East Midlands Oral History Archive
Centre for Urban History
Interviewing for Research - Issues in Interviewing






Bias
Rapport
Ethnic/Cultural considerations
Interpreters
Deaf people
After the interview
Bias
No matter how neutral and unbiased we consider ourselves to be, there are certain
inevitable factors which will influence an interview situation. Consider how the
following attributes of both interviewer and interviewee might have an effect on an
interview:







Gender
Age
Ethnicity/nationality
Religion
Political persuasion
Education
Academic viewpoint
Think about how would you describe your personality and how this might influence
your relationship with another person. Why has the interview been arranged, and why
has the person you are interviewing agreed to be interviewed? Try to be aware of the
possible biases you and the interviewee bring to an interview situation. Consider how
they may effect your verbal and non-verbal behaviour, the way you ask your
questions, the way they are answered, the way you interpret what you are told.
For example, one factor which may effect proceedings in an interview is the relative
standings of individuals in relation to the authority invested in jobs, position in
society, or personal expertise and knowledge. A young academic may be talked down
to when interviewing a professor, captain of industry, or politician; someone with no
academic background may feel exploited by someone with an academic background
who has the backing of an academic establishment; in a medical or social work
interview the interviewee may believe that the interviewer is able to provide help and
may adjust their responses accordingly.
As an interviewer, it is usually you who are perceived as having knowledge, education
and the intellectual authority this brings with it. You can go someway towards
redressing this imbalance in the interview situation by fully informing interviewees of
what is happening at all times in the process, arranging interviews at times and places
which are convenient to them, and listening carefully to what people have to say.
© This information sheet has been downloaded from the University of Leicester website ‘Interviewing for Research’ at
www.le.ac.uk/emoha/howtointerview.html. This resource has been funded by the University of Leicester's Learning and Teaching Committee and must not
be hired, rented or sold for profit.
An example of how gender and age may effect the way a story is told:
http://historymatters.gmu.edu/mse/oral/question1.html
An example of the way an interviewer may effect the way a story is told:
http://historymatters.gmu.edu/mse/oral/question2.html
Rapport
Particularly if you see your interviewee on more than one occasion it is likely that
some sort of rapport or relationship will be established. Some approaches to
interviewing stress that you should keep the interviewee at a professional distance,
while others claim this is unrealistic and both participants should be of equal status,
the interview being more like a conversation. While your philosophical approach to
research may suggest one way more than another, a bit of both is often a common
compromise.




Be polite and remember your basic manners from the start. Particularly with
older people, but generally too, don’t use first names without checking that
people are happy with this.
Your appearance counts; try not to over or under dress.
Be friendly but be aware that this is not a friendship (you may disagree with
this!).
Relax.
Good technique when asking the questions will help to build rapport. Look at the
Asking the Questions section of this website.
It is not unusual for an interviewee to ask you, the interviewer, some questions about
yourself. This raises the question of how much of your self you should disclose; say
too little and you may appear distant or uninterested, or say too much and you may
over shadow the interviewee. By all means answer any questions, but try to keep the
answer fairly brief and not talk too much about yourself, the interview isn’t supposed
to be about you. What you can give to the interviewee is your undivided attention and
a professional approach. You are in a position to give your interviewee a voice
through your work, and to respect what they have said in the way you present it.
If you’re not sure about this, ask yourself the following questions:
Reciprocation
What do you and your interviewee call each other?
Would you accept presents from your interviewee?
Would you let your interviewee mend your car?
Interview Culture
On a home visit would you accept
 A cup of tea/coffee/water?
 Alcohol?
© This information sheet has been downloaded from the University of Leicester website ‘Interviewing for Research’ at
www.le.ac.uk/emoha/howtointerview.html. This resource has been funded by the University of Leicester's Learning and Teaching Committee and must not
be hired, rented or sold for profit.
Self-disclosure
Would you talk about the sort of day you’ve had?
Would you talk about your home/background?
Would you give your home phone number?
Social Contact
Would you accept
 A wedding invitation?
 An invitation to a party?
Would you lend money?
It is important to bear in mind that in some circumstances an interview may not be a
pleasant experience. Talking about personal matters can be stressful and may cause
anxiety in the interviewee, and possibly in the interviewer as well. Researchers
engaged in projects dealing with emotive subjects often have debriefing sessions
when they can talk about their experiences, but these may not be available for the
interviewees. Researchers are rarely trained in counselling, are usually not equipped
to deal with extreme emotional situations, and should always consider whether an
interview may cause more harm than good.
Ethnic/Cultural Considerations
Consider that in some communities:




It is essential to have a written introduction to someone before approaching
them for an interview.
A female/male may be the wrong person to interview a male/female.
A young person would be seen as disrespectful if they quizzed an older
person.
People avoid eye contact when listening or when talking.
For example, in some Native American, Asian, African, and Hispanic cultures,
looking down and avoiding direct eye contact is a sign of respect, and it may be
insulting to make eye contact.
There is more information about cultural differences at this Northwest Regional
Educational Laboratory website, ‘Culture, Communication and Language’:
http://www.nwrel.org/cnorse/booklets/ccc/4.html
It is true that some people do not like interviewing outside of their own
academic/social/cultural experience. Likewise, some people may never take to you as
an interviewer because of their perception of your academic/social/cultural
background. For your part, if you are going to be interviewing people from different
ethnic or cultural backgrounds from your own, you should make yourself aware of the
possible issues involved. If someone is from a different culture they may not see
situations in the same way as you, they may not speak the same language, but this
does not mean they are in any way less intelligent than you. It is important not to
© This information sheet has been downloaded from the University of Leicester website ‘Interviewing for Research’ at
www.le.ac.uk/emoha/howtointerview.html. This resource has been funded by the University of Leicester's Learning and Teaching Committee and must not
be hired, rented or sold for profit.
shout, use jargon, stereotype or generalise. Be professional, treat everyone with
respect, don’t talk down to people, don’t defer to them unnecessarily. Be aware of
relevant cultural practises.
Interpreters
If you find yourself interviewing via an interpreter, your interviewee’s words will be
communicated to you either via a relative, a friend or acquaintance, or a professional
interpreter.
A relative, friend or acquaintance will understand both the verbal and cultural
language used. However, as in most interview situations, there are some things an
interviewee won’t want to tell family members or acquaintances, while a relative may
not feel comfortable relaying family information to you.
Professional interpreters cost money and you may not always be able to find one who
speaks the appropriate language. While you will probably get an accurate
interpretation of the verbal language, some of the cultural language may get lost if the
interpreter is not acquainted with that particular culture.
Ask the interpreter to:




Speak clearly
Correct any mistakes as soon as possible
Ask for clarification if words or meanings aren’t clear
Give a word for word interpretation rather than a summary
As an interviewer you should:




Keep the questions short and to the point
Give enough time for both the question and the answer to be translated
Ask for clarification if, after a long discussion, you are given a short
translation
Avoid using the third person (i.e. ask Mr. Smith if he takes sugar)
Both interviewer and interpreter must respect the confidentiality of the interview.
Communicating with Deaf People
The main points to remember when interviewing anyone who has a hearing
impairment are:



Don’t shout, talk slower.
To aid lip reading, try and keep your face in what light is available. Don’t
cover your mouth with your hands.
Make sure hearing aids are turned on.
© This information sheet has been downloaded from the University of Leicester website ‘Interviewing for Research’ at
www.le.ac.uk/emoha/howtointerview.html. This resource has been funded by the University of Leicester's Learning and Teaching Committee and must not
be hired, rented or sold for profit.
More information can be found at:
The RNID website
http://www.rnid.org.uk/information_resources/factsheets/communication/factsheets_l
eaflets/communication_tips.htm
Lola J. Lee is a deaf person who has provided tips for being with deaf people on her
website:
http://www.his.com/~lola/deaf.html (1 February 2005)
After the Interview
It is often said that 90 minutes is long enough for one interview, although it can be
easy to forget the time and carry on longer. When the interview comes to an end
accept any hospitality offered, if it seems appropriate, and make sure that you leave
the interview on a positive note.
If you are asking the interviewee to sign a release/copyright form, it is important that
you read through the form with them and make sure they understand why they are
signing the form and the terms they are agreeing to. From a legal point of view you
must have the ‘informed consent’ of your interviewee before you can use the
information contained in the interview. Informed consent means that the interviewee
is aware of all the possible uses that may be made of the interview. For more
information see the Copyright and Ethics page of this website.
Make sure all your paperwork has been signed, that times and dates for follow up
interviews are set, that the interviewee is aware of any further action that needs to be
taken, and that the interviewee knows what you propose to do with their interview.
If you have recorded the interview, refer to the notes on this website about Archiving
Recordings.
© This information sheet has been downloaded from the University of Leicester website ‘Interviewing for Research’ at
www.le.ac.uk/emoha/howtointerview.html. This resource has been funded by the University of Leicester's Learning and Teaching Committee and must not
be hired, rented or sold for profit.