Prom/se Summer 2006
Science Institute
Earth Science Literacy
Facilitator Guide-Middle School
SUMMER 2006 SCIENCE INSTITUTE
EARTH SCIENCE LITERACY
MIDDLE SCHOOL EARTH SCIENCE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Course Goals
Standards Addressed
Experience-Patterns-Explanations (EPE)
General Overview of the Course
Daily Agenda
Course Materials List
Day 1
Activity 1.1
Activity 1.2
Activity 1.3
Activity 1.4
Activity 1.5
Activity 1.6
Activity 1.7
Day 2
Activity 2.1
Activity 2.2
Activity 2.3
Activity 2.4
Activity 2.5
Activity 2.6
Day 3
Activity 3.1
Activity 3.2
Activity 3.3
Activity 3.4
Day 4
Activity 4.1 & 4.2
Activity 4.3
Activity 4.4
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SUMMER 2006 SCIENCE INSTITUTE
EARTH SCIENCE LITERACY
MIDDLE SCHOOL EARTH SCIENCE
Goals for the Course
Big Idea: The Earth is constantly changing and the evidence for these changes is recorded in the
rocks of the Earth’s surface. Sea levels rise and fall, mountains are uplifted and eroded, and
glaciers wax and wane. These changes are the result of interactions between two Earth systems:
the geosphere and the hydrosphere. There are many processes responsible for change, including
erosion and deposition, powered by the hydrosphere and gravity; and tectonic uplift, powered by
the Earth’s internal heat. These processes operate at different rates and across different
timescales.
Driving Question(s): Marine invertebrate fossils found over much of the US Midwest indicate
that from about 540 to 320 million years ago, this area was covered by a shallow, tropical sea.
How did this region change from a marine environment to the terrestrial environment with which
we are familiar today, and what is the evidence for these changes?
Desired Response: Over the past 500 million years, this area experienced several significant
changes. Abundant fossils of animals known to have lived exclusively in marine environments
indicate that during the early part of this history Michigan and Ohio were covered by a shallow,
tropical sea. The vertical sequence of sedimentary rocks, particularly sandstone, shale, and
limestone, record multiple fluctuations in sea level (transgression/regression) during this time.
Limestone is deposited in clear water and is indicative of maximum transgression. Shale and
sandstone derive from renewed sediment influx from an uplifted source area, and are associated
with sea-level fall, or regression. Correlation of stratigraphic columns from east-to-west- across
Ohio to Pennsylvania show thickening of the sandstones toward the east, indicating that the
source area lie in that direction. The sediments become increasingly compositionally and
texturally less mature toward the east, also indicating a source area in that direction. By
approximately 300 million years ago, the shallow cratonic seas regressed from this part of North
America for the last time. Marine limestone deposition was replaced by sandstone, shale, and
coal deposition from coastal, swamp, and fluvial (river) environments.
The regression of the seas and the deposition of poorly-sorted, coarse-grained sediments are
evidence for tectonic uplift. That the sediments thicken to the east indicates that there was
significant uplift (source area) to the east. This uplift was associated with tectonic activity,
specifically, the convergence and eventual collision between North America and Africa, during
the Paleozoic Era. By the Mesozoic (250 million years ago), the region was uplifted above sea
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level and erosional processes dominated. As a result, there is little record of the Mesozoic
recorded in the Michigan/Ohio region.
Finally, during the Cenozoic, glaciers advanced multiple times from glacial centers to the north,
carving out the Great Lakes and depositing large volumes of sand and gravel responsible for the
surface topography we see today.
Connection to Unifying Theme - Systems
This course addresses many of the aspects identified in the NRC National Science Education
Standards (NSES) for developing an understanding of the structure of the Earth system. The
Earth consists of four interacting systems (geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere). This
course emphasizes the organization of the geosphere and the processes responsible for change on
the Earth’s crust. The course also addresses the interaction between the geosphere and the
hydrosphere (sea level rise & fall, stream processes), and the biosphere (the geosphere as a
constraint on what life forms can exist at certain times). Teachers will investigate how these
processes act and systems interact over a range of time scales and distance scales.
Connection to Unifying Principle – Energy
This course will provide teachers with an opportunity to investigate energy in Earth systems by
exploring the relationship between energy and sediment sorting in aqueous environments.
Teachers will investigate the sources of energy responsible for erosion and deposition
(gravitational and solar) and tectonic uplift (internal energy from radioactive isotope decay).
Main Ideas (Knowing Statement)
1. The geologic time scale is a chronologic arrangement of geologic events over very long
periods of time.
2. Fossils hold clues to past life and environments
3. Rocks provide evidence for past environments and successive changes over time.
4. Water erodes, transports, sorts and deposits sediment
A. Fine grained material is deposited farther from its source than coarse-grained materials.
Shales are deposited in quiet water, sandstones are deposited in high-energy, near shore
environments. Coarse grained, poorly sorted material is deposited by rivers close to the
source, or by glacial ice.
B. Limestone is precipitated from sea water, either organically or inorganically.
5. Walther’s Law – vertical succession of sedimentary facies mirrors horizontal relationships
over time. Vertical columns (stratigraphic columns) record laterally migrating environments
due to sea level rise and fall.
6. Stratigraphic columns can be correlated to build a coherent picture of changes over large
areas and time.
7. Tectonic uplift is responsible for sea level changes, sediment erosion and depositional
patterns.
A. The tectonic uplift responsible for the changes seen in MI and OH are related to rise of
the Appalachian mountains caused by a continent-continent collision between North
America and Africa
8. Cycles of glacial advances and retreats during the Pleistocene are responsible for current
topography and surface geology.
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Objectives (Doing Statements)
Teachers will be able to:
1. Explain the Earth processes responsible for changes in Ohio/Michigan over the past 500
million years.
A. Use data from fossils and rock samples to identify what has changed in Ohio/Michigan.
B. Correlate stratigraphic columns to construct a cross-section across Ohio/Michigan.
C. Use the cross-section to construct a chronology of changes in Ohio/Michigan.
D. Describe the processes responsible for the changes evident from rocks, fossils, and crosssections/maps.
E. Locate the major changes on a geologic time line and mark the time across which various
processes were operating to produce those changes
2. Constructing Objectives (From Michigan Curriculum Framework)
A. Generate scientific questions about the world based on observation.
B. Design and conduct scientific investigations.
C. Use tools and equipment appropriate to scientific investigations.
D. Use metric measurement devices to provide consistency in an investigation.
E. Use sources of information in support of scientific investigations.
F. Write and follow procedures in the form of step-by-step instructions, formulas, flow
diagrams, and sketches.
3. Reflecting Objectives (From Michigan Curriculum Framework)
A. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of claims, arguments, or data.
B. Describe limitations in personal knowledge.
C. Show how common themes of science, mathematics, and technology apply in real-world
contexts.
D. Develop an awareness of and sensitivity to the natural world.
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Standards Addressed:
NSES
NSES ES 5-8 Earth’s History
p. 160
1. The Earth processes we
see today, including
erosion, movement of
lithospheric plates, and
changes in atmospheric
composition are similar to
those that occurred in the
past. Earth history is also
influenced by occasional
catastrophes, such as the
impact of an asteroid or
comet.
History of the Earth
AAAS
MCF
EG.V.1 MS Geosphere p.
112
4. Explain how rocks and
fossils are used to
understand the age and
geological history of the
earth.
Key concepts: Fossils,
extinct plants and
animals, ages of fossils,
rock layers, timelines,
relative dating.
Real-world contexts: Fossils
found in gravel, mines
and quarries, museum
displays; places where
rock layers are visible,
such as Pictured Rocks,
quarries, Grand Canyon,
road cuts; Michigan
fossils, such as trilobites,
brachiopods, Petosky
stones; specific examples
of extinct plants and
animals, such as dinosaurs.
Ohio
Explain the 4.5billion-year
history of Earth
and the 4
billion-yearhistory of life on
Earth based on
observable
scientific
evidence in the
geologic record.
NSES ES 5-8 Earth’s History
p. 160
2. Fossils provide
important evidence of how
life and environmental
conditions have changed.
NSES
NSES ES 5-8
Structure of the
Earth System p. 160
3. Land forms are
the result of a
combination of
constructive and
destructive forces.
Constructive
forces include
crustal
deformation,
volcanic eruption
and deposition of
sediment, while
destructive forces
include
weathering and
erosion.
Processes that Shape the Earth
AAAS
MCF
4c Processes that Shape
EG.V.1 MS Geosphere p.
the Earth p. 73
112
1. The interior of the Earth 1. Describe and identify
is hot. Heat flow and
surface features using
movement of materials
maps.
within the Earth cause
Key concepts: Landforms—
earthquakes and
plains, deserts, plateaus,
volcanic eruptions and
basin, Great Lakes, rivers,
create mountains and
continental divide,
ocean basins. Gas and
mountains, mountain range,
dust from large volcanoes
or mountain chain.
can change the
Tools: Maps—relief,
atmosphere.
topographic, elevation.
Real-world contexts: Maps
showing continental and
regional surface features,
such as the Great Lakes or
local topography.
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Ohio
Describe the
processes that
contribute to
the continuous
changing of
Earth's surface
(e.g.,
earthquakes,
volcanic
eruptions,
erosion,
mountain
building and
lithospheric
plate
movements).
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NSES
Processes that Shape the Earth
AAAS
MCF
4c Processes that Shape the EG.V.1 MS Geosphere p. 112
Earth p. 73
2. Explain how rocks are
2. Some changes in the
formed.
Earth’s surface are abrupt Key concepts: Rock cycle
(such as earthquakes and
processes—melting and cooling
volcanic eruptions), while
(igneous rocks); heat and
other changes happen
pressure (metamorphic rocks);
very slowly (such as
cementing and
uplift and wearing down
crystallization of sediments
of mountains). The
(sedimentary rocks).
Earth’s surface is shaped Minerals. Heat source is
in part by the motion of
interior of earth. Materials—
water and wind over
silt, clay, gravel, sand, rock,
very long times, which
lava, magma, remains of
act to level mountain
living things (bones, shells,
ranges.
plants).
Real-world contexts: Physical
environments where rocks
are being formed:
volcanoes; depositional
environments, such as
ocean floor, deltas,
beaches, swamps;
metamorphic environments
deep within the earth’s crust.
4c Processes that Shape the EG.V.1 MS Geosphere p. 112
Earth p. 73
3. Explain how rocks are
3. Sediments of sand and broken down, how soil is
smaller particles
formed and how surface
(sometimes containing
features change.
the remains of
Key concepts: Chemical and
organisms) are gradually mechanical weathering;
buried and are cemented erosion by glaciers, water,
together by dissolved
wind and downslope
minerals for form solid
movement; decomposition,
rock again.
humus.
Real-world contexts: Regions
in Michigan where erosion by
wind, water, or glaciers may
have occurred, such as
river valleys, gullies,
shoreline of Great Lakes;
chemical weathering from acid
rain, formation of caves,
caverns and sink holes;
physical weathering, frost
action such as potholes and
cracks in sidewalks; plant
roots by bacteria, fungi,
worms, rodents, other
animals.
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Ohio
Identify that the
lithosphere
contains rocks
and minerals and
that minerals
make up rocks.
Describe how
rocks and
minerals are
formed and/or
classified
Describe the
interactions of
matter and
energy
throughout the
lithosphere,
hydrosphere,
and atmosphere
(e.g. water cycle,
weather and
pollution).
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NSES
Processes that Shape the Earth
AAAS
MCF
4c Processes that Shape
the Earth p. 73
5. Thousands of layers
of sedimentary rocks
confirm the long history
of the changing surface
of the Earth and the
changing life forms
whose remains are
found in successive
layers. The youngest
layers are not always
found on top, because of
folding, breaking and uplift
of layers.
FRAMEWORK: Experience-Patterns-Explanations (EPE)
EPE Table
Experiences
Patterns
 Examine fossils to see
 The landscape &
what organisms used
environments we see
to live here and
today have not always
determine their
been this way.
environments
 Examine rocks to
 Water erodes,
determine
transports sorts &
environments of
deposits sediments in
formation.
predictable patterns
 Draw and interpret
maps, stratigraphic
 Walther’s law
columns, and crosssections.
 Place events/changes
on geologic time line.
 Explore stream table to
understand how water
transports and sorts
materials
 Explore settling tank to
see how water sorts
materials.
 Interpret animations of
plate movements
 Identify glacial
advances and retreats
from maps
Ohio
Explanations
The Earth is constantly
changing. Processes of
uplift, erosion, deposition,
and sea level rise are a
few of the processes that
are responsible for
change.
Inquiry
Application
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Common Misconceptions
Research in alternative conceptions in geology is thin.
1. Time – People do not really have misconceptions about what time is, but they have
incomplete conceptions of geologic time, chronologic order, and significance of certain
geologic events. Children think of time in two categories (more ancient and less ancient).
Adults have three categories (extremely ancient, moderately ancient, and less ancient). (Ault,
1982; Trend, 1998, 2000, 2001).
2. Plate Tectonics & Mountain Building –
A. Mountains are formed from wind deposition or underground pressure. (Chang &
Barufaldi, 1999)
B. Old mountains are tall and young mountains are small because mountains grow, like
trees. (J. C. Libarkin et al., 2003)
C. “Geologic States” (J. Libarkin, 2006)
3. Rocks – Few children can relate rocks to the processes that formed them. (Driver et al.,
1994)
Ault, C. R., Jr. (1982). Time in geological explanations as perceived by elementary-school
students. Journal of Geological Education, 30, 304-309.
Chang, C.-Y., & Barufaldi, J. P. (1999). The use of problem-solving-based instructional model in
initiating change in students' achievement and alternative framework. International
Journal of Science Education, 21, 373-388.
Driver, R., Squires, A., Rushworth, P., & Wood-Robinson, V. (1994). Making sense of
secondary science: Research into children's ideas. New York: Routledge.
Libarkin, J. (2006). Magnetic continents and other conundrums: Innovative approaches to
analyzing student conceptions about the earth, MSU Job Talk. East Lansing, MI.
Libarkin, J. C., Beilfuss, M., & Kurdziel, J. P. (2003). Student cognition about earth systems.
Paper presented at the National Association for Research in Science Teaching,
Philadelphia, PA.
Trend, R. D. (1998). An investigation into understanding of geological time among 10-and 11year-old children. International Journal of Science Education, 20(8), 973-988.
Trend, R. D. (2000). Conceptions of geological time among primary teacher trainees, with
reference to their engagement with geoscience, history, and science. International
Journal of Science Education, 22(5), 539-555.
Trend, R. D. (2001). Deep time framework: A preliminary study of U.K. Primary teachers'
conceptions of geological time and perceptions of geoscience. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 38(2), 191-221.
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General Overview of the Course:
Guidelines for all Prom/se course timeframes:
 Institute days start at 8:30 and end at 4:00
 Lunch will be one hour, starting between 11:30 and 12:15 pm.
 Monday will begin as a whole group for the first hour. The teachers will move into the
courses starting at 9:45.
 Monday through Wednesday the class will end at 3:15. At 3:30 the teachers will meet
as a whole group sitting by district to discuss what they learned that day and consider
how the concepts are connecting across the courses.
 On Thursday, the courses will end at noon. This means the course Post-assessment
must be completed before breaking at noon. After lunch, the teachers will meet as a
whole group sitting by district to discuss what they learned that day and consider how the
concepts are connecting across the courses. They will have time at the end to share out
and have whole group discussion. A whole group institute post-assessment will be
administered during the last hour.
 “Gots and Needs”--A chart will be provided in each room, divided in half , and labeled
one half "GOTS" and the other half "NEEDS". During the session, teachers write onto a
sticky note (one thought per note) what they are getting during the day and what they still
need. "Gots" could be anything they gain or get from the session. This may include
something new they learned, a new friend they met, a new strategy, and so forth.
"Needs" can be questions that arise, physical needs (e.g., the room is too cold), areas they
would like more information about, or other needs that develop.
 “Parking Lot”--The parking lot serves as a space where participants can post
thoughts and concerns (problems, issues, concerns, ideas) that you don’t want to lose,
but will redirect the session if addressed at the time it is raised. You can revisit these
at the end/beginning of the day or where the topic better fits in the sequence. This
can be pre-set as a piece of chart paper in the back of the room. The chart and sticky
notes will be provided in each room for this use, identified as “Parking Lot”.
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AGENDA FOR EARTH SCIENCE COURSE:
MONDAY Day 1
Focus: Introduction, developing geologic time framework, establishing problem, exploring data
9:45-11:00
1.1 Introduction to course, class, facilitators
1.2 Engage: Pre-Assess and discuss course focus
11:00-11:30 1.3 Engage: State fossil activity
11:30-12:30 Lunch
12:30-1:30
1.4 Engage and Explore: Constructing a geologic timeline
1:30-2:15
1.5 Explore and Elaborate: Mapping fossil distribution on a state county
map
2:15-3:00
1.6 Explore: Sediment Exploration (start)
3:00-3:15
1.7 Explain: Discussion
Homework:
Elaborate & Evaluate: daily write-up (what did you gain, what questions
do you have?)
TUESDAY Day 2
Focus: Scaling up: From sediments to facies to depositional environments
8:30-9:30
2.1 Explore & Explain: Wrap-up Sediment exploration exercise
9:30-11:30
2.2a-c- Explore & Explain: Stream table/settling tube exercise
2.2d Explain & Elaborate: Sediments-environments & processes (facies)
1l:30-12:30
Lunch
12:30-2:00
2.3 Explore & Explain: Facies maps
2:00-3:00
2.4 Elaborate: From lateral to vertical relationships: Stratigraphic
Columns
3:00-3:15
2.5 Explain, Elaborate, Evaluate: Sharing and Discussion
Homework:
2.6 Elaborate & Evaluate: daily write-up (what did you gain, what
questions do you have?)
WEDNESDAY Day 3
Focus: Experience and application in the field; integration over time
8:30-12:00
3.1 Engage, Explore, Elaborate: Field experience
12:00-1:00
Lunch
1:00-2:30
3.2 Explore & Explain: Correlation
2:30-3:00
3.3 Explain & Elaborate: Time line integration
3:00-3:15
3.4 Explain, Elaborate, Evaluate: Sharing and discussion
Homework:
Elaborate & Evaluate: daily write-up (what did you gain, what questions
do you have?)
THURSDAY Day 4
Focus: Driving forces—energy for change
8:30-9:00
4.1 Engage: the day ahead, context
9:00-10:00
4.2 Explore: Computer lab—tectonic processes
10:00-11:30
4.3 Explore: Glacial processes & pulling it all together
11:30-12:00
4.4 Explain: Post-Assessment
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Course Materials List:
Materials
Golden Guide Fossil ID book
Fossils of Ohio (edited by Feldmann) - Ohio Dept.
of Natural Resources Bulletin 70
Old Bedrock Geology of Ohio - Poster Size
Surface geology of Ohio - Poster Size
Ohio Shaded Bedrock Topographic Map - Poster
Size
Michigan Bedrock Geology Map - Poster Size
Michigan Surface Geology Map - Poster Size
Michigan Fossils Poster
US Tapestry of Time Map
Great Lakes Geologic Highway Map
Hand lenses
Colored pencils
Cash register tape
Measuring Tape
Meter sticks
Rulers (metric)
Scotch tape
Clipboards
Scissors
Arkose student samples
Arkose hand sample
Conglomerate student samples
Conglomerate hand samples
Mature sandstone student samples
Mature sandstone hand samples
shale student samples
shale hand samples
limestone student samples
limestone hand samples
Sand Set
Isotelus maximus (Ohio State Fossil - trilobite)
Michigan Fossil Set
Sediment Comparators
binocular microscopes
Complete Economy Stream Table
sediment for stream table
Sedimentator (settling tube)
plastic buckets
PALEOMAP software
Other
Vans or buses for field trip
access to computer lab (PC)
Number needed
1 book for every 2 participants
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 for each participant
1 set/participant
15 (5 for each of 3 institutes)
4
4
1 per participant
6 (2 rolls for each institute)
1 per participant
1 per class
1 bag (10/bag)
1
1 bag (10/bag)
1
1 bag (10/bag)
1
1 bag (10/bag)
1
1 bag (10/bag)
1
1 set
1
1 set for every 4 participants
1 for every participant
4 /class
1/class
3
1 for every 4 participants
2
1 for every 2 teachers
1 computer/2 teachers
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Assessment Strategies:
Pretest & Post-test-Multiple format assessment. Multiple choice and short-answer questions about basic principles
and concepts.
Formative-Detailed instructions to facilitators for embedded assessments are identified for each activity.
Each teacher will write daily about what they learned and questions they still have.
Advance Preparation Notes:

Familiarize yourself with the conference facility, location of restrooms, lunch procedure,
classroom technology.

If possible, scout the field excursion site (Day 3 activity) in advance of the activity.

Read through the Facilitator’s Guide and the Activity Guide.

Check that all materials (see materials list, above) are available for each activity.

Prepare “Gots and Needs” and “Parking lot” areas for participant input (see explanation of
these two tools under “General overview of the course”, above)
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DAY 1
ACTIVITY #1.1: Introductions
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To establish working relationships between course
participants; to informally collect information on backgrounds of participants, perceived
needs and wants of the participants. Goal: for participants to learn each other’s names, to
establish common ground between participants.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 15 minutes
Detailed procedure: Facilitator introduces self and invites participants to introduce themselves
(perhaps by giving their name, school, grade taught, and a statement of what they hope to
take away from this experience). Introduce the “Gots and Needs” and “Parking Lot” tools:
“Gots and Needs”--A chart, divided in half , labeled "GOTS"
"NEEDS". During the session, participants write onto a sticky note (one thought per note)
what they are getting during the day and what they still need. "Gots" could be anything they
gain from the session. This may include something new they learned, a new friend they met, a
new strategy, and so forth. "Needs" can be questions that arise, physical needs (e.g., the room is
too cold), areas they would like more information about, or other needs that develop.
“Parking Lot”--The parking lot serves as a space where participants can post thoughts and
concerns (problems, issues, concerns, ideas) that you don’t want to lose, but will redirect the
session if addressed at the time it is raised. You can revisit these at the end/beginning of the
day or where the topic better fits in the sequence. The chart and sticky notes will be provided
in each room for this use, identified as “Parking Lot”.
Reviewing Norms: review a set of “norms” or expectations for the week. Some common
norms you will want to promote include:
 We will begin and end on time (includes breaks)
 Take care of your personal needs as needed (assumption is that they are
professionals)
 Participate- they who do the work do the learning!
 Ask questions- No question is a “dumb” question.
 Listen to others.
 Mute or turn off cell phones.
You will want to solicit other norms that the group expects or would like to list. Everyone
should buy-into the norms.
REVIEW THE BINDER/MATERIALS: Walk the participants through the binder materials so
they know what resources are provided and where to find them. This is also a good time to
see if there are any general questions about the day and to review the agenda, if you have not
already done so.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: In this course the only safety considerations concern the field
excursions (sun/heat protection). Please model effective classroom practice by reviewing
and calling teachers attention to: http://www.nsta.org/main/pdfs/SafetyGuidelines.pdf
Copyright 2006 MSU PROM/SE Supported by the National Science Foundation Agreement No. EHR-0314866
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ACTIVITY #1.2: Pre-Course assessment
Purpose and Goals of the activity: to form the basis of comparison for the post-course
assessment.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 1 hour, total: 30 minutes for the assessment; 30
minutes to discuss the assessment
Materials list: copies of assessment for each participant
Detailed procedure:
1. Facilitator hands out assessment, collects them at the end of 20 minutes (or some reasonable
amount of time depending on the dynamics of the particular group of participants).
2. Facilitators should lead a whole class discussion to
A. Identify areas of strengths.
B. Identify areas of weakness.
C. Identify questions.
D. Use the assessment as a lead in to the overview of the course.
ACTIVITY #1.3: Directed Inquiry: State Fossil/symbol
Investigation
Purpose and Goals of the activity: The purpose of this activity is to build on the current
knowledge the participants have of their state symbols and construct a geologic history of the
Great Lakes region one observation at a time to deepen their understanding of the millennia
of changes represented by these fossils and the physical observations and tools geologists use
to reconstruct these events.
Main “take home” message: These state symbols are evidence of dramatic change in North
America from the distant geologic past to today, and are clues to the processes involved in
that change.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 30 minutes
Materials list:
 Isotelus trilobite (Ohio)- 1 for class
 Petoskey stone (Michigan – included in Michigan fossil kit) – 1 per group of 4 teachers
 Michigan Fossil Kit - 1 per group of 4
 Hand lenses – 1 per participant
 Golden Guide of Fossils – 1 per 2 participants
 Fossils of Ohio – 1 book for class
 Activity Sheet 1.3 – 1 per person (in Activity Guide)
Advance preparation notes
 Facilitators should be able to identify the fossils in the Michigan fossil kit and be familiar
with the key features of each fossil, their ages, and the environments in which they lived.
 Read Background Notes
Safety notes/considerations: none
Overview: Most participants will be familiar with Ohio’s state fossil and Michigan’s state stone,
but they may not be familiar with the organisms represented by the fossils or the
environments in which these organisms lived, and the dramatic changes in the
Michigan/Ohio environment represented by these fossils.
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Background Notes: OH/MI StateFossils
I. Ohio State Fossil: Isotelus
The Ohio state fossil is Isotelus, a trilobite abundant in rocks of Ordovician age in southwestern
Ohio. Trilobites are an extinct class of arthropods, distantly related to Cheilcerates (horseshoe crabs,
scorpions, and spiders) and Crustaceans (crabs, shrimp, and lobsters). Trilobites are unique among
classes of arthropods because it is the only extinct class of arthropods. This fact is curious in light of the
fact that trilobites were very successful by most measures of evolutionary success: geologically longlived (from 530 million years ago to 260 million years ago), taxonomically diverse (more than 1500
genera have been described) morphologically very diverse, inhabiting different physical environments
and ecological niches. Trilobites swam, floated, crawled, burrowed; they grubbed in the mud for
organic detritus and actively sought out prey. They were smooth and sleek and ornately spiny. And
they last inhabited the seas 230 million years ago. The explanation for their demise is unclear.
Classification: As a member of the Phylum Arthropoda, trilobites share the following
characteristics with other members of the phylum: a segmented body, exoskeleton, jointed
appendages, and growth through molting (periodic shedding of old exoskeleton). The classes of
arthropods differ mainly in the number of main body segments and the number and type of
appendages.
Ecology: Trilobites are found with other fossil organisms whose living relatives live in marine
waters (brachiopods, crinoids, bryozoans) so trilobites are inferred to have been exclusively
marine organisms. As mentioned above, the great morphological diversity of trilobites, and trace
fossils attributable to the movement of trilobites over and through the sediment, suggest that they
inhabited many different ecological niches.
Trilobite body plan: The name of the class (pronounced TRY-lo-bite) refers to the longitudinal
(lengthwise) division of the trilobite's dorsal exoskeleton into a central lobe and two lateral lobes.
Trilobites also have a three-part body plan head-to-tail (or anterior-to-posterior), comprising the
headshield (cephalon), midsection (thorax), and "tail" (pygidium). [The trilobite exoskeleton or
carapace is heavily calcified, perhaps more so than any modern arthropod, and we are left with an
abundant, albeit often disarticulated, fossil record for the group.]
Cephalon : The head shield, or cephalon (from the Greek word for "head"--check this). Many
trilobites have a differentiated central area, the glabella, outlined by glabellar furrows which define
glabellar lobes. The glabella bordered on either side by the fixigenae (literally "fixed cheek"). In many
trilobites a pair of facial sutures separate the fixigenae from the marginal librigenae (literally "free
cheeks", as these are commonly released or freed during ecdysis). Some trilobites bear genal spines on
the librigenae or fixigenae.
Eyes are the other prominent feature of the cephalon, and are variously developed in trilobites
from large eyes with multiple, separate lenses (schizochroal) to smaller eyes with a single covering
(holochrol), to presumably blind trilobites with no visible eyes.
Thorax: The cephalon is joined at its posterior edge with the segmented thorax. The medial
axis of each thoracic segment is flanked by the lateral pleurae. The number of thoracic segments
varies by species; some trilobites have as few as two, other have over 20. Each thoracic segment is
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articulated with its neighbors, enabling many trilobites to roll up, a providing protection for the
vulnerable vental surface of the trilobite.
Pygidium: The thorax is joined posteriorly to a single fused tergite, the pygidium (plural,
pygidia). The size, shape, and ornamentation (surface features) of pygidia vary widely. Some pygidia
are little more than a single small tergite (micropygous); other pygidia are as large as the cephalon
(isopygous); some appear segmented, but this is not a true segmentation reflecting segmentation in the
body; others pygidia are smooth and featureless; still others may bear pygidial spines.
Ventral anatomy of trilobites: The ventral anatomy
of most trilobites is poorly known. The vental
surface carried the appendages and the mouth.
Trilobite appendages were apparently
lightly scleritized compared to the dorsal
exoskeleton and are only preserved in exceptional,
fortuitous circumstances where trilobites were
rapidly buried in an anoxic environment, which
prevented decomposition of the delicate structures.
Trilobites were long thought to be molluscs, akin to
the chiton, crawling along the seafloor on a fleshy
foot. The discovery of trilobites with appendages
confirmed their arthropod affinity. Many trilobites
apparently had a pair of appendages for each
thoracic segment and a pair of antennae. In most
trilobites for which appendages are known, the legs
are undifferentiated, unspecialized, but the number
of trilobites for which appendages are known is
very small.
In many trilobites the mouth was directed
backwards, and the animal passed food forward with its appendages. The single well-calcified (and
thus, well-preserved) ventral tergite is the hypostome, which was essentially a mouthpart. The
morphology of hypostomes is quite varied; some trilobites possessed small, thin plates, others, like
Isotelus, had large, robust hypostoma. Trilobites also differ in the attachment of the hypostome to the
ventral surface of the rostrum...
Preservation: Because of their jointed body design comprising separate articulated skeletal elements
that became disarticulated after death and during molting, whole trilobites are rare as fossils. Trilobite
exoskeletons were commony shed in separate pieces during molting (ecdysis). Arthropod math; 1
trilobite = numerous molted exoskeletons + 1 carcass. Thus, the vast majority of trilobite fossils are
exuviae, the cast-off exoskeleton. The distinction between trilobite exuviae and carcasses is not always
easy to make. Unlike many modern arthropods, trilobites did not resorb exoskeletal material before
ecdysis, thus the exuviae are compositionally and structurally identical to the carcass. As with modern
horseshoe crabs, sutures opened during ecdysis may close, and exuviae may be virtually
indistinguishable from the carcass. Separation along facial sutures is a certain indication that the fossil
is a molt, but sutures apparently did not open every time, and some fossils with intact sutures may be
exuviae. Dislocations between major tergites (the cephalon and thorax; among thoracic segments;
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between the thorax and pygidium) are indicative of molts. Unnatural postures (sway-back thorax or a
sharply down-tilted cephalon) are also characteristic of molts.
Carcasses are most reliably recognized by the presence of intact appendages, requiring
exceptional circumstances for preservation.
The rarity of intact trilobites and the appeal of the design of their body plan make their fossil
remains highly desired and prized.
II. Michigan State Rock: Petoskey Stone
The Petoskey Stone is actually a fossil coral, but it is not the state fossil of Michigan!
Petoskey Stones are officially designated as the state rock, and the title of Michigan state fossil
was recently given to mastodons.
Classification: The Petoskey Stone is a member of an extinct Order of corals, the rugose, or
horn corals, so named for the resemblance of some of these corals
to animal horns. Petoskey corals are colonial, and each of the
hexagonal corallites housed a single individual polyp. Corals
belong to the Phylum Cnidaria or Coelenterata, and their close
relatives include anemones, which are basically corals without the
skeletal support. The phylum is distinguished by the presence of
tentacles. The term coelenterate literally means “hollow gut” and
the term cnidaria refers to the stinging cells characteristic of some
member of the group. The Petoskey stone coral is most often
referred to the genus Hexagonaria.
Anatomy: The calcareous skeleton, the corallum, is divided by vertical radial partitions, termed
septa. In the aptly named Hexagonaria, the individual corallites are hexagonal in shape, giving
the genus its distinctive “honeycomb” appearance.
Ecology: Modern corals are exclusively marine, and fossil corals are found in association with
other groups known to be marine (brachiopods, bryozoans, cephalopods) so Petoskey stone
corals are most reliably regarded as exclusively marine inhabitants. Petoskey stone corals are
Devonian in age (416-359 million years old). Petosky Stones are found along Lake Michigan, in
the “tip’ of Michigan’s lower peninsula, corresponding to the outcrop area of Devonian-age
bedrock. (See geologic map of Michigan).
It is not known why rugose corals went extinct at the end of the Permian. There is an
alternative suggestion that this Paleozoic group did not die out but that they evolved into the
modern scleractinian corals. Petosky stones are most often mis-identified as fossil honeycombs
because of their hexagonal corallites.
Detailed Procedure
1. Describe & Identify Fossils. 15 minutes
Have participants work in group of 4 to describe and identify fossils in the Michigan fossil
kit, using the Golden Guide and the Fossils of Ohio book to identify fossils. Everyone should
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describe and identify at least 3 fossils, one of which is the state fossil for their state, and
record their descriptions on the State Fossil/Stone Investigation Sheet.
2. Whole Class Discussion about the fossils. 10 minutes.
Facilitators should keep notes on the board or overhead projector. Participants should take
notes on the discussion on their State Fossil/Stone Investigation Sheet.
A. List 1. What do we know about the fossil?
Examples: what kind of animal it represents, what animal group it is most closely related
to, whether this group is extinct, when the animal lived, where (geographically) the
animal lived, naming parts of the animal, the kind of environment in which it lived
(marine or fresh water? Tropical or temperate zones?), its ecologic/trophic niche, the
name of the animal.
B. List 2. What can this fossil tell us?
Examples: The environment has changed, plant and animal life has changed, etc.
C. List 3. What would we like to know?
Examples: Why/how did it go extinct (climate change? Global warming or cooling?
Plate tectonics?), what did it eat, etc. Sources we might use to find the answers to our
questions
3. Synthesis discussion. 5 - 10 minutes.
Draw out organizing questions on the workshop theme of Earth Change. Cull the List 3 to
highlight questions that address the workshop’s objectives (e.g., Are these environments here
now? What changed? How did it change? How did we get from what it was like when these
fossils were alive to what it is like now?) Brainstorm: Hypothesize possible explanations &
processes. Finish by explaining how this course will help us understand what changes took
place, what processes were responsible for those changes, and the evidence for those
changes.
Embedded Assessment
 Are participants making connection between the fossils and past environments?
 Are participants asking questions that indicate that they understand the interesting problems
that these fossils pose?
MI & OH Benchmarks Addressed
Michigan:
 EG.V.1 MS #4.- Explain how rocks and fossils are used to understand the age and geological
history of the earth.
Ohio:
 Explain the 4.5-billion-year history of Earth and the 4 billion-year-history of life on Earth
based on observable scientific evidence in the geologic record.
Systems & Energy – No connections
Elements of Inquiry
1. Learners engage in scientifically oriented questions.
2. Learners give priority to evidence in responding to questions.
5E Model
Engage –
Activates prior knowledge
Establishes a problem – What has changed?
Elicits learner ideas
References:
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http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Extension/fossils/trilobite.html
Muller, Bruce, and Wilde, Wm., 2004, The complete guide to Petoskey stones. Ann Arbor, The
University of Michigan Press.
Ohio Geological Survey GEOFACTS sheet on Isotelus, the state Fossil
Michigan DEQ fact sheet on Petoskey Stones
ACTIVITY #1.4: Constructing a geologic time line to scale
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To gain an appreciation of time as a measure of change, so
that physical and biological changes in the Earth can be used to mark the passage of time.
The geologic timeline will provide the temporal framework within which to discuss Earth
change, and the timeline will be referred to throughout the rest of the workshop. The purpose
of this activity is to familiarize (or introduce) participants to the geologic time scale, and to
gain an appreciation of the immensity of geologic time by constructing a scaled version of
the history of the Earth from its formation 4.6 billion years ago to the present, with important
physical and biological changes marked off along its length.
Main “take home” message: The distribution of the physical record of Earth change is not
uniform; for example, 80% of Earth history is represented by rocks of the Precambrian Eon,
yet the bulk of fossils are known from the last 20% of Earth history, the Phanerozoic Eon.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 1 hour
Materials list:
 Cash register tape – up to 5 rolls
 scissors – 1 pr for class
 Measuring tape -1 for class
 markers/pens/pencils
 scotch tape – 1 roll for class
 Activity Sheet 1.4 – 1 per person (in Activity Guide)
 List of significant biological/physical events and dates for each, to plot on timeline
Advance preparation notes
 Facilitators should be familiar with the geologic time scale and the directions for constructing
a geologic time scale from cash register tape.
 Read background notes, below
Safety notes/considerations: none
Overview: Following a discussion on “what is time?” participants will construct scaled
geologic timelines using a scale 1 m to 50 m.y. (= 92 meters) long, brainstorm a list of
significant physical and biological Earth changes, then plot these events along the timeline.
After all events are plotted, discussion of the non-uniform distribution of events (record of
Earth change) along this timeline, and of possible reasons for this skew towards geologically
younger events and processes.
Background Notes: Development of the Geologic Time Scale
One of the fundamental assumptions in geology is the Principle of Uniformitarianism which, simply
stated, is that "the laws of nature do not change with time." This principle allows us to assume that the
geological clock (record of changes in the Earth) worked the same 500 my ago as today.
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Uniformitarianism is our fundamental assumption, and permits us to use our stratigraphic
principles as tools to order geologic events, that is, to construct a relative chronology of earth history.
Time: What is the basic measure of time? [how do we know it exists? how do we measure it?]
Invite discussion.
Answer: change. If nothing ever changed we would hav no sense of time (and probably, time
would not exist?). Thus, changes--dynamism--record time. Many changes are recorded in rocks, so
it's valid to look to rocks as geo-chronometers and to use rocks in detering the age of the earth, as
well as for relative timing of different geologic events
Relative Dating
Definition: Relative dating--determining a relative chronologic order of a sequence of events. No
quantitative or absolute numbers involved, based on fundamental stratigraphic principles for
sedimentary strata that were first enunciated over 400 years ago (Nicholas Steno), including the
principle of original horizontality, principle of superposition, principle of lateral continuity, principle
of cross-cutting relations, principle of included fragments, and principle of faunal succession
(attributed to British civil engineer and mapper Wm. Smith). [These principles are listed on a
following page in a format for handout or over head transparency.]
The Geologic Column
The geologic column was developed using relative dating techniques, primarily the principle of
superposition and faunal succession.
Early biostratigraphers
First credited with dividing strata on the basis of fossils, Frenchman J.L. Giraud-Soularie
(1752-1813), in "A Natural History of Southern France," he divided limestone formations into 5
epochs, the strata of each characterized by a distinct assemblage of shells:
1st stage marked by fossils that have no living analogues [Primordial] 2nd age, intermediate:
fossils of the 1st stage and some modern forms 3rd age: shells are all of recent form
4th age: carbonaceous shales with plant material
5th age: alluvium (unconsolidated)
Lavoisier (1742-1794), better known for contributions to chemistory,
divided the Tertiary of the Paris Basin
Cuvier (1769-1832) and Brogniart, produced the first geologic map of the Paris Basin on the
basis of faunal correlations.
Major divisions/nomenclature
Flow chart of Time Scale Hierarchy:
Eon [most inclusive]
Era
Period
Epoch [smallest slice of time]
This scale was developed largely in Europe in the mid 1800's. Names are taken from geographic
features (towns, etc) where rocks of the age are well-exposed. The original subdivision of the
geologic column was based on the wide-ranging, consistent recurring sequence of rock
formations in the order they are found in Europe.
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Note that this scale did not emerge fully formed and with unanimous consensus; there has been
bitter argument over defining some boundaries (the story of Sedgwick and Murchison*).
The geologic time scale is a living document and continues to change; governed by the
International Commission on Stratigraphy. Just last year (Fall ’05) the ISC ruled that the
“Quaternary Period” did not merit separate consideration, and the Commission subsumed the
Quaternary into the Neogene Period.
:
*Extra; the story of Sedgwick and Murchison
Stratigraphic sequence of their time: "unstratified" rocks (igneous, metamorphic, cores of mt ranges)
and stratified rocks divided in order of oldest to youngest: primary stratified rocks, transition, old red
sandstone, oolitic, Cretaceous, tertiary, alluvium.
Adam Sedgwick (1785-1873), Englishman, worked on sequence in Wales and Scotland. Roderick
Impey Murchison (1792-1871), mapping partner and friend for a while, but controversy over how to
divide rocks between oldest known rocks (in UK) and "Old Red Sandstone" [Devonian], the "transition"
rocks eventually destroyed their relationship.
Murchison started at the base of the "Old Red Sandstone" (Devonian) and worked stratigraphically
downward and defined the Silurian. Together Sedgwick and Murchison described and named the
Devonian System [1840]. Their criteria for defining rock systems included:
a system is a body of rock of separate and distinct lithologic character
its structural character is distinct
it is faunally distinct
it represents a distinct episode of the earth's history (=time)
i.e., they had lithologic, structural, and faunal criteria for definition
Sedgwick went to Wales and Scotland and started from the base, the oldest rocks closest to mt core, and
worked upward. Both Sedgwick and Murchison agreed he was in odler rocks than Murchison's Silurian.
In 1835 Sedgwick called these rocks "Cambrian". By this time Murchison realized that there was no
major boundary or break or division between his Silurian in England and Sedgwick's Cambrian--the
lowest Silurian beds passed laterally into uppermost Cambrian beds. This became a huge controversy,
the Geological Survey could draw no definite line between the systems, the same fossils characterized
both, and the Survey ruled that Sedgwick's Cambrian was actually Silurian [priority]. Murchison didn't
mind, but Sedgwick did. Thus began hard feelings and estrangement. [books written on this topic,
Geike's Life of Murchison, and a recent one by Rudwick]
Sedgwick eventually found an unconformable surface between "Upper Silurian" and everything
below, and proposed that Cambrian should extend up to this break, thus subsuming Murchison's Lower
Silurian. But, Murchison's fossil collections and nomenclature had priority.
Meanwhile, Barrande (1799-1883) found Silurian in Bohemia and below it a different, more
primitive fauna, and established Sedgwick's Cambrian as a faunally distinctive unit.
Their dispute was ultimately settled posthumously. Lapworth proposed that Murchisons's Lower
Silurian = Sedgwick's Upper Cambrian, and that this interval should be taken from both and separated as
the Ordovician. The Ordovician was not accepted as a legitimate unit by the USGS unti 1904 (a caution
to theses on the Ordovician--must look at literature on the Silurian). Thus, the Ordovician emerged as a
compromise, although today major faunal turnover is recognized at that boundary from other sections.
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BRITISH STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN OF SEDGWICK AND MURCHISON'S DAY
YOUNGEST:
OLDEST:
Alluvium
Tertiary
Cretaceous
Oolitic
Old Red Sandstone
Transition rocks
Primary stratified rocks
Unstratified rocks (igneous, metamorphic)
SEDGWICK AND MURCHISON Applied "modern" criteria to defining rock systems:
1. separate and distinct lithologic character
2. distinct structural character
3. distinct faunal character
4. represents a distinct episode of earth history
i.e., they recognized the interpretive nature of stratigraphic units
Together defined Devonian
Murchison defined Silurian
Sedgwick defined Cambrian
....parts of Silurian and Cambrian overlapped,
eventually became the Ordovician
Geologic Time Scale Outline (pronunciation and symbols guide)
Geologists always start with the oldest-to-youngest, so your notes will read upside-down.
Precambrian [PC] an older term used to describe all rocks older than the Cambrian Period.
These are generally metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, metamorphic and igneous rx. Generally
greatly deformed, very few fossils, primitive life forms.
More recent use divides the Precambrian into Three Eons:
I. Hadean: from earliest Earth to 3.8 bybp, and no remaining rocks, “hellish” (hadean)
environment of volcanic eruptions, geothermal features, and impacts
II. Archean: from 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago; earliest evidence of life appears in these rocks
III. Proterozoic: from 2.5 bybp to 540 mybp; literally “before life”, a reference to the fact
that few body fossils are known from these rocks (although there are some)..
All the rest of Earth’s history is part of the Phanerozoic (or “visible life”) Eon; the name
reflects the fact that well-preserved fossils appear at the beginning of this interval.
The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into 3 Eras: Paleozoic/Mesozoic/Cenozoic, and these names reflect
the types of fossil lifeforms found in the rocks:
I. Paleozoic Era: "ancient life," fossils common, marine invertebrates,
fish, amphibians. Divided into periods:
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A. Cambrian [C], from Cambria, Latin word for Wales. These are the oldest, generally
undeformed sediments resting on the deformed PC basement; first appearance of an abundant shelly
fauna, the "age of trilobites".
B. Ordovician [O], from ancient Welsh tribe, Ordovics.
C. Silurian [S], from a British tribe name, Silures [Dr. Who fans note the Silurians, a race in
that series]
D. Devonian [D], from Devonshire, England; age of fishes
E. Carboniferous [C], named for coal-bearing strata; in the US this Period is divided into two
periods,
Mississippian [M], for upper Miss. valley, IA,IL
Pennsylvanian [|P], for Penn. coal
F. Permian [P], for Perm, Russia, age of amphibians
II. Mesozoic era, "Middle Life", fossils not as primitive
A. Triassic [Tr], named for 3-fold division of rocks in Germany
B. Jurassic [J], named for Jura Mts of Eastern Europe
C. Cretaceous [K], from the Latin creta, "chalk", named for strata in England and France, e.g.,
the White Cliffs of Dover.
III. Cenozoic Era, "Recent life", fossils closely related to modern life
Formerly, the Cenozoic was divided into the Tertiary and Quaternary Periods, a holdover from
earlier time scales where Primary = Paleozoic; Secondary = Mesozoic. Today the Tertiary and
Quaternary have been replaced by the Paleogene and Neogene Periods. These periods are divided into
Epochs, something that dates back to Lyell (1828), who arranged all the Tertiary formations into 4
groups based on the ratio of extant:extinct fossils. These were the first formally defined epochs:
Pliocene--extant forms predominate [e.g., extant:extinct > 1]
Miocene--extant species in minority
Eocene--small proportion of extnat species, extinct dominant [ratio <1]
Now there are 7 Epochs of the Cenozoic Era recognized in North America: from oldest to youngest:
Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene (or Recent or Modern).
Etymology of epochs
Paleocene = old
Eocene = primeval, dawn Oligocene = few, little Miocene = less
Pliocene = more
Pleistocene = much Holocene = whole, entire
[Note: eras, periods are not equal in length]
With this nomenclature and scheme we enter a more modern stage of stratigraphy, weaned from the
theoretical "primary, secondary, tertiary" to stratigraphic divisions based on observable features
(Faunal shifts). We are still left with a hodegepodge terminology, holdover from previous efforts,
units named for the predominant mineralogy [Carboniferous, Cretaceous], other named for relative
position [Tertiary, Quaternary], other names based on geographic or cultural features. Little change or
attempted change to clean it up [tradition is strong], but recent preference for Paleogene and Neogene
to replace "Tertiary" [Paleogene comprising Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene; Neogene comprision
Miocene and Pliocene]
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MNEMONIC DEVICES FOR GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE*





COLLEGE OFTEN STRESSES DAILY, CAUSING PROBLEMS THAT JUSTIFY
COSIDERATIONS TO QUIT!
COLONEL OSCAR SAID, "DIE COURAGEOUS PRINCESS THEN JANE CAN TURN
QUEEN"
CARS OVER SEAS DON'T CAUSE POLLUTION, THEY JUST COLLAPSE TOO
QUICK.
COME ON, SALLY, DON'T CRY. PUT THIS JURY CASE TOGETHER QUICK!
CARS OF SUPERIOR DESIGN CAN PUSH THE JAPANESE COMPANIES TO
QUIT.
*Note: these were constructed using “Carboniferous” instead of Mississippian and
Pennsylvanian, and “Tertiary” and “Quaternary” instead of the more recent Paleogene and
Neogene. Suggest students construct a mnemonic device using: C,O,S,D,M,P,P,T,J,K,P,N!
Fundamental Paradigms of Historical Geology:
Uniformitarianism and Stratigraphic Principles
I. Time
Definitions of time....
II. Uniformitarianism
James Hutton (1726-1797), Scottish farmer/geologist, "Father of Historical
Geology"


processes operate today as they did in the past
we can use modern observations to interpret past conditions
"The present is the key to the past."
“The laws of nature do not change.”
Note:
 not all processes that operated in the past still operate today
This does NOT violate uniformitarianism.
 processes may not operate at the same RATE as they did in the past
This does NOT violate uniformitarianism.
Uniformitarianism is fundamental to constructing a geologic "calendar" of events
(time scale).
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III. Early attempts at organizing Earth’s chronology
John Woodward [1665-1722]
All rocks deposited as a result of the Flood:
Top/youngest: chalk, unconsolidated sediments
Bottom/oldest: heaviest rocks and fossils
5th age:
4th age:
3rd age:
2nd age:
1st stage
Giraud-Soularie
[youngest] unconsolidated alluvium
carbonaceous shales (plant material)
shells of recent form
intermediate: fossils of 1st age and some modern forms
[oldest]: fossils that have no living analogues
Two histories based on mountain ranges
I. Pierre Simon Pallas [1741-1811]
Tertiary Mts.: low hills made of sandstone
Secondary Mts: fossiliferous limestone
Primitive Mountains: highest, granite, schists; older than the creation of living
beings (unfossiliferous)
II. Johann Gottlob Lehmann [d. 1767]
3rd order mts.: formed from time to time by local accident
2nd order mts.: arose from an alteration of the ground “Flotzgebirge” [orebearing]; younger, stratified deposits, fossiliferous
1st order mts: coeval with the formation of the world-—highest mts., structurally
complex



First to use a 3-fold division: Giovanni Arduino [1713-1795]
Tertiary: fossiliferous limestone, sandstone, clay; derived from the Secondary
Series
Secondary: marine fossils, limestone, clay
Primary: oldest, unfossiliferous, micaceous, strongly folded, schistose; found at
the cores of mountains
(Note: volcanics treated separately!)
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Two opposing philosophies:
I. Neptunist philosophy: Deposition from the primordial ocean
Abraham Gottlob Werner [1749-1817]

Alluvial Series: recent sand, clay, gravel, peat

Floetz rocks: part chemical, mostly mechanical, marking the continued ebb of
the world ocean; sandstone, limestone, gypsum, halite, coal, basalt, obsidian,
porphyry

Transitional Rocks: also “chemical” ppt., limestone, sandstone, but also
containing “mechanical depositions” from the world’s oceans (and subsequent
erosion of exposed rock)

Primitive: entirely of chemical origin, the oldest; granite, gneiss, slates, basalt
II. Plutonist philosophy: crystallization of rocks from original molten state
James Hutton [1726-1797]
Secondary rocks: formed from primary rocks lithified by subterranean heat
Primary rocks: oldest rocks, schists, slates
SUMMARY/SYNTHESIS
Early chronologies of Earth history are intimately linked with:
 one’s paradigm for how the Earth formed
 personal philosophy (e.g., reconciling religious doctrine with nature)
 personal experience/geography
All early workers recognized:
 Different rock types implied different events
 Materials of the Earth’s crust succeeded each other in a definite order (vs.
“thrown down at random”)
i.e., the existence of basic stratigraphic principles
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IV. Essential stratigraphic principles (Steno, Hutton, Smith)
1. Principle of superposition: in an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks,
the oldest are at the bottom (deposited first)
2. Principle of original horizontality: sedimentary strata are originally
deposited (more or less) horizontally. Any departure from horizontality indicates
later tectonic deformation.
3. Principle of cross-cutting relations: a geologic feature (e.g., igneous
intrusion) that cuts across another body of rock is younger than the rock it cuts
across
4. Principle of included fragments: fragments included in a large body of rock
are older than the rock in which they have been included (e.g., xenoliths, clasts in a
conglomerate)
5. Principle of faunal succession: fossils occur in a definite and determinable
order
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Detailed Procedure
1. Discussion/Inquiry – 10 minutes
What is time? Pose this question to the group and compile responses on the board. (what do
we know about time?) The discussion will probably converge on how time is measured
(Earth rotating on its axis = day, vibrations of the Cesium atom = second, etc.). After
exhausting the discussion, point out that, quite simply (and consistent with all the ways to
measure it) “time is change.” If nothing ever changed, there would be no sense of time (this
could lead to a metaphysical discussion of time, but we don’t need to go there).
Because “time is change”, all sorts of changes can be used to measure time, including
changes in the Earth (invite the group to list Earth changes that might be used to mark time,
e.g., tides, (regular interval), floods (irregular intervals or seasonal), meteorite impacts
(highly irregular, long-recurrence, high-magnitude events vs. short-recurrence, lowmagnitude events—thank goodness!). Inverse relationship between magnitude and intensity
of events.
Segue to geologic time scale—relative scale and putting dates on the time scale.
It is important to remind participants that the geologic time scale was constructed from basic
stratigraphic principles, hundreds of years before radiometric dating allowed us to put actual
dates on the time line. Earth changes—deposition of sedimentary strata, intrusion of igneous
dikes, tilting and folding of strata through mountain building—are all recorded in the geologic
record and these events can be sorted out and placed in their relative order. The advent of
radiometric dating allows us to put numbers—dates--on these events. The older term “absolute
dating” should be avoided, because it implies a finality or certainty that is antithetical to how
science works.
Activity 1.4a: If there are participants who are not familiar with the fundamental stratigraphic
principles discussed in the background information and alluded to in the paragraph above, this
activity provides practice in constructing a relative chronology from basic principles. This can
be done as a group or assigned as homework. The key appears below.
Note: This is a tricky diagram, and there will probably be spirited disagreement about the last
few events. Participants should be encouraged to justify their choice(s) with the appropriate
logic based on application of the stratigraphic principles. There may not be a clear “right
answer”.
Key to symbols: “V” is a complex metamorphic rock. Units A, S, and E are intrusive igneous
rocks; M is marked with the same symbol but probably represents an extrusive igneous rock,
e.g., lava flow (and thus is older than X). X and L are some undistinguishable sedimentary rock,
F, B, J are shales, G is a limestone, H, R, and D are sandstones or mixtures of sand and gravel. Z
is a conglomerate. P, K, C, And T are faults. N refers to the damage to the house.
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2. Construction of Timeline: 30 minutes
Have participants work as a group to construct a geologic timeline from cash register tape at
a scale of 1m = 50 my years.
A. Let participants figure out how long the time line will be and how to mark off the time
line.
B. Have participants mark the Eons, Eras, Periods, Epochs and significant physical and
biological Earth historical events identified on Activity Sheet 1.4 on the geologic time
line. Participants should figure out and agree on a consistent way to distinguish between
Eons, Eras, Periods, Epochs on the time line.
3. Whole Class Discussion of Timeline: 20 minutes
Discussion Prompts:
 How do we know how old a rock is?
 Why do we have so many events clustered at the recent end?
 What perspective does this time line offer?
 What are the major periods in geologic time? How do we identify the end of a period?
 How does the textbook (non-scaled) depiction of the geologic time scale differ from the
timescale we constructed to scale? What bias does this represent? What misconceptions
might this lead to?
 Consider how long it took for life to evolve from single-celled stage to multi-celled stage,
and how rapidly all other biological changes occurred after this threshold was crossed. What
does this imply about the difficulty of this transition, and what might it mean for the
likelihood that there is complex (multi-cellular) life on other planets? [the Rare Earth
hypothesis of Peter Ward and Daniel Brownlee]
Common Misconceptions
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Time – People do not really have misconceptions about what time is, but they have incomplete
conceptions of geologic time, chronologic order, and significance of certain geologic events.
Children think of time in two categories (more ancient and less ancient). Adults have three
categories (extremely ancient, moderately ancient, and less ancient). (Ault, 1982; Trend, 1998,
2000, 2001).
Ault, C. R., Jr. (1982). Time in geological explanations as perceived by elementary-school
students. Journal of Geological Education, 30, 304-309.
Trend, R. D. (1998). An investigation into understanding of geological time among 10-and 11year-old children. International Journal of Science Education, 20(8), 973-988.
Trend, R. D. (2000). Conceptions of geological time among primary teacher trainees, with
reference to their engagement with geoscience, history, and science. International
Journal of Science Education, 22(5), 539-555.
Trend, R. D. (2001). Deep time framework: A preliminary study of U.K. Primary teachers'
conceptions of geological time and perceptions of geoscience. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 38(2), 191-221.
Embedded Assessments
 Do participants understand basic chronology?
 Do participants appreciate the differences between relative chronology and numerical
methods?
MI & OH Benchmarks Addressed
Michigan:
 EG.V.1 MS 4. Explain how rocks and fossils are used to understand the age and geological
history of the earth.
Ohio:
 Explain the 4.5-billion-year history of Earth and the 4 billion-year-history of life on Earth
based on observable scientific evidence in the geologic record.
Systems & Energy
This activity establishes a framework for investigating how systems act over time and how the
geosphere and biosphere have evolved.
Elements of Inquiry
1. Learners engage in scientifically oriented questions.
5E Model
Engage –
Activates prior knowledge
Establishes a problem: How are geologic time and geologic events organized
chronologically?
Elicits learner ideas
Explore –
Explore learner ideas
Explain –
Explain how geologic time is divided and used to organize a chronology of events.
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ACTIVITY #1.5: Mapping fossil distribution data on state county
map
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To connect the fossil examination activity with the timeline
activity; to see patterns in the geographic/temporal distribution of fossils.
Main “take home” message: Fossils are more than clues to past environments; because of the
Principle of Faunal Succession, fossils provide data to help map the distribution of rocks of
different ages, and thus contribute to the construction of geologic maps and elucidating the
geologic structure of a region.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 45 minutes
Materials list:
 Activity Sheets 1.5 – 1 per person (in Activity Guide)
o Directions with Fossiliferous Bedrock Outcrop Timeline (either MI or OH)
o County Map (either MI or OH)
o Geologic Standard Colors (reproduced in color)
 Colored pencils – 1 set per person
 MI and OH state geologic maps - 1 per class
Advance preparation notes
Safety notes/considerations: none
Overview: Participants will plot the location of outcrops of fossiliferous materials on a state
counties map and color-code the counties by the age of the fossils. The goal is to notice
patterns on the map and compare those patterns to the patterns present on state geologic
maps.
Detailed procedure
1. Making the Fossiliferous Outcrop Map
A. Working individually, participants should use the appropriate Fossiliferous Bedrock
Outcrop Timeline and state county map to locate the counties where fossiliferous bedrock
outcrops occur.
B. Use colored pencils to color code the counties where fossiliferous bedrock outcrops occur
according to the age of the fossils. Use colors as close to the standard geologic colors
(shown on chart in Activity Guide) as possible.
2. Whole Class Discussion
Conduct a whole class discussion about the fossiliferous outcrop maps. Compare student
maps to the state geologic maps for OH & MI. Questions to ask:
A. What patterns do you see?
1. Examples from MI [model these examples for the Ohio exercise]
a. Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian fossil outcrops occur only in the western Upper
Peninsula.
b. Devonian fossil outcrops occur on the outer edges of the Lower Peninsula.
c. Pennsylvanian outcrops occur only in Mid-Michigan.
d. Jurassic fossil outcrops only occur in one county (Ionia).
B. How do these patterns compare to the state geologic maps? Why do your maps only show
some of the counties colored in? Why do the state geologic maps include all of the
counties colored in?
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C. Why do you think there are not fossil outcrops found in every county? (Most of Michigan
is covered with glacial outwash and moraine deposits from the glaciers.)
D. If there were fossil outcrops in the following counties, what age fossils do you think you
would find and why? Emphasize that these answers are hypothesis.
1. Cheyboygan – Probably Devonian
2. Macomb – Probably Devonian
3. Montcalm – Maybe Jurassic?
4. Livingston – Maybe Mississippian? Maybe Pennsylvanian?
E. Ohio Questions – [model the questions above, based on Ohio counties]
Concerns to look for
Note that in OH & MI, there are Pleistocene fossils of Mastodons, but these occur in glacial
cover and not in bedrock outcrops. Therefore, they are noted on the geologic timeline, but not
on the map.
References:
Michigan Rocks www.educ.msu.edu/michiganrocks
Colors http://geology.about.com/library/bl/time/blcolorus.htm
Michigan and Ohio geologic bedrock and surficial geology maps
Embedded Assessments
 Are participants locating fossils on maps correctly?
 Are participants making connection between fossils and past environments?
Are participants asking questions that indicate they are understanding the interesting problems
that these fossils pose?
MI & OH Benchmarks Addressed
Michigan:
 EG.V.1 MS4. Explain how rocks and fossils are used to understand the age and geological
history of the earth.
Ohio:
 Explain the 4.5-billion-year history of Earth and the 4 billion-year-history of life on Earth
based on observable scientific evidence in the geologic record.
Systems & Energy
This activity establishes a framework for investigating how systems act over time and how the
geosphere and biosphere have evolved.
Elements of Inquiry
1. Learners engage in scientifically oriented questions.
2. Learners give priority to evidence in responding to questions
3. Learners formulate explanations from evidence
4. Learners connect explanations to scientific knowledge
5. Learners communicate and justify explanations
5E Model
Engage –
Activates prior knowledge
Establishes a problem: Where do fossils outcrop in our state? What can these fossils tell us
about the geologic history of our state?
Elicits learner ideas
Explore –
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Explore learner ideas
Explore patterns in data
Explain –
Explain what these patterns tell us about the geologic history of our state
ACTIVITY #1.6: Sediment & Rock Exploration Part I
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To describe the texture and composition of sediments and
sedimentary rocks, and use these observations to interpret the depositional history of the
sediment.
Main “take home” message: Simple, easily observed physical properties of sediment grains
tell a story of change of at the Earth’ surface and gives clues to the processes responsible for
that change.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 45 minutes
Materials list:
samples of (1 each)
beach sand,
river sand
alluvial sand
carbonate sand
hand samples - 1 per 1or 2 teachers
well-sorted sandstone
conglomerate
shale
limestone
binocular microscopes -4
handlenses – 1 per teacher
grain-size comparators
sorting and rounding images (handout)
Activity Sheet 1.6 – 1 per teacher (in Activity Guide)
Advance preparation notes:
1. Set up stations with binocular microscopes and sand. 1 station for each sand sample
2. Prepare kits of rock samples. Each kit should contain 1 of each of the rock samples.
3. Read Background Notes
Safety notes/considerations - None
Overview
Participants will describe the texture and composition of the sediment and samples. In the
following activity on Day 2, participants will explore how water sorts sediment. Finally,
participants will be able to come back to the descriptions made on Day 1 to make
interpretations of the processes responsible for formation of these rocks.
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Background Notes: Sediments and Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are those that are derived from the weathering and erosion of pre-existing
rocks, or are formed by chemical or biological precipitation. Sedimentary rocks are unique
among the three rock types in forming at the surface of the Earth. Thus, unlike metamorphic
and igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks are the result of exogenic processes, and these
processes leave their imprint in the texture and composition of sediments. Therefore,
sedimentary rocks potentially contain a record of Earth-surface conditions from the time of
their deposition. Geologists use sedimentary rocks to reconstruct paleoenvironments, create
paleofacies and paleogeographic maps, and determine the composition of ancient
atmospheres and oceans.
A number of processes are involved in sedimentary rock genesis, including: physical and
chemical weathering of the parent rock; transportation of the weathered products by wind,
water, or ice; deposition of the sediments and compaction and cementation of the sediment
into solid rock (lithification). The sequences of events within this sedimentary cycle may be
very complex. Material may be eroded and redeposited numerous times before being buried
and lithified. More than one transport mechanism may be involved during a single cycle of
erosion-transport-deposition.
Mechanical and chemical sorting of the parent material takes place during weathering, erosion
, and transportation. Mechanically, transportation mechanisms (e.g., streams) sort and
deposit materials by size and weight while materials are more or less continuously attached
chemically. In general, the longer that sedimentary particles are subjected to these sorting
processes, the more complete the alteration of the parent materials, although some processes
(e.g.,, glacial transport) may mix rather than sort particles of different physical properties.
Texture and composition are most important in classifying sedimentary rocks and interpreting
the history of erosion-transport-deposition recorded in the rock. Sedimentary rocks are
divided into two major groups on the basis of texture and composition: clastic (or
terrigenous) and chemical/organic (including the carbonates—limestone-- and chemical
precipitates, e.g., gypsum, and halite).
CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS--TEXTURE
These are derived from the weathering, erosion, and transport of preexisting rock. The texture
of a sediment, (that is, the grain size, sorting, and rounding of sedimentary particles in a
sedimentary rock) are important indicators of the transport history of the rock:
Grain size tends to decrease as the amount (distance or time) of sediment transport increases.
Grain size is described using standard terminology that is based on quantitative measurement of
grain size using sieves. Coarse grained = .2 mm diameter; medium grained = 1/16 – 2 mm
diameter; fine grained = <1/16 mm diameter. Grain size can be qualitatively assessed in the lab
using a grain-size comparator (see comparator).
Sorting refers to the range of sizes of particles in a sediment. A well-sorted sediment consists of
one dominant grain size. Again, the degree of sorting increases as transport of the sediment
increases. The following terms are used to describe sorting:
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Well-sorted = all grains about the same size
Moderately sorted (many, but not all, grains the same size)
Porly sorted = a mixture of large and small grains
Sorting is determined using visual comparison charts (see figure, below and in Activity Guide).
Rounding is a measure of the degree of angularity of the grains. As with sorting, the degree of
rounding tends to increase with increasing transport effects; the better rounded the grain, the
more transport the sediment has experienced. Rounding is described in qualitative terms,
using visual comparison figures: well-rounded, sub-rounded, angular (see figure below and
in Activity Guide).
Well-rounded, well-sorted sediments are termed texturally mature, and indicate deposition in
an environment in which sedimentary grains can be extensively reworked.
Poorly-rounded, poorly-sorted sediments are termed texturally immature, and indicate
deposition in an environment close to the origin of the sediment source; in other words, these
sediments have not been extensively transported and/or reworked.
The clastic sedimentary rocks are differentiated primarily on the basis of grain size. From largeto-small, the most common clastic sedimentary rocks are:
Conglomerate
Sandstone
Siltstone
Shale
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Note: sand is a size term, and does not refer to a particular composition. Most people assume all
sand is quartz sand (especially people from the Midwest), but sand may be all carbonate
grains (as in the beaches of south Florida) or even gypsum (White Sand Dunes National
Monument).
CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS—COMPOSITION
The composition of clastic sedimentary rocks is a reflection of 1) the composition of the parent
or source rock and 2) the amount of time and/or distance the sediment has experienced before
burial and lithification.
Sediments deposited close to the source area will closely reflect the composition of the source
rock; with increasing exposure/transportation, minerals begin to chemically and physically break
down according to their stability at the Earth’s surface.
Mafic minerals (e.g., pyroxenes, amphiboles, olivine) are most susceptible to weathering/erosion
effects; quartz is the most stable mineral at the Earth’s surface. Thus, sediments that comprise
pure quartz have likely been subjected to considerable transport and exposure, and likely
multiple cycles of exhumation, transport, and deposition.
Detailed Procedure
1. Examination of sediment (sand) samples: 25 minutes
Ask participants to examine the four sediment samples and make a list of how the samples
differ. Participants should rotate through stations with each sediment sample. After
individuals have had a chance to make their own observations, convene as a group and
compile their observations on the board. This should lead to a discussion of grain size, grain
shape, grain roundness, and grain composition (mineralogy). After the participants have
discovered these parameters through their own inquiry, distribute the handout (grain sizesorting-rounding images) and have the participants characterize each sample using the
handout.
Next, brainstorm possible causes (processes) that might explain the differences between the
samples. This should lead to a discussion of parent (source) rock, type of weathering process,
erosion processes (wind, air, water), amount or distance of transport. Process leads to
product; sediments are transported and deposited (processes) in depositional environments
(product). We will explore these processes in Activity 2.1
2. Sedimentary rock exploration: 20 minutes
Provide participants with hand samples of the different sedimentary rocks and handlenses.
Have them use the sediment description guide to characterize the rocks (grain size-sortingrounding). After each person has had a chance to closely examine the rocks, convene as a
group to discuss the differences between the samples and what these differences might be
indicating about differences in Earth processes during the deposition of each rock, and the
possible depositional environment(s) represented by each rock.
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Embedded Assessments
 Are participants making careful observations?
 Are participants connecting the features they are seeing to possible environments of
formation or processes?
MI & OH Benchmarks Addressed
Michigan:
 EG.V.1 MS4. Explain how rocks and fossils are used to understand the age and
geological history of the earth.
 EG.V.1 MS2. Explain how rocks are formed.
Ohio:
 Identify that the lithosphere contains rocks and minerals and that minerals make up rocks.
 Describe how rocks and minerals are formed and/or classified
Systems & Energy
This activity helps participants consider some of the constituents of the geosphere and how they
are classified.
Elements of Inquiry
1. Learners engage in scientifically oriented questions.
2. Learners give priority to evidence in responding to questions
3. Learners formulate explanations from evidence
4. Learners connect explanations to scientific knowledge
5. Learners communicate and justify explanations
5E Model
Engage –
Activates prior knowledge
Establishes a problem: How can we describe sedimentary rocks and what do they tell us
about where they were formed?
Elicits learner ideas
Explore –
Explore learner ideas
Explore patterns in data
ACTIVITY #1.7:Review of the day and Homework #1
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To allow participants to reflect on what they learned in Day
#1.
Estimated time to complete the activity: Variable
Materials list:
Activity Sheet 1.7 (in Activity Guide)
Detailed Procedure
1. Review of the day. Review the significant learning outcomes of the day. Have teachers share
questions, ideas, reactions, etc.
2. As homework, each person should write a short reflection about the days activities. These
reflections will be turned in at the start of Day #2.
Reflections should address.
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1. What did you learn from today that you didn’t know before?
2. What questions do you still have?
Assessment
Formative Assessment – Facilitators can use these reflections as formative assessments.
5E Model : Explain – Synthesize activities
Evaluate – Participants synthesize and reflect on what they learned during the day.
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DAY 2
ACTIVITY #2.1: Wrap-up sediment exploration
Purpose and Goals of the activity: to complete observations and discussion from Day 1’s
sediment description exercise.
Main “take home” message: Sediment grain size, shape, and sorting reflect the transport
history of the sediment, and can be used to reconstruct the environment in which it was
deposited.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 1 hour
ACTIVITY #2.2: Stream Table Exploration
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To use a stream table and settling tube to explore how
streams/river processes change the Earth and how this change is recorded in sediments and
sedimentary rocks.
Main “take home” message: Sediment grain size reflects its transport history, and can be
used to reconstruct the environment in which it was deposited.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 1 hour
Materials list:
stream table
settling tubes
buckets for water,
handout (diagram of depositional environments)
sediment grain-size comparators
sorting images,
handlenses,
filter paper
clear drinking straws
Activity Sheets #2.2a, 2.2b, 2.2c, 2.2d (in Activity Guide)
Advance preparation notes: Facilitator must make sure the stream table is set up and that a
source of water (and paper towels) is available.
Safety notes/considerations: Be prepared to mop up water.
Overview: Participants will divide into two groups; one will use the stream table while the
other group uses the settling tube. After everyone has cycled through both exercises, the
group will reconvene to discuss their findings as a group.
Detailed Procedure
a) Description of the procedure
Divide the group into two, have one group work with the stream table while the other
group works with the settling jar, then switch activities. Finally, reconvene as a group and
discuss observations.
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Activity 2.2 - Stream table exploration.
Activity 2.2a. Relationship between environmental energy and sediment deposition--The
stream table should be filled with unsorted sediment (a mixture of sand, silt, and clay) and the
water allowed to run long enough to begin to separate or sort the sediment by grain size. The
larger (coarser) grains should remain in a “proximal” position (near the “mouth” of the river
produced by the flow), and finer grains should be carried farther out into the settling basin
(“ocean” or “lake”). Participants should create a sketch map showing the distribution of sediment
types (sand/clay) (facies) and label the map with arrows showing direction of
increasing/decreasing energy and a separate arrow indicating the “onshore/offshore” (or
“proximal/distal”) directions.
Allow the water to flow through the stream table for several minutes, at least until visible
sorting of coarse and fine material has commenced. Participants will sample sediments from the
stream table on a proximal-distal transect, examine each sample and describe the degree of
sorting. Sample the sediment by inserting a clean straw into the sediment as a coring device; if
there is not enough sediment accumulated in the distal portion of the stream table, the sedimentcharged water can be collected with a straw and left to dry on a filter paper.
Participants will then describe the grain size and sorting of each of their sediment
samples (fill out the data sheet).
Activity 2.2b. Transgression/regression demonstration—After Part A is completed, take
a bucket and carefully pour in enough water to create an “ocean” in the lower (distal) portion of
the stream table. Plug the outlet so the water does not escape. Have students draw a sketch map
of the stream table showing the position of the shoreline. Talk about what sediment types one
would expect to see on the “beach” and what sediment one might expect to see in the offshore
environment and have participants overlay sediment type on their map (using standard symbols
for sand and clay). Carefully add more water, causing sea-level to “rise”. Have participants
sketch the new position of the shoreline. Discuss the direction of migration of the environments
and their associated facies.
Activity 2.2c Settling jar exploration
Have participants make a sketch of the settling tube and the distribution of different sediment
types in the tube, then shake the tube thoroughly and record their observations on what happens.
Sketch the result after the disruption. Discuss the relationship between energy and settling time
(coarser grains settle out first, clay may remain in suspension for hours) and the implications that
has for interpreting depositional environment from sediment type—what kinds of environment
would you expect to find sand? Shale?
Activity 2.2d Sediments, environments, and processes (facies)
1. Return to sediment samples and re-examine them in light of the stream table/settling tube
exercises. Have participants arrange the samples in order of “most transported to least
transported” or “least altered from parent material” to “most altered”. Discuss possible
environments of deposition for each sample (complete data sheet). Participants may have
done this in activity 1.6. Have them revisit these sequences and possibly create new
sequences based on their stream table observations. Draw a simplified version of this
diagram on the board or overhead projector to link sandstone texture to depositional history:
Copyright 2006 MSU PROM/SE Supported by the National Science Foundation Agreement No. EHR-0314866
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[Reproduced with permission from Fichter, L.S., and Poche, D.J., Ancient environments and the
interpretation of geologic history. New York, Macmillan Publishing Co.]
2. Have participants map (color) the distribution of different sediments they would expect to
find in the various environments shown on the diagram (Activity sheet 2.2d, above) of major
depositional environments.
3. Have participants complete the table showing the relationship between grain size, energy,
and depositional environment.
b) Talking points
i. Key concepts and points: relationship between energy and transport and
resulting sediment deposit; sedimentary formation process, connecting facies to the processes
responsible for these lateral relationships.
Copyright 2006 MSU PROM/SE Supported by the National Science Foundation Agreement No. EHR-0314866
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ii. Take home message: different depositional environments are characterized
by different energy levels, and this is reflected in the type of sediment deposited in these
environments; therefore, sediments can be used to infer ancient depositional environments
iii. Possible questions or prompts to ask:
1. How is energy of the transport medium related to the kind of sediment that is entrained and
deposited?
2. How might glacial (ice) transport differ from fluvial transport? What kinds of sediment,
degree of sorting, rounding, etc., might you expect in a sediment that is transported by ice instead
of water?
3. How would wind (Aeolian) transport differ from fluvial transport? What kinds of sediment,
degree of sorting, rounding, etc., might you expect in a sediment that was transported by wind
instead of water?
4. What characteristic(s) of fluids (air, water, ice) is/are important in determining the type of
sediment the fluid can entrain?
c) notes on potential misconceptions:
1. Most people have not thought about sea-level rise and fall in terms of migrating environments
but only in terms of water level changes. Transgression and regression occurs over timescales
not observable in human experience, so most people will think of transgression in terms of
“flooding”, a temporary condition, and not appreciate the long-term effect of environmental
change associated with sea-level fluctuation. This is in contrast to most portrayals of sea-level
change in movies, where sea-level rise is instantaneous (and temporary), e.g., due to meteorite
impact (“Asteroid”) or catastrophic melting of glacial ice caps (“The Day After Tomorrow”).
2. Possible confusion of layers in the settling tube with the stratigraphic column
d. Concerns to look for:
Confusion of sea-level rise with “flooding”, allusions to the Noachian flood
Embedded Assessments
 Are teachers recognizing that larger size particles are not carried as far as smaller particles?
 Are teachers noticing areas of erosion and deposition?
 Are teachers noticing order of particle sizes in graded beds?
 Are teachers able to apply these new principles to explain and interpret environment of
formation for different rock samples?
MI & OH Benchmarks Addressed
Michigan:
 EG.V.1 MS 2 - Explain how rocks are formed.
 EG.V.1 MS 3. Explain how rocks are broken down, how soil is formed and how surface
features change.
Copyright 2006 MSU PROM/SE Supported by the National Science Foundation Agreement No. EHR-0314866
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Ohio:
 Identify that the lithosphere contains rocks and minerals and that minerals make up rocks.
Describe how rocks and minerals are formed and/or classified
 Describe the interactions of matter and energy throughout the lithosphere, hydrosphere,
and atmosphere.
 Describe the processes that contribute to the continuous changing of Earth's surface (e.g.,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, erosion, mountain building and lithospheric plate
movements).
Systems & Energy
This activity helps participants consider some of the interactions between the geosphere and the
hydrosphere. Participants also explore the relationship between energy of water in particular
depositional environments and the grain size of sediment transported and deposited.
Elements of Inquiry
1. Learners engage in scientifically oriented questions.
2. Learners give priority to evidence in responding to questions
3. Learners formulate explanations from evidence
4. Learners connect explanations to scientific knowledge
5. Learners communicate and justify explanations
5E Model
Engage –
Activates prior knowledge
Establishes a problem: How does water shape the land and transport/deposit sediment?
Elicits learner ideas
Explore –
Explore learner ideas
Explore patterns in data
Explore how water transports and sorts sediments
Explain –
Use evidence from stream tables and settling tubes to explain the environments of
deposition of some sedimentary rocks.
Elaborate –
Use what we learned to interpret different rock samples
ACTIVITY # 2.3: Facies Mapping
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To apply observations made during the stream table
exercise regarding sediment entrainment and deposition and the relationship of different
sediment types to modern depositional environments, to an ancient example.
Main “take home” message: Principles of sediment distribution observed in modern
depositional environments can be used to reconstruct ancient depositional environments.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 1.5 hr
Materials list:
Coarse-grained sandstone (several samples)
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Fine-grained sandstone (several samples)
Shale (several sample)
Limestone (several samples)
Sheet 2.3, Map #1, Map #2 (in Activity Guide)
Advance preparation notes
1. Read Background Notes
2. Lay out sedimentary rock specimens around the classroom so that an onshore-offshore
gradient is defined (sandstone to one side, shale in an intermediate position, limestone in a
distal location relative to the clastic rocks). 3. Lable each rock with a number.
Safety notes/considerations: none
Overview: Using the classroom as a field area, participants will (1) draw a base map and
plot the position of the “outcrops” on the map, (2) describe the texture of each rock type and
identify the rock, (3) interpolate between “outcrops” and draw lines separating the different
facies (rock types) on the map, and (4) interpret the depositional environments represented by
the type and distribution of facies.
Background Notes: Introduction to Facies and Depositional
Environments
The genetic relationship between depositional process and rock texture is the primary tool
to get to interpretation of the depositional environment.
Problems with using uniformitarianism inference in reconstructing depositional
environments:

certain ancient depositional environments no longer exist (epeiric seas)

the distribution of environments has changed
Caution with applying environmental models:

no two depositional environments are exactly alike--geographic and temporal separation

models should not restrict our thinking (cramming one's data into existing model rather than
considering alternatives).
With these caveats in mind, we will outline the main tools used in basin analysis (the
interpretation and classification of depositional environments).
Prerequisite: introduction of Facies: The word is Latin for "appearance, aspect"
"a stratigraphic unit distinguished by lithologic, structural, and organic characteristics"..a
rock unit that is recognizable (distinct) on the basis of some chosen criterion:
Facies are used in two different senses:
1. Physical, descriptive sense, e.g.,

Lithofacies-defined on the basis of rock type, physical characteristics, e.g., "sandstone
facies"

Biofacies-defined on the fossil content
2. Interpretive sense--Every sedimentary environment is characterized by a suite of physical,
biological, chemical characteristics that produce a distinctive body of sediment--a sedimentary
facies. Thus, different facies can be used as an interpretive tool (diagnostic of different
sedimentary environments). Thus, we may speak of a "fluvial facies" or "marine facies",
referring to a whole package of individual characteristics.
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TOOL 1: Facies Associations--It is difficult to make an environmental interpretation on
the basis of a single facies, e.g., cross-bedded sandstone may be terrestrial (eolian) or fluvial in
origin; similar facies may form in different environments.
Our interpretive power is strengthened by looking at the lateral and vertical relationships
of facies--facies associations. Different depositional environments are characterized by different
lateral and vetical facies associations. Thus, a fluvial sand may be adjacent to fine-grained
overbank deposits; an eolian sand might abut coarse, immature alluvial fan sediments. The
lateral facies relationships help clarify the environmental interpretation.
Vertical associations. Lateral facies are related in a vertical sense as environments
migrate through time. This is Walther's law. Lateral migration produces characteristic vertical
sequences for different depositional environments. Two basic patterns: fining upward
(transgressive), coarsening upward.(regression/prograding)
TOOL 2: Geometry of facies--3-D shape, e.g., sand bodies may be sheets, blankets,
prisms, pods, ribbons, shoestrings. Prisms/wedges are characteristic of alluvial fans, deltas;
shets, blankets are characteristic of shallow marine, beach, desert; ribbons/shoestrings form in
fluvial or tidal channels. Again, the same geometry can develop in more than 1 environment;
geometry alone cannot distinguish a depositional environment.
TOOL 3: Lithology—
A. Gross lithology. Environmentally sensitive rock types are useful depositional environment
indicators, e.g.:
limestone is characteristic of warm, marine environments
evaporites: arid continental or restricted marine
coal: fluvial or marginal marine swamps
coarse terrigenous: fluvial, alluvial
B. Textures
i. carbonates
spar cement--high energy
micrite matrix--low energy
quartz content decreases away from source (shoreline)
ii. clastics (texture)
grain size/sorting (distance from source)
shape/sphericity--new analyses show promise (Fourier analysis)
rounding--use with caution because of recycling
TOOL 4: Sedimentary structures--any one is not unique to one depositional
environment, although ripple indices may distinguish wind vs. water-generated ripples
Also used as paleocurrent indicators: asymmetrical structures (ripples, foresets, flute,s
grooves)
TOOL 5: Geochemical considerations-i. Major element composition of authigenic minerals reflects conditions in the
depoisitonal basin, but there's not much variation between, for example, calcium carbonate
content in limestone from different parts of the marine environment.
Allochthonous grains (clastic) composition reflects the source, not depositional
environment.
ii. Trace elements
a) Boron--more in sea water than fresh
b) Cr, Cu, Ni, V, Ga also investigated for paleosalinity utility
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c) C/S ratios of organic matter: molecular weights of oganic carbon used to distinguish
marine/non-marine organisms
iii. Carbon-oxygen isotopes
a) used to distinguish marine/non-marine
[freshwater is depleted in 13C and 18O relative to seawater so that 13C, 18O of freshwater
carbonates and shells are lower than that of marine]
[oxygen: fractination of 18O/16O during evaporation of seawater, heavier 18O remains in the
ocean]
CAUTION: diagenesis may alter ratios, especially oxygen isotope ratios
Oxygen isotopes are also temperature dependent, and thus potential paleotemperature indicators
(if they haven't been compromised). [18O decreases with increasing temperature]
TOOL 6: Fossils--Organisms have environmental tolerances/requirements (e.g., salinity,
temperature, turbidity--environmental energy). If we know the tolerances for each group, we can
make assumptions about the environments represented by the rock in which the fossils are found.
Some of the most abundant fossils in the Midwest are animals that belong to groups that are
known to be exclusively marine: trilobites, brachiopods, bryozoans, cephalopods. Clams and
snails are less diagnostic, as some members of these groups are known to inhabit fresh water
environments.
Summary: the Major environments:
Continental: fluvial, alluvial, desert, lacustrine, glacial
Marginal marine: deltaic, beach/barrier island, estuarine/lagoon, tidal flat
Marine: shallow shelf/reef, slope, deep sea
See summary table, next page--
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ENVIRON-
GEOMETRY
LITHOLOGY
FACIES
SEDIMENTARY
SEDIMENT
ASSOCIATIONS
STRUCTURES
TEXTURE
Main channel
(sand),
overbank
(shale)
Evaporates
(playa lake)
alluvial fan
Assymetrical
cross-bedding
Immature
-tomature
Clams,
snails
Large-scale
cross-bedding
rare
Silt, mud
(shale)
Alluvial, fluvial
Fine-scale
varves
Maturewell
rounded,
wellsorted
Wellsorted
MENT
FLUVIAL
Linear,
sinuous
Sandstone,
shale,
siltstone
EOLIAN
Tabular
Sandstone
LACUSTRINE
(LAKE)
FOSSILS
Freshwater
fish,
clams,
snails,
plants
None
GLACIAL
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
Variable
DELTAIC
wedge
Sand-siltmud
Fluvial,
lacustrine,
beach,
overbank
Cross-bedding,
bioturbation
Finegrained
muds,
wellsorted
sands
Trace
fossils
BEACH
linear
ESTUARINE
Dendritic
Finegrained
Coastal, fluvial
Bioturbation
Finegrained
Restricted fauna
TIDAL FLAT
Variable:
linear,
tabular,
planar
Tabular/
planar
Muds
Beach, neritic,
fluvial
Tidal
lamination,
bioturbation
Finegrained,
wellsorted
Restricted
Sand-siltclay
Beach, fluvial,
Tabular/
planar
Carbonate
E SHELF
REEF
Mound
Carbonate
DEEP
Planar/
tabular
Mud
CLASTIC
SHELF
CARBONAT
OCEAN
Fore-reef, back
reef
Tempestites
Marine
invertebr
ates
Massive
Corals,
algae,
sponges
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Mud
Plankton
(forams,
radiolaria
etc.)
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47
Detailed Procedure
1. Construction of initial facies map. Arrange the sediment samples around the room as
described under “Advance preparation notes”. Explain that participants will plot the location
of each rock on their base map (Activity Sheet), describe each rock (Activity Sheet) and
assign each to a facies (e.g., sanstone, limestone, shale, or beach-shelf-reef, etc.) and create a
paleofacies map by sketching in inferred lines of contact between the different facies.
Participants will then color the map using the designated color scheme (limestone = blue,
sandstone = yellow, shale = gray).
Note that with so few data points (rock samples) there should be significant variation
between the maps! There is NO reason for two different people to turn in identical maps!
2. Construction of facies map at time 2. After everyone has plotted the location of the
rocks in 1, above, and while they are completing their colored maps, re-arrange the samples
so that the position of the shoreline (represented by the sandstone samples) is changed,
moved laterally to correspond with either sea-level rise (transgression) or in the opposite
direction to indicate sea-level fall (regression). Instruct the participants to construct a new
map (Activity Sheet) and rock description sheet for this new situation, which represents the
same geographic area (the same landmarks are used) at some time, millions of years after the
situation they mapped in 1, above.
3. Reconstruction of process: Invite participants to compare the two maps and answer the
following questions:
a) During Time 1, in which direction is the shoreline (land)? In which direction is the
open ocean?
b) During Time 2, in which direction is the shoreline (land)?
c) What has happened between Time 1 and Time 2? How do you know?
b) Talking points (see questions embedded in procedure, above)
i. Key concepts and points: Reprise of the morning’s key points--Different
depositional environments are characterized by different sediments. These differences are due in
large part to the energy of the depositional mechanism (water, in this case); high-energy,
nearshore environments are characterized by coarser-grained sediments (sand); quiet, low-energy
offshore environments are characterized by settling out of fine-grained). These relationships,
observed in modern environments (this morning’s stream table and settling tube experiences) are
preserved in the sedimentary rock record, and form the foundation for reconstructing ancient
environments.
ii. Take home message: The present is the key to the past, in reconstructing
ancient sedimentary environments.
iii. Possible questions/prompts (see questions embedded in procedure, above).
The classic onshore-offshore lateral sequence of sandstone-shale-limestone is idealized and not
an absolute model. Invite participants to envision a landscape in which fine-grained sediments
might be deposited close to shore, or sand transported far from shore (in other words, construct
exceptions to this idealized model). Do such exceptions negate the value of the classic model?
Explain.
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Embedded Assessments
 Are participants able to identify the rock samples?
 Are participants able to identify environments from rock samples?
 Are participants able to make a simple geologic map?
 Are participants able to explain the changes they see in the two maps?
MI & OH Benchmarks Addressed
Michigan:
 EG.V.1 MS 1. Describe and identify surface features using maps.
 EG.V.1 MS 2 - Explain how rocks are formed.
 EG.V.1 MS 3. Explain how rocks are broken down, how soil is formed and how surface
features change.
Ohio:
 Identify that the lithosphere contains rocks and minerals and that minerals make up rocks.
Describe how rocks and minerals are formed and/or classified
 Describe the interactions of matter and energy throughout the lithosphere, hydrosphere,
and atmosphere
 Describe the processes that contribute to the continuous changing of Earth's surface (e.g.,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, erosion, mountain building and lithospheric plate
movements).
Systems & Energy
This activity helps participants understand the organization of the geosphere and hydrosphere.
Participants also apply the relationship between energy of water in particular depositional
environments and the grain size of sediment transported and deposited.
Elements of Inquiry
1. Learners engage in scientifically oriented questions.
2. Learners give priority to evidence in responding to questions
3. Learners formulate explanations from evidence
4. Learners connect explanations to scientific knowledge
5. Learners communicate and justify explanations
5E Model
Engage –
Activates prior knowledge
Establishes a problem: How can we begin to use rock samples to understand changes and
processes responsible for those changes?
Elicits learner ideas
Explore –
Explore learner ideas
Explore patterns in data
Explore how geologists use maps to collect and organize data
Explain – use evidence to identify rock types and environments of formation
Elaborate – Apply understanding of rock types as indicators of past environments.
Copyright 2006 MSU PROM/SE Supported by the National Science Foundation Agreement No. EHR-0314866
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ACTIVITY #2.4: From lateral to vertical relationships:
Stratigraphic columns
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To understand the history of Earth change as recorded
in the vertical sequence of sedimentary rock types (stratigraphic columns); to relate this
vertical sequence to the original lateral relationship of facies (Walther’s law).
Main “take home” message: The vertical succession of sedimentary rock types tells a story
of sea-level rise and fall, laterally shifting environments through time.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 1 hour
Materials list:
Facies maps from the previous activity (2.3)
Handout of stratigraphic columns to interpret (Activity Guide #2.4a,b,c,d)
Stratigraphic columns of Michigan and Ohio (Activity Guide)
Advance preparation notes:
1. Read background notes
Background Notes:
Review powerpoint on T/R sequences and Walther’s law (“Sea level.ppt”)
Detailed Procedure
2.4a: Constructing a basic stratigraphic column from facies maps.
Begin with participants taking their two facies maps and stacking them (Time 1 on
the bottom, Time 2 on top, in the same orientation—North arrows aligned) and
then sketching (on graph paper) the vertical sequence of facies at three locations on
their map (one point located in the shallowest area, one in the deepest, and one in
an intermediate location). Assume, for the sake of simplicity and uniformity, that
each facies is 10 meters thick, and use a reasonable scale on the graph paper (if
squares are 1 cm, then 1 cm to 1 m would be appropriate). Participants should end
up with 3 stratigraphic columns, each with one or two facies (= layers or strata)
that may look something like:
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Through this simple exercise we have constructed, in a very elementary way, a
stratigraphic column, the vertical sedimentary rock record that is preserved at the
Earth’s surface, and in constructing the column from the two facies maps
constructed earlier, we have demonstrated that the stratigraphic column—the
vertical record—is constructed through the lateral migration of facies
(environments) through time. This very simple principle is called Walther’s Law,
in honor of the German sedimentologist who first enunciated the relationship
between laterally adjacent facies and their eventual vertical relationships.
Go through the Sea-level ppt
Activity 2.4b & 2.4c. Vertical Record of Sea Level Change (Idealized
Stratigraphic Columns)
Refer to Activity Guide 2.4b & 2.4c; complete the exercises, working in groups or
with a peer-led discussion. (indicate T/R cycles)
2.4d. From lateral relationships to vertical record: shifting environments
through time = stratigraphic column
Refer to Activity Guide 2.4d. Have participants work in groups to construct
stratigraphic columns for their location on the maps.
2.5. Return to Timeline
Return to the time line and mark off periods of transgression and regression, based
on the observations in 2.4d, above.
Talking points
i. Key concepts and points: Laterally adjacent facies become
vertically adjacent beds in a stratigraphic column as a result of migration of
depositional environments through geologic time in response to changes in sea
level. Thus, it is possible to infer sea-level fluctuation from the vertical succession
of facies in a stratigraphic column.
ii. Take home message: The record of sea-level change can be read
directly from the sedimentary rock record from the vertical sequence of facies;
fining-upward indicates sea-level rise (transgression); coarsening-upward reflect
sea-level fall (regression).
iii. Possible questions or prompts to ask (see questions embedded
in procedure notes, above)
c) notes on potential misconceptions:
As for exercise 2.3, confusing transgression/regression with flooding; many people
have not thought about sea-level rise and fall in terms of migrating environments
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51
but only in terms of water level changes. Transgression and regression occurs over
timescales not observable in human experience, so most people will think of
transgression in terms of “flooding”, a temporary condition, and not appreciate the
long-term effect of environmental change associated with sea-level fluctuation.
This is in contrast to most portrayals of sea-level change in movies, where sealevel rise is instantaneous (and temporary), e.g., due to meteorite impact
(“Asteroid”) or catastrophic melting of glacial ice caps (“The Day After
Tomorrow”).
d. Concerns to look for:
References to Noachian flood as an explanation for the formation of stratigraphic
columns
e. Power Point notes: Sea Level ppt
Handouts for Participants: Included in Activity Guide
Embedded Assessments
 Are participants able to connect the changes seen in the horizontal maps to the
records shown in a vertical column?
 Are participants able to identify transgressions and regressions?
MI & OH Benchmarks Addressed
Ohio:
 Describe the interactions of matter and energy throughout the lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and atmosphere
 Describe the processes that contribute to the continuous changing of Earth's
surface (e.g., earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, erosion, mountain building
and lithospheric plate movements).
Systems & Energy
This activity helps to understand the organization of the geosphere and
hydrosphere. Participants apply the relationship between energy of water in
particular depositional environments and the grain size of sediment transported and
deposited.
Elements of Inquiry
1. Learners engage in scientifically oriented questions.
2. Learners give priority to evidence in responding to questions
3. Learners formulate explanations from evidence
4. Learners connect explanations to scientific knowledge
5. Learners communicate and justify explanations
5E Model
Elaborate –
Apply understanding of rock types as indicators of past environments.
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Apply an understanding of changes over time and area to interpretation of
stratigraphic columns
ACTIVITY #2.5: Discussion/wrap up
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To allow participants to reflect on today’s activities, and
ask questions.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 15 minutes
Detailed Procedure
Review the day. Review the significant learning outcomes of the day. Have participants share
questions, ideas, reactions, etc. Make a list of unanswered questions to address tomorrow.
Assign Homework (see Activity 2.6, below)
ACTIVITY #2.6: Review of the day and Homework #2
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To allow participants to reflect on what they learned in Day
#2.
Estimated time to complete the activity: Variable
Materials list:
Sheets 2.5a & b (Activity guide)
Detailed Procedure
1. Review of the day. Review the significant learning outcomes of the day. Have teachers share
questions, ideas, reactions, etc.
2. Homework includes 2 parts
A. Activity Guide 2.5 – Each participant will complete the facies map and stratigraphic
column exercise.
B. Each person should write a short reflection about the days activities. These reflections
will be turned in at the start of Day #3.
Reflections should address.
1.
What did you learn from today that you didn’t know before?
2.
What questions do you still have?
Assessment
Homework assignments
Facilitators will use the homework assignments as formative assessments
5E Model
Explain – Synthesize activities
Elaborate – Participants apply what they learned to new situations
Evaluate – Participants synthesize and reflect on what they learned during the day.
Copyright 2006 MSU PROM/SE Supported by the National Science Foundation Agreement No. EHR-0314866
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DAY 3
ACTIVITY 3.1: Field Experience
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To go beyond classroom and textbook to make direct
geologic observations, collect stratigraphic and sedimentologic data and interpret the Earth
changes represented by these data.
Main “take home” message: The story of Earth change can be “read” from outcrops in our
backyard.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 3.5 hours
Materials list:
 Handlens
 Notebook
 Waterbottle
 Sunscreen
 Hat
 bug spray
 camera
 metersticks (2 for the group)
 grain-size comparators
 Activity Guide 3.1
 sorting/rounding images
Advance preparation notes
1. Have all participants read over the “to bring” list in preparation for the trip
2. Confirm travel arrangements and provisions for lunch
Safety notes/considerations: Avoid climbing on wet, slippery rocks; be alert for poison ivy,
take precautions against heat exhaustion with plenty of water and sun protection.
Overview:
The major objective of this exercise is to provide participants with practical field
experience in collecting geologic data and applying the principles we’ve discussed during the
previous 2 days, and serve as an introduction to the local geology. Our emphasis is on producing
a legible, complete, and accurate record of observations (FIELD NOTES), including rock type,
thickness, grain size, sorting, rounding, bed thickness, lateral continuity of beds, presence of
fossils, trace fossils, sedimentary structures, etc.
Detailed procedure
a) Description of the procedure
Carpool to site. At the site, review the kinds of observations that participants are expected to
make (refer to Activity Guide); give instructions on any local regulations, collecting restrictions,
etc., and announce meeting and departure time before the group disperses. Refer to the geologic
maps in the Activity Guide, locate the site and determine the age of the bedrock. Facilitators
should circulate through the group during the excursion to answer questions and ask questions
(see talking points, below).
b) Talking points
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i. Key concepts and points
ii. Take home message: We need look no farther than the nearest outcrop of
bedrock for evidence of dramatic changes in the Earth
iii. Possible questions or prompts to ask
What is the predominant rock type?
What are its characteristics (sorting, rounding, grain size)
What might the depositional environment for this have been?
c) Notes on potential misconceptions: After spending the previous two days studying
modern sediments and their transformation to sedimentary rock, there may be confusion about
the relationship of modern rivers to the sedimentary rocks that the rivers cut into. Naïve intro
geology students sometime erroneously conclude that the modern river was responsible for the
deposition of the sedimentary rock. Of course, the bedrock is millions of years older than the
modern river and not at all related to the origin of the sedimentary rocks exposed as a result of
Pleistocene-age erosion.
d. Concerns to look for: Mention of “flood geology” and erroneous timescales in
reference to the bedrock and modern topography.
e. Power Point notes: none
Follow-up or homework: see Activity 3.4, below
Handouts for Participants : Activity Guide 3.1
Suggested readings
References
Embedded Assessments
 Are participants able to make careful observations of the rocks and fossils?
 Are participants able to make organized notes of their observations?
 Are participants able to use what they know about identifying rocks and interpreting
environments to explain what environments the rocks outcrops formed in?
MI & OH Benchmarks Addressed
Michigan
 EG.V.1 MS4. Explain how rocks and fossils are used to understand the age and
geological history of the earth.
 EG.V.1 MS2. Explain how rocks are formed.
 EG.V.1 MS3. Explain how rocks are broken down, how soil is formed and how surface
features change.
Ohio:
 Explain the 4.5-billion-year history of Earth and the 4 billion-year-history of life on Earth
based on observable scientific evidence in the geologic record. Describe the interactions
of matter and energy throughout the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere
 Identify that the lithosphere contains rocks and minerals and that minerals make up rocks.
Describe how rocks and minerals are formed and/or classified
 Describe the processes that contribute to the continuous changing of Earth's surface (e.g.,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, erosion, mountain building and lithospheric plate
movements).
Systems & Energy
This activity helps teachers understand the organization of the geosphere and hydrosphere.
Teachers also apply the relationship between energy of water in particular depositional
environments and the grain size of sediment transported and deposited.
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Elements of Inquiry
1. Learners engage in scientifically oriented questions.
2. Learners give priority to evidence in responding to questions
3. Learners formulate explanations from evidence
4. Learners connect explanations to scientific knowledge
5. Learners communicate and justify explanations
5E Model
Explore
Collect field data & look for patterns in data
Explain
Use field data to explain the processes responsible for the depositing the rocks seen in the
field
Elaborate –
Apply understanding of rock types as indicators of past environments.
Apply an understanding of changes over time and area to interpretation of stratigraphic
outcrops and columns
ACTIVITY 3.2: Correlation
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To synthesize data from several stratigraphic columns to
learn how geologists develop a chronology of changes over a region.
Main “take home” message: Data from several stratigraphic columns can be correlated to
show large-scale changes over wide areas and long periods of time. While no single
stratigraphic column may show a complete record of all changes, several columns can be
linked together to show a more complete picture.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 1.5 hours
Materials list
Stratigraphic columns
Colored pencils
Activity Guide #3.2a and #3.2b
Scotch tape
Advance preparation notes
1. Read Background Notes
Safety notes/considerations
Overview
Participants will learn how to correlate two stratigraphic columns and then correlate several
columns over a larger area in constructing a regional cross-section.
Background Notes: Correlation
Definition: "A procedure for demonstrating correspondence (or equivalence) between
geographically separated parts of a geologic unit."
The nature of the "correspondence" that is demonstrated is a source of contention and
misunderstanding, even today. One view restricts the meaning of correlation to demonstration of time
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equivalency, that is, to demonstration that two bodies of rock were deposited during the same period of
time. From this point of view, correlation strata solely on lithologic similarity does not constitute
correlation (because of time-transgressive nature of sedimentary deposits).
A broader interpretation of correlation allows equivalency of lithologic, paleontologic, or
chronologic criteria, in other words, two bodies of rock can be correlated as belonging to the same
lithostratigraphic or biostratigraphic unit even though these units may differ in age. Most geologists
today accept the broader view (practical standpoint of physically making correlations) but strive for time
significance in the correlations.
The North American Stratigraphic Code, which sets out rules for standardizing stratigraphic
nomenclature, recognizes several types of correlation: lithocorrelation (based on lithologic characters
and stratigraphic position), biocorrelation (based on faunal content and stratigraphic position, and
chronocorrelation (based on age and chronostratigraphic position).
Lithostratigraphic correlation--Caution: correlations based solely on lithostratigraphic grounds
may be misleading: physically similar units may be deposited at greatly different times and thus have
no physical connection with each other (and cannot properly be correlated with each other). Example: a
Cambrian quartz sandstone may look just like a certain Cretaceous sandstone, but they obviously are not
correlatable. Lithostratigraphic correlation can be accomplished in two different ways: direct and
indirect.
i) Direct correlation is that which can be established physically and unequivocally. Physically
tracing a unit in outcrop is the only unequivocal methods of direct correlation.
ii) Indirect correlation. Most correlation is of the indirect type, where we do not have
continuous exposure of the rock, and must interpolate between data points (via outcrops, drill holes,
geophysical subsurface data, whatever we have). The basic tools of indirect lithologic correlation are
lithologic similarity and stratigraphic position. The success of such correlation depends upon the
distinctiveness of the characters used in the correlation, and the presence or absence of lithologic change
between the areas under study. The greater the number of lithologic characters used in the correlation,
the more reliable the correlation.
Example: Colorado Plateau (see figure). Notice that some units pinch out laterally. Other units
undergo a facies change, i.e., become sandier or shalyier from one locality to another, but are still
considered part of the same formation.
Biostratigraphic Correlation--Biostratigraphic units are observable, objective
stratigraphic units identified on the fasis of their fossil content. They can be traced and matched
from one locality to another jsut as lithostratigraphic units are traced, and they may or may not
have time significance. First appearances of taxa (interval zones) most closely coincide with
time lines.
Biostratigraphic units are correlated basically in the same way as litho..matching by identity (fossil
content) and stratigraphic position.
Magnetostratigraphic Correlation--Because the polarity time scale can be calibrated
radiometrically and paleontologically, polarity events provide a precise tool for chronostratigraphic
correlation. Correlation is basically matching pattern of reversals (position and length of stripes). With
longer cores and older sediment, correlation becomes more difficult because the magnetostratigraphic
record consists of many sets of reversals that may look very much alike. Correlation of these patterns
may require independent radiometric or paleontologic age evidence to first establish stratigraphic
position. Paleomagnetic events are particularly useful for correlation over long distances (global).
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Detailed Procedure
a) Description of the procedure
Activity 3.2a –
Illustrate on an overhead or on the board how correlations between two stratigraphic columns are
made. Have participants work in small groups to complete the correlations in the Activity Guide.
Follow up with a whole class discussion of possible solutions/correlations. Be sure to have
participants explain their reasoning for the correlations they made, citing evidence as necessary.
Activity 3.2b –
Have participants work in small groups to complete the regional correlation. Directions are in the
Activity Guide. Participants will need to remove the pages with the stratigraphic columns from
their Activity Guide book and tape them together. Each person will make correlations and then
color in the major lithologic units. Follow up with a whole class discussion of possible
solutions/correlations. Be sure to have participants explain their reasoning for the correlations
they made, citing evidence as necessary.
b. Talking points
i. Key concepts and points: Correlation demonstrates equivalence between two
or more rock units separated. This equivalence may reflect a common environment of
deposition, common rock type, common fossil content, or be based on some other shared
physical, biological, or chemical property.
ii. Take home message: Even though there is no one place on Earth where the
entire stratigraphic record is preserved, correlation makes it possible to piece this record
together.
iii. Possible questions or prompts to ask: What is the first step in drawing a
line of correlation? What assumptions do you make? How do you (or might you) minimize the
assumptions (i.e., make the correlation stronger)?
c. Notes on potential misconceptions: There may be confusion in making the transition
from map view to cross-section view.
d. Concerns to look for: References to a high degree of uncertainty or unreliability in
making correlations, statements to the effect “one limestone looks like any other”. Correlation is
a powerful tool that poses testable hypotheses (e.g., where to drill for oil) and has proven its
validity and utility.
e. Power Point notes: none
Follow-up or homework: Activity Guide 3.4
Handouts for Participants: Activity Guide 3.2a, 3.2b
Suggested readings
References
Embedded Assessments
 Are participants able to make make correlations?
 Are participants able to identify and explain the changes in environments illustrated by the
correlations?
 Are participants able to explain the processes responsible for those changes?
MI & OH Benchmarks Addressed
Michigan
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


EG.V.1 MS4. Explain how rocks and fossils are used to understand the age and
geological history of the earth.
EG.V.1 MS2. Explain how rocks are formed.
EG.V.1 MS3. Explain how rocks are broken down, how soil is formed and how surface
features change.
Ohio:
 Explain the 4.5-billion-year history of Earth and the 4 billion-year-history of life on Earth
based on observable scientific evidence in the geologic record. Describe the interactions
of matter and energy throughout the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere
 Identify that the lithosphere contains rocks and minerals and that minerals make up rocks.
Describe how rocks and minerals are formed and/or classified
 Describe the processes that contribute to the continuous changing of Earth's surface (e.g.,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, erosion, mountain building and lithospheric plate
movements).
Systems & Energy
This activity helps teachers understand the organization of the geosphere and hydrosphere.
Teachers also apply the relationship between energy of water in particular depositional
environments and the grain size of sediment transported and deposited.
Elements of Inquiry
1. Learners engage in scientifically oriented questions.
2. Learners give priority to evidence in responding to questions
3. Learners formulate explanations from evidence
4. Learners connect explanations to scientific knowledge
5. Learners communicate and justify explanations
5E Model
Engage – How can we see changes over larger areas and longer time spans? Explore
Correlate stratigraphic columns
Explain
Use stratigraphic columns to identify and build a chronology of changes
ACTIVITY #3.3: Time Line Integration
Purpose and Goals of the activity – To put all of the pieces together into a coherent
chronology of changes across the region for the past 500 million years.
Main “take home” message: The rocks provide clues which can be used to explain the
geologic history of the region.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 1/2 hour to 45 minutes
Materials list
Time line – Activity 1.4
Stratigraphic columns and correlations –Activity 2.4, Activity 3.2
Advance preparation notes: Prepare a list of the major Earth historical events that have
come up in discussion over the last several days that should be included on the timeline.
Safety notes/considerations: none
Overview: We will apply the principles, procedures, and tools learned in the facies,
stratigraphic column, and correlation activities to help fill in the timeline. Refer to the
stratigraphic columns for the respective state (Ohio or Michigan) and use the knowledge of
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what facies are typical of different depositional environments to indicate the interval during
which the area was covered with a shallow sea, when coal (or reef or other special
environments) were present, and when the sea retreated for the last time.
Background Information: refer to previous notes on facies, stratigraphic columns, and
correlation.
Detailed Procedure
a) Description of the procedure
Return to the time line on the wall. Have the group use the stratigraphic column to identify the
major events that are recorded in the stratigraphy of the area. Identify the time periods during
which these events took place. Mark the events on paper and tape them on the wall under the
time line in the correct chronologic order and position.
Have participants complete Activity Sheet 3.3. You may either have each person complete this
writing on their own and share or discuss the questions as a group and allow individuals to take
notes to write their own answers later.
b. Talking points
i. Key concepts and points: Participants should now be able to relate
sedimentary rock type to an appropriate depositional environment, and they should be able to
recognize “coarsening-up” and “fining-up” sedimentary sequence and relate them to sea-level
change.
ii. Take home message: Much of Earth history can be deciphered by
understanding a few relatively straightforward principles of sediment deposition.
iii. Possible questions or prompts to ask: Examine the stratigraphic column(s)
for your state. Identify major rock types. What are the possible depositional environment(s)
represented by these rocks? Look for “fining-upward” or “coarsening-upward” transitions.
What does this tell us about sea-level fluctuations?
c. Notes on potential misconceptions: There are very few states in which a single
“composite” stratigraphic column is sufficient to tell the whole story, and the diagrams that we
refer to here are idealized/generalized. Lateral facies changes and erosion account for the
differences.
d. Concerns to look for
e. Power Point notes: none
Follow-up or homework: See Activity 3.4, below.
Handouts for Participants: Activity Guide
Suggested readings
References
Embedded Assessments
 Are participants able to interpret the sequence of geologic events from a stratigraphic column
and place these events on the time line and elaborate on the chronology of events?
MI & OH Benchmarks Addressed
Michigan
 EG.V.1 MS4. Explain how rocks and fossils are used to understand the age and
geological history of the earth.
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

EG.V.1 MS2. Explain how rocks are formed.
EG.V.1 MS3. Explain how rocks are broken down, how soil is formed and how surface
features change.
Ohio:
 Explain the 4.5-billion-year history of Earth and the 4 billion-year-history of life on Earth
based on observable scientific evidence in the geologic record. Describe the interactions
of matter and energy throughout the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere
 Identify that the lithosphere contains rocks and minerals and that minerals make up rocks.
Describe how rocks and minerals are formed and/or classified
 Describe the processes that contribute to the continuous changing of Earth's surface (e.g.,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, erosion, mountain building and lithospheric plate
movements).
Systems & Energy
This activity helps in understanding the organization of the geosphere and hydrosphere.
Participants apply the relationship between energy of water in particular depositional
environments and the grain size of sediment transported and deposited.
Elements of Inquiry
1. Learners engage in scientifically oriented questions.
2. Learners give priority to evidence in responding to questions
3. Learners formulate explanations from evidence
4. Learners connect explanations to scientific knowledge
5. Learners communicate and justify explanations
5E Model
Elaborate – Synthesize & data and events to produce a chronology of changes over the past 500
million years for the local area.
ACTIVITY #3.4: Review of the day and Homework #3
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To allow participants to reflect on what they learned in Day
#3.
Estimated time to complete the activity: Variable
Materials list:
Activity Sheet 3.4
Detailed Procedure
1. Review of the day. Review the significant learning outcomes of the day. Have participants
share questions, ideas, reactions, etc.
2. As homework, each person should write a short reflection about the days activities. These
reflections will be turned in at the start of Day #4.
Reflections should address.
1. What did you learn from today that you didn’t know before?
2. What questions do you still have?
Assessment
Formative Assessment – Facilitators can use these reflections as formative assessments.
5E Model
Explain – Synthesize activities
Evaluate – Participants synthesize and reflect on what they learned during the day.
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DAY 4
ACTIVITY #4.1: Context
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To set the context for the morning’s activities. We have
spent three days examining evidence of Earth change through millions of years; this morning
we will consider the major internal and external driving forces for this change.
Main “take home” message: The record of Earth change that is preserved in the
sedimentary rock column is the result of Earth’s endogenic and exogenic systems.. The
sedimentary record is unique in that it is a record of the interaction between the interplay of
these two systems.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 30 minutes
ACTIVITY #4.2: Tectonics and Sedimentation
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To appreciate the connection between Earth’s internal
and external systems, how the geosphere and hydrosphere interact and how this interaction is
preserved in the sedimentary record.
Main “take home” message: The Earth’s internal tectonic system, powered by radioactive
decay, is linked to Earth’s external hydrological system, powered by the sun and assisted by
gravity, through tectonic plate collision and the resulting uplift, weathering, and erosion of
Earth materials. This interaction is preserved in sedimentary rocks. The position of ancient
mountains is documented through correlation of stratigraphic sections.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 1 hour
Materials list:
 PALEOMAP plate tectonics software
 Activity Guide 4.2
Advance preparation notes:
1. Confirm computer room reservation
2. Play with the software in advance of the session
Overview: Participants will use PALEOMAP software to explore plate tectonic movements
through Earth’s history. Emphasis is on noting where/when mountains formed in eastern
North America, and relating that tectonic activity to the sedimentary record preserved at the
Earth’s surface.
Detailed procedure
a) Description of the procedure
This activity takes place in a computer lab; each participant should have access to a computer
and PALEOMAP software. Participants should be encouraged to explore all the files, but
especially the “Paleogeography” file in which they can view plate movement-forward and
backward-through Earth’s history. Instructions on accessing the file are included in Activity
Guide 4.2 to guide participants through the activity. Have participants answer the questions in
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the activity guide. Wrap-up the activity with a discussion of their findings. Emphasize that the
continental collision through the Paleozoic Era that formed the ancient Appalachian mountains
was responsible for the uplift that caused the sea level changes recorded in the stratigraphic
columns.
Make sure to add the orogenic events to the time line.
b) Talking points
i. Key concepts and points: The plate tectonic story of the Paleozoic Era is one
of continental convergence, culminating in the formation of the “supercontinent” Pangea by the
end of the Paleozoic. A result of this plate interaction was the formation of the ancient mountain
range in the eastern US that we now call the Appalachians. Sediments she from the various
incarnations of this mountain range were deposited in the shallow seas that covered the Midwest,
and these mountains are the primary source for the clastic (sandstone, shale) sediments preserved
in our area.
ii. Take home message: Earth’s internal energy drives the plate movement that
shapes Earth’s exterior and contributes to changes in sea-level. These changes are recorded in
the product of erosion of these mountains—sediment--in the stratigraphic record.
iii. Possible questions or prompts to ask: What do the different colors on the
PaleoMap animations signifiy? What might we predict for the future of eastern North America?
How are these projections made?
c. Notes on potential misconceptions: Many people have heard of Pangea, but few
realize that Pangea was only one of several supercontinents that formed during the 4.6 billion
years of Earth history. In fact, the phenomenon of supercontinent formation and break-up is
referred to as the “supercontinent cycle”. Pangea was only the most recent incarnation of the
supercontinent cycle, and there are likely to be more supercontinents in the future (see
PALEOMAP “Future” file for animations of future plate movement).
There is also the potential for misunderstanding the paleomaps in the CD animations.
Modern-day features, such as the Great Lakes and Hudson’s Bay, are included on these maps to
help the viewer get oriented, but many people internalize the map outline as the actual shape of
the continent at that time in the distant past.
d. Concerns to look for: Confusion of modern-day map outlines with paleogeography
e. Power Point notes: none
Follow-up or homework: none
Handouts for Participants: Activity Guide # 4.2
Suggested readings
References
Embedded Assessments
 Are participants able to explain how tectonics are responsible for uplift and sea level
changes?
MI & OH Benchmarks Addressed
Michigan
 EG.V.1 MS4. Explain how rocks and fossils are used to understand the age and
geological history of the earth.
Ohio:
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
Explain the 4.5-billion-year history of Earth and the 4 billion-year-history of life on Earth
based on observable scientific evidence in the geologic record. Describe the interactions
of matter and energy throughout the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere
 Describe the processes that contribute to the continuous changing of Earth's surface (e.g.,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, erosion, mountain building and lithospheric plate
movements).
Systems & Energy
This activity helps teachers understand the organization of the geosphere and hydrosphere.
Elements of Inquiry
1. Learners engage in scientifically oriented questions.
2. Learners give priority to evidence in responding to questions
3. Learners formulate explanations from evidence
4. Learners connect explanations to scientific knowledge
5. Learners communicate and justify explanations
5E Model
Engage – Why did the sea level changes noted in the stratigraphic columns occur?
Explore – Participants will look for tectonic evidence and patterns in the computer animation
related to sea level changes.
Explain – Participants will be able to explain the tectonic causes of uplift and sea-level changes.
ACTIVITY #4.3: Glacial Processes
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To understand the Great Lakes landscape (topography)
in terms of the glacial and post-glacial processes that have shaped it.
Main “take home” message: The modern landscape of the Great Lakes region (the most
recent chapter in the story of Earth changes) is the product of glacial advance and retreat
during the most recent (Pleistocene Epoch) ice age. Post-glacial modification of the
landscape is primarily the result of fluvial (river) processes.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 1.5 hr
Materials list:
 surficial geology maps (Ohio, Michigan)
 NOAA narrated powerpoint presentation on “Ice Ages” (26 minutes)
 Activity Guide 4.3
Advance preparation notes
1. Read Background notes
Background Notes: Pleistocene & climate change
Quaternary Period [38 seconds our 24-hour clock!]
Pleistocene Epoch (1.6 mybp-10,000 yrs)
How the Pleistocene is defined:
 Lyell's definition: strata having 90-100% extant molluscs
 Glaciation (but ice caps began forming in the Miocene, so this is not precise)
Holocene [Recent] (10,000 yrs to present)
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Dramatic climatic shifts
Evidence of climate change: Proving glaciation
Even though glaciers exist today in alpine regions, the concept that great continental ice
sheets existed had to be proved. The unconsolidated, poorly sorted surficial materials we call till
was originally termed "drift" and was attributed to Noah's flood. James Hutton proposed tht
alpine glaciers were more extensive than they are today (in Switzerland, but he failed to
recognize evidence of ancient glaciation in his native Scotland!) It raises the questions: if there
were no modern glaciers, would we ever have correctly interpreted ancient geological evidence
as glacial deposits?
The name most closely associated with "proving" past glaciation is the great naturalist
Louis Agassiz (1936) [Swiss, ended up at Harvard; SJG is in his old office]. He was first a very
vocal opponent of the idea, but in his effort to disprove it became the most ardent supporter of
the idea of past glacial episodes.
"Glacial fingerprints"
 poorly sorted sediments (or metaseds)
 wide range of grain sizes, from clay to boulder
 striated clasts, chattermarks
 angular to subangular (not well-rounded)
 immature mineralogic composition
 dropstones/erratics
 striated pavement
 erosional landforms (U-shaped valleys, various alpine features)
 depositional landforms (moraines, continental glacier landforms)
Glacial Effects
 Isostatic rebound
Hudson Bay area was eepressed below sea level with the mile-thick ice sheet sitting over it.
This area is now rebounding 2 cm/year. [It must rise 80 more meter before it reaches its preglacial level.]
 change in drainage:
damming tributaries (by ice or sediments); create lakes along the glacial margin; set new
river courses
Great lakes: less-resistant bedrock scoured by ice
 sea-level
 biotic effects: force shift in faunal patterns: migrate or go extinct
Geologic record of glaciations
1) Late Archean/Early Proterozoic (2.7-2.3 bybp) Gowganda Fm., Canada
2) Ediacarian (700 mybp)
3) Ordovician (North Africa)
4) Siluro-Devonian (S. America)
5) Late Paleozoic (230-350 mybp, Gondwana)
6) Cenozoic (0-20 mybp; Pleistocene)
Causes of Glaciation
Glacial episodes occur when ice sheets accumulation on continents--more snow must fall
in a year than melts. As text points out, it's not a rapid, global deep-freeze; areas near the glacial
center experience short summers and longer winters; the climate elsewhere can be highly
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variable. Also, glacial intervals are not a solid deep-freeze, but glacial advances alternate with
glacial retreat, or interglacial episodes.
North America experienced 4 major glacial episodes and accompanying interglacials in
the Pleistocene . From oldest to youngest:
Wisconsinan/Sangamon
Illinoian/Yarmouth
Kansan/Aftonian
Nebraskan..and there were probably more...
in Europe there were at least 6-7 advances; deep-sea cores show at least 20 warm/cold cycles.
Any theory about the cause of glaciation must account for
a) the relative rarity of this event through geologic time
b) the glacial/interglacial alternation typical of a glacial episodes (not a monotonic long-term
cooling trend)
Hypotheses
I. Astronomical [Milankovitch theory]
Glacial periods are the result of extraterrestrial influences that alter the amount of solar
radiation received by Earth, specifically, variations in Earth's orbital path:
 eccentricity (shape of the orbit)
100,000 year cycle between times of maximum eccentricity
 tilt of axis
shifts 1.5 degree over 41,000 year cycle
 precession (distance from Sun)
aphelion and perihelion, 11,000 year cycle
These variations would alter the length of the seasons.
Problem: glacial periods are not as cyclic as earth's orbital variations are..
II. Atmospheric Change
a) carbon dioxide greenhouse effect
decrease CO2 = drop temp = glaciation
increase CO2 = traps solar radiation = warm interval
feedback mechanism: cooling = ice=higher albedo (reflected radation) = more cooling
How it works: Extensive plant growth uses up CO2 = temp drop (glaciation)= slows plant
growth= CO2 rebound (warming), more plant growth, cycle repeats itself
b) dust cloud, "nuclear winter" hypothesis
volcanism throws dust up, blocks radiation = cooling
Problem: many volcanic episodes in the past are NOT correlated with glacial episodes
III. Oceanic controls
circulation of ocean waters, distribution of cold/warm currents
but this is a product of...
IV. Plate tectonics
Continental configuration. Continents over the poles (high latitudes)=glaciation
Ultimate control is a combination of astronomical parameters and the position of the plates.
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Pleistocene and climate change
Quaternary Period/Pleistocene Epoch
Defining the Pleistocene:
 Lyell: 90-100% extant molluscs
 Presence of glaciation (Miocene)
 1.6 mybp-10,000 ybp
Geologic record of glaciations

Late Archean/Early Proterozoic (2.7-2.3
bybp) Gowganda Fm., Canada

Ediacarian (700 mybp)

Ordovician (North Africa)

Siluro-Devonian (S. America)


Late Paleozoic (230-350 mybp,
Gondwana)
Cenozoic (0-20 mybp; Pleistocene)
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

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




Evidence of glaciation
phenomenon had to be proven!
poorly sorted sediments (clay to
boulder)
angular to sub-angular clasts
immature mineralogic composition
striated bedrock, chattermarks
dropstones/erratics
characteristic erosional landforms
U-shaped valleys, cirques, horns aretes
characteristic depositional landforms
moraines, drumlins, eskers, outwash
Glacial Effects

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
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isostatic rebound
change in drainage
pluvial lakes (Fig. 17.14)
sea-level fluctuation
biotic effects: shift in faunal
patterns
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Causes of Glaciation
Explanations must account for:


relative rarity of this phenomenon
alternating glacial/interglacial periods
I. Astronomical hypotheses(Milankovitch)



eccentricity (shape of Earth's orbit)
tilt of Earth's axis
precession of Earth's orbit
II. Atmospheric hypotheses


carbon dioxide green house effect
dust cloud "nuclear winter"
III. Oceanic circulation hypotheses
IV. Plate tectonics
Ultimate control?: combination of
astronomical parameters and position of
plates
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Pleistocene history of the Great
Lakes
Youngest:
Wisconsinan Glaciation
Sangamon Interglacial
Illinoian Glaciation
Yarmouth Interglacial
Kansan Glaciation
Aftonian Interglacial
Nebraskan Glaciation
Oldest
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Overview: Participants will become familiar with interpreting the surficial map (glacial
deposits) of their state and using this map to infer Earth history during the Pleistocene.
Detailed Procedure
a) Description of the procedure
Post the large version of the surficial geology map (of Ohio or Michigan) and instruct
participants to refer to their copy in the Activity Guide. Go over the large map as a group,
pointing out the key, and ask how it differs from the key on the bedrock geology map (on the
bedrock map, different units are mapped by their age; on the surficial map, all the units are from
the same geologic epoch—Pleistocene—and are mapped by the type of deposit, e.g., moraine,
glacial late, outwash, etc.).
Have participants locate their home county and use the map key to determine what glacial
deposits are present. Ask them to think about the surficial deposits in terms of their economic
significance, e.g., gravel pits in their county, especially fertile soil, or the opposite, swampy,
poorly-drained topography, and list the results of this discussion on the board.
Point out major surficial features, especially moraines, which indicate the direction of ice
movement. What is the significance of multiple, concentric moraines? (major periods of
stabilization of the ice sheet, and ice retreat in a consistent direction).
Place the glacial events on the time line.
End with an overall summary of the major geologic events, the changes they caused, and
the evidence we have for those changes.
If there are questions about causes of glaciation, show the powerpoint (26 minutes long),
otherwise, proceed to the wrap-up:
The geologic history of a state can be told from the geologic bedrock map and the
surficial geology map. Work as a group to use these maps and construct an outline of the history
of your state from the Cambrian to the Recent, using the principles and tools learned during the
last 3 1/2 days.
b) Talking points
i. Key concepts and points: Glaciers shaped the present landscape in the Midwest.
Glacial features in our region include (i) depositional features, such as moraines, which mark the
terminus of glaciers, outwash plains, areas of sand and gravel that marked the flow of sediment
from the glacier via meltwater; glacial lake sediments, characterized by extremely flat
topography and fine-grained sediment (mud); glacial erratics, hummocky, poorly drained
topography, and (ii) erosional features, such as glacial scour (Kelly’s Island, OH, grooves)
ii. Take home message: The landscape we see around us in the Great Lakes/upper
Midwest was shaped by multiple glacial advances during the last 14,000 years. These processes
greatly post-date and are unrelated to the processes that resulted in the deposition of the layers
of sedimentary rock that form the bedrock of this region, and there is a great gap in the
geological record from the deposition of Pennsylvanian sediments that became sedimentary
rocks to the deposition by glaciers of the surficial sediments.
iii. Possible questions or prompts to ask: What glacial deposits are found in your
home county?
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Can you relate the occurrence of these surficial deposits to any economic activity in your
county (e.g., gravel pits, recreational areas, agricultural use, etc.)
What is the relationship of the bedrock geology map and surficial geology map of your
state?
Using the two maps (bedrock geology and surficial geology), tell the story of
Michigan/Ohio’s geologic history.
c) Notes on potential misconceptions:
[Michigan]: there is a wide-spread misconception that the weight of the glaciers caused
(formed) the Michigan Basin, confusing isostatic adjustment with tectonic (structural)
deformation. The glaciers are responsible for depressing the crust, but NOT for structural
deformation that folded the Paleozoic strata into the doubly-plunging syncline (basin). The
Michigan Basin formed during the Paleozoic Era as the result of crustal stresses related to the
Taconic, Acadian and Alleghenian orogenies.
d) Concerns to look for:
Indication of the phenonomon of past glaciation as “just a theory”, incredulity that great
ice sheets covered the midwest
e) Power Point notes: Pleistocene geology.ppt
Handouts for Participants: Activity Guide #4.3, Surficial geology maps of Ohio and Michigan
References
Embedded Assessments
 Are teachers able to identify different types of glacial deposits?
 Can teachers use this evidence to explain current topography and land use?
MI & OH Benchmarks Addressed
Michigan
 EG.V.1 1. Describe and identify surface features using maps.
 EG.V.1 MS4. Explain how rocks and fossils are used to understand the age and
geological history of the earth.
 EG.V.1 MS3. Explain how rocks are broken down, how soil is formed and how surface
features change.
Ohio:
 Explain the 4.5-billion-year history of Earth and the 4 billion-year-history of life on Earth
based on observable scientific evidence in the geologic record. Describe the interactions
of matter and energy throughout the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere
 Describe the processes that contribute to the continuous changing of Earth's surface (e.g.,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, erosion, mountain building and lithospheric plate
movements).
Systems & Energy
This activity helps participants understand the organization of the geosphere and hydrosphere.
Elements of Inquiry
1. Learners engage in scientifically oriented questions.
2. Learners give priority to evidence in responding to questions
3. Learners formulate explanations from evidence
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4. Learners connect explanations to scientific knowledge
5. Learners communicate and justify explanations
5E Model
Engage – What are the most recent changes?
Explore – Use maps to identify ice advances and retreats
Explain – Explain the current surface topography and geology
Elaborate – Put all of the pieces together to tell the complete geologic story for the past 500
million years.
ACTIVITY # 4.4: Post-Assessment
Purpose and Goals of the activity: To document changes in participant content knowledge
during the mini-course.
Estimated time to complete the activity: 30 minutes
Materials list: Copies of Assessment for each participant
Advance preparation notes: Make sure copies of assessment are ready
Detailed procedure:
Facilitator hands out assessment, collects them at the end of 30 minutes (or some reasonable
amount of time depending on the dynamics of the particular group of participants).
Facilitators should lead a whole class discussion to informally
 Identify areas of strengths.
 Identify areas of weakness.
 Identify old questions that may not have been answered
 Identify new questions that may have arisen as a result of the course
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