70% of U.S. households with children also have pets, with most
parents reporting acquisition of an animal "for the children." Yet, studies of children's
development largely have been limited to children's relationships with other humans. This
article argues for a biocentric approach to development, in which children's contacts with
the nonhuman world--animals, plants, and natural ecologies--come under scientific scrutiny.
To understand the developmental significance of this ubiquitous aspect of children's
environments, theory and research on companion animals in relation to perceptual,
cognitive, social, and emotional development are reviewed and evaluated. The significance of
children's encounters with animals, especially in the context of a human-companion animal
bond, is emphasized. Biocentric research directions are described.
Promotion of empathy and prosocial behaviour in children through humane education.
Thompson, Kelly L.,
Gullone, Eleonora,
Australian Psychologist, Vol 38(3), Nov 2003. pp. 175-182.
While the importance of normative levels of empathy and prosocial behaviour is becoming
increasingly recognised, it has been suggested that modern western industrialised society is
not conducive to the promotion of empathy development in children. Related to this, it has
been proposed that one method for contributing to the building of empathy is to encourage
direct contact with animals. The rationale for this is the belief that by developing a bond
with animals, empathy toward other living beings will be encouraged. Consequently, it has
been proposed that empathy directed at non-human animals will transfer to humans. Such
cross-species association has been demonstrated for animal abuse. For example, some
studies have reported that childhood cruelty toward animals is related to interpersonal
violence in adulthood. Humane education programs aim to intervene in the cycle of abuse by
decreasing a child's potential to be abusive toward animals, and, as a consequence, to
promote prosocial behaviour toward humans.
Treasuring, trashing or terrorizing: Adult outcomes of childhood socialization about
companion animals.
Raupp, Carol D.,
Society & Animals, Vol 7(2), 1999. Special issue: Children and animals. pp. 141-159.
Investigated the self-reported childhood socialization experiences of 160 university students
with animals, and their current attitudes and behaviors towards pets. Issues examined as
potential predictors of adults attitudes toward pets included pet abuse potential, striking pets,
giving away pets, and pet attachment. Responses to the Child Abuse Potential Scale (Milner,
1994), modified to create a pet abuse potential score, show that Ss generally had positive
childhood socialization experiences and reported high levels of current attachment to pets.
Adults whose parents had given their pets away in childhood were more likely to give away
their own pets. Attachment and maltreatment tendencies coexisted within some Ss. Male Ss
were more likely to have negative socialization experiences with pets, were more likely to
abuse pets, and were more likely to form weaker attachments. Male Ss were more influenced
by their fathers' attitudes toward pets, whereas female Ss were more influenced by mothers.
Findings suggest that parental modeling may account for intergenerational continuity of
attitudes and behaviors to animals.
Companion animals and other factors affecting young children's development.
Poresky, Robert H.,
Anthrozoös, Vol 9(4), 1996. pp. 159-168.
Examined 3 factors presumed to affect young children's development: age, quality of their
home environments, and child-pet relationship. Data were analyzed from a survey of 88
parents (mothers' and fathers' average ages were 34.09 and 35.32 yrs respectively) and inhome assessments of 44 3-6 yr olds. Findings support the hypothesis that normal preschool
children's intellectual, motor, and social development is associated with the presence of a
companion animal and increases with their age, the quality of their home environment, and
their relationship with a companion animal. While the children's age and the quality of their
home environments were associated with measures of the children's cognitive, motor, and
social development, the companion animal effect was limited to their social development
including their empathy for other children.
Children's concern for the natural environment.
Chawla, Louise
Children's Environments Quarterly, Vol 5(3), Fal 1988. pp. 13-20.
Examines children's development within the context of surveys of adult environmental
knowledge and concern and surveys of children's environmental dispositions and their
knowledge and attitudes regarding animals and vegetation. The shaping of concern for the
natural world through social learning and direct contact with nature is a salient theme in the
surveys. Reconceptualizing the origins of basic environmental dispositions within
psychoanalytic theory is also discussed.
Pets and the socialization of children.
Robin, Michael,
ten Bensel, Robert
Marriage & Family Review, Vol 8(3-4), Sum 1985. Special issue: Pets and the family. pp. 6378.
Notes that despite the widespread ownership of pet animals by American families, there is
little analysis of the role of pets in child development. The present paper examines the
influence of pet animals on child development, the impact of pet loss and bereavement on
children, the problem of child cruelty to animals and its relationship to child abuse and the
role of pets in both normal and disturbed families. The authors' research study of experiences
with pets of violent adult prisoners and juveniles in institutions is described.
Pets and personality development.
Levinson, Boris M.,
Psychological Reports, Vol 42(3, Pt 2), Jun 1978. pp. 1031-1038.
Humans have had animal companions since prehistoric times, as reflected in folklore,
legends, and literature. It is felt that in an urban technological society such as ours, closeness
to animals can reduce alienation. Development over the life cycle can be favorably
influenced by close association with an animal companion, particularly during middle
childhood and old age. The development of empathy, self-esteem, self-control, and autonomy
can be promoted in children through raising pets, while the loneliness of old age can be
eased and deterioration warded off by nurturing an animal. Psychologists have not studied
animal-human relationships to date, and such research is long overdue.
The development of children's attitude toward animals.
Eitan, Shulamit
Hachinuch: Journal for Educational Thought, 41(5), 1969. pp. 443-455.
5-, 10-, and 14-yr-old Ss responded to an open-ended questionnaire dealing with attitudes
toward plants and animals. Responses are analyzed in terms of age differences.
The value of pet ownership.
Levinson, Boris M.,
Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Pet Food Institute, 1969. pp. 12-18.
Pets are invaluable and almost inexhaustible sources of learning for children. Pets can
develop a sense of responsibility in children and a respect for all living things. Children
fantasize about their pets by letting these animals assume the roles of various members of
the family.
An investigation of human-animal interactions and empathy as related to pet preference,
ownership, attachment, and attitudes in children.
Daly, Beth,
Morton, L. L.,
Anthrozoös, Vol 19(2), 2006. pp. 113-127.
A group of elementary students (n = 155) were surveyed with respect to four aspects of
relationships with pets--preference, ownership, attachment, and attitude--in order to further
explore the connection that appears to exist between human-animal interactions and
empathy. The investigation was initiated, in pan, in order to elaborate upon findings from an
earlier study (Daly and Morton 2003) and focused mainly on the relationships between
children and dogs and cats, although horses, birds, and fish were also included. Some of the
general findings related to dogs and cats are: (I) children who preferred (Pet Preference
Inventory) both dogs and cats were more empathic than those who preferred cats or dogs
only; (2) those who owned both dogs and cats were more empathic than those who owned
only a dog, owned only a cat, or who owned neither; (3) those who were highly attached to
their pets (Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale) were more empathic than those who were
less attached; and (4) empathy and positive attitude (Pet Attitude Scale) revealed a
significant positive correlation. As expected, girls were significantly more empathic than boys.
Moreover, while cell sizes were low with respect to pet preference and ownership, empathy
was also higher for individuals who expressed a preference for birds and horses. While the
earlier study (Daly and Morton 2003) indicated that higher empathy was associated with dog
ownership more so than other pets, including cats, a notable finding of the present study is
that empathy appears to be positively associated with individuals who prefer, and/or who
own, both a dog and a cat. The implications extend to the need: (1) for continued empirical
research investigating the relationship between human-animal interactions and empathy; and
(2) to refine the questions that lead to a clearer explanation of this relationship.
Humane education research: Evaluating efforts to encourage children's kindness and caring
toward animals.
Ascione, Frank R.
Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, Vol 123(1), Feb 1997. pp. 57-77.
Humane education includes instructional approaches to teaching children kindness toward
animals. The author describes what has been evaluated in humane education programs
(focusing specifically on programs for preschool and elementary grade children), why such
programs are being scrutinized, how they have been evaluated (with a listing of the
shortcomings of some evaluations and suggestions for improvement), and where programs
and their evaluations should be directed in the future. After a discussion of historical
perspectives, recent approaches to implementing and evaluating humane education are
reviewed. Special attention is given to the issue of whether teaching children to be caring
toward animals has effects that are generalizable to human-directed empathy.
A Healing Place: Forget Me Not the Farm.] Rossiter, Sherry
Annals of the American Psychotherapy Assn, Vol 9(1), Spr 2006. pp. 30-32.
Forget Me Not Farm, a nationally acclaimed and award winning animal assisted and
horticultural therapy program that works collaboratively with other community resources, has
been in operation since 1992. Children learn about animal care by bathing, grooming, and
feeding the resident farm animals, and they learn about the life cycle by planting seeds and
tending plants in the organic garden. Learning to care for plants and animals provides an
emotionally healing experience for the participant through restorative touch, healthy
attachment, and mutually nurturing relationships. Basic values emphasized by the Forget Me
Not Farm program include compassion, empathy, reverence for all living organisms,
accountability for one's actions, gentleness, and respect for self and others. While the Forget
Me Not Farm program is clearly designed to foster empathy, nurturing, and compassion for
all living things, the program also increases the participant's self-esteem and self-confidence.
What is especially exciting about this program is that it can be duplicated in any community
with the desire to offer such a program.
Empathy, home environment, and attitudes toward animals in relation to animal abuse.
Henry, Bill C.,
Anthrozoös, Vol 19(1), 2006. pp. 17-34.
Recent years have seen an increase in interest in the social, behavioral, psychological, and
developmental correlates of animal abuse. The current study examined the relationships
between empathy, family environment, attitudes toward animals and participation in
animal abuse using a self-report methodology among a sample of college students. Within a
sample of 286 college students, scores on the Attitudes Toward the Treatment of Animals
Scale (ATTAS) were significantly correlated with scores on the Interpersonal Reactivity Index
(IRI), a measure of empathy. The Caregiving subscale of the ATTAS was found to
significantly differentiate abusers from non-abusers, and to differentiate abusers who
reported having first engaged in abuse prior to age 13 years from those who reported having
first engaged in abuse at age 13 or later. Abusers scored significantly higher on the IRI
Fantasy subscale than did non-abusers. Men who reported a history of sexual abuse were
more likely to report participating in animal abuse than were those who reported no history of
sexual abuse. Finally, the effect of sexual abuse on animal abuse was found to be
independent of individual differences in empathy and attitudes toward animals. The
potential roles of trauma and fantasy in the genesis of animal abuse are discussed.
Humanistic Psychology and Animal Rights: Reconsidering the Boundaries of the Humanistic
Ethic.
Joy, Melanie,
Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol 45(1), Win 2005. pp. 106-130.
Speciesism, discrimination against others based on membership in a species, is an ideology in
which countless animals are sacrificed for human ends. This system may be supported by a
set of problematic psychosocial processes that are detrimental to humans and nonhumans.
Psychology, as the field that seeks to understand human motivation and helps define the
parameters of social values and normative behavior, may be in a position to challenge the
speciesist status quo. Specifically, humanistic psychology, with its emphasis on authenticity,
personal integrity, social responsibility, ethics, empathy, and democracy, seems naturally
poised to embrace a nonspeciesist, animal rights perspective. However, virtually all
psychological paradigms seem to sanction speciesism. This article explores the speciesist
underpinnings of psychological thought and suggests a new paradigm that embraces many
humanistic values with which to appreciate the role of other animals in human psychology
and ontology and to work toward a more nonviolent social order.
Laboratory animals and the art of empathy.
Thomas, D.
Journal of Medical Ethics, Vol 31(4), Apr 2005. pp. 197-202.
Consistency is the hallmark of a coherent ethical philosophy. When considering the morality
of particular behaviour, one should look to identify comparable situations and test one's
approach to the former against one's approach to the latter. The obvious comparator for
animal experiments is non-consensual experiments on people. In both cases, suffering and
perhaps death is knowingly caused to the victim, the intended beneficiary is someone else,
and the victim does not consent. Animals suffer just as people do. As we condemn nonconsensual experiments on people, we should, if we are to be consistent, condemn nonconsensual experiments on animals. The alleged differences between the two practices
often put forward do not stand up to scrutiny. The best guide to ethical behaviour is
empathy--putting oneself in the potential victim's shoes. Again to be consistent, we should
empathise with all who may be adversely affected by our behaviour. By this yardstick, too,
animal experiments fail the ethical test.
Empathy and attitudes to animals.’
Taylor, Nicola,
Signal, T. D.,
Anthrozoös, Vol 18(1), 2005. pp. 18-27.
There is increasing support for the idea that human attitudes to animals may be indicative of
human-human empathy. This has implications for the treatment of empathy deficits and
related anti-social behaviors. The purpose of the present study was to explicitly investigate
links between human-human empathy and attitudes to animals. The Interpersonal
Reactivity Index (IRI) and Animal Attitude Scale (AAS) were administered to 194
undergraduate Sociology and Psychology students. A significant correlation between
empathy levels, gender, companion animal ownership and attitudes to animals was found.
Implications of these findings are discussed.
Personality, empathy and attitudes to animal welfare.
Furnham, Adrian,
McManus, Chris,
Scott, David,
Anthrozoös, Vol 16(2), 2003. pp. 135-146.
A total of 833 students completed a four-part questionnaire which measured demographic
factors (sex, education, vegetarianism, religiousness), attitudes toward animal
experimentation, personality (Big Five) and empathy. Attitudes toward animal
experimentation factored into five interpretable factors, and multiple regression analyses
were used to examine the extent to which demographic factors, personality and empathy
predicted these. Results show that sex, vegetarianism, agreeableness, openness, extraversion
and empathy were significant predictors of all these factors. An interpretable set of
correlates were similar to previous studies in the area. As with previous research findings, the
measures used predicted only a small amount of variance with respect to attitudes toward
animals.
Children with pets do not show higher empathy: A challenge to current views.
Daly, Beth,
Morton, L.L.,
Anthrozoös, Vol 16(4), 2003. pp. 298-314.
A group of children (n=137) were surveyed with respect to pet ownership and pet
preferences to explore the link between the human-animal bond and empathy. The most
notable findings-and contrary to our predictions- were: (1) there was no difference in
empathy (Bryan Empathy Index) between pet owners and non-owners; (2) there was no
correlation between empathy and attachment to pets (Companion Animal Bonding Scale);
and (3) higher empathy scores were not related to pet-preference indicators. A more finegrained examination of the pet-owning group only revealed differences with respect to type
of animal owned. Higher empathy was evident with dog ownership as opposed to other pet
types. However, this needs to be tempered by the equally interesting observation that lower
empathy was related to cat ownership. Regardless of how ownership groups are configured,
there is consistent evidence that differentiates cat owners (lower empathy) from dog owners
(higher empathy). When pet ownership and pet preference are combined to form new
groupings, again, the cat effects and dog effects are evident. Implications extend to the
need: (1) for future research on the nature of the human-animal bond; (2) to explore the
relationship between personality and animal bonding; and (3) to refine the questions
surrounding the animal-based links to empathy, as well as other related constructs such as
prosocial behaviour, compassion, self-esteem, self-control, autonomy, affection, stress,
responsibility, and perhaps even emotional intelligence, career paths and community service.