Med Hypotheses. 2003 Aug;61(2):282-91.
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The neural basis of the complex mental task of meditation:
neurotransmitter and neurochemical considerations.
Newberg AB, Iversen J.
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA. newberg@rad.upenn.edu
Meditation is a complex mental process involving changes in cognition, sensory
perception, affect, hormones, and autonomic activity. Meditation has also become
widely used in psychological and medical practices for stress management as well
as a variety of physical and mental disorders. However, until now, there has been
limited understanding of the overall biological mechanism of these practices in
terms of the effects in both the brain and body. We have previously described a
rudimentary neuropsychological model to explain the brain mechanisms
underlying meditative experiences. This paper provides a substantial development
by integrating neurotransmitter systems and the results of recent brain imaging
advances into the model. The following is a review and synthesis of the current
literature regarding the various neurophysiological mechanisms and
neurochemical substrates that underlie the complex processes of meditation. It is
hoped that this model will provide hypotheses for future biological and clinical
studies of meditation.
Prog Brain Res. 2000;122:507-15.
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Exploring the nature and functions of the mind: a Tibetan Buddhist
meditative perspective.
Rapgay L, Rinpoche VL, Jessum R.
Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, NeuroPsychiatric Institute
and Hospital, UCLA 90024, USA. lobsang@ucla.edu
The Tibetan Buddhist classification of mind, its divisions and the system of
meditation practices aimed at achieving ideal states of being are a complex
presentation of psychological, behavioral and spiritual concepts and processes that
demand thorough understanding before assessing their value and outcome (Yeshe,
1995). It is the authors' belief that with the rapid advances in the neuroscience of
mental processes, both scientist and Tibetan practitioner can benefit from each
other's knowledge and experience to enhance our search for greater understanding
of the relationship between mind, body and spirit.
Psychiatry Res. 2001 Apr 10;106(2):113-22.
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The measurement of regional cerebral blood flow during the
complex cognitive task of meditation: a preliminary SPECT study.
Newberg A, Alavi A, Baime M, Pourdehnad M, Santanna J, d'Aquili E.
Division of Nuclear Medicine, Department of Radiology, University of
Pennsylvania Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
newberg@oasis.rad.upenn.edu
This study measured changes in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) during the
complex cognitive task of meditation using single photon emission computed
tomography. Eight experienced Tibetan Buddhist meditators were injected at
baseline with 7 mCi HMPAO and scanned 20 min later for 45 min. The subjects
then meditated for 1 h at which time they were injected with 25 mCi HMPAO and
scanned 20 min later for 30 min. Values were obtained for regions of interest in
major brain structures and normalized to whole brain activity. The percentage
change between meditation and baseline was compared. Correlations between
structures were also determined. Significantly increased rCBF (P<0.05) was
observed in the cingulate gyrus, inferior and orbital frontal cortex, dorsolateral
prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and thalamus. The change in rCBF in the left DLPFC
correlated negatively (P<0.05) with that in the left superior parietal lobe.
Increased frontal rCBF may reflect focused concentration and thalamic increases
overall increased cortical activity during meditation. The correlation between the
DLPFC and the superior parietal lobe may reflect an altered sense of space
experienced during meditation. These results suggest a complex rCBF pattern
during the task of meditation.
Int J Psychophysiol. 2001 Aug;42(1):1-9.
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Autonomic and EEG patterns distinguish transcending from other
experiences during Transcendental Meditation practice.
Travis F.
Psychology Department, Maharishi University of Management, Fairfield, IA
52557, USA.
This study compared EEG and autonomic patterns during transcending to "other"
experiences during Transcendental Meditation (TM) practice. To correlate
specific meditation experiences with physiological measures, the experimenter
rang a bell three times during the TM session. Subjects categorized their
experiences around each bell ring. Transcending, in comparison to "other"
experiences during TM practice, was marked by: (1) significantly lower breath
rates; (2) higher respiratory sinus arrhythmia amplitudes; (3) higher EEG alpha
amplitude; and (4) higher alpha coherence. In addition, skin conductance
responses to the experimenter-initiated bell rings were larger during transcending.
These findings suggest that monitoring patterns of physiological variables may
index dynamically changing inner experiences during meditation practice. This
could allow a more precise investigation into the nature of meditation experiences
and a more accurate comparison of meditation states with other eyes-closed
conditions.
J Clin Psychol. 1999 Mar;55(3):339-51.
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Buddhist conceptualization and treatment of anger.
Leifer R.
From the Buddhist point of view, anger is a form of suffering-because the angry
individual suffers as well as his or her victims. In the traditional Buddhist view,
suffering is caused by three mental factors, The Three Poisons: Desire, Aversion,
and Ignorance. The dynamics of anger are conceptualized on the basis of these
three mental factors, as well as the biology of anger and aggression. The treatment
of anger is presented in seven steps: (i) Taking Responsibility; (ii) Becoming
Aware; (iii) Understanding Anger; (iv) Reflection; (v) Decision: (vi) Relaxation;
and (vii) Opening the Heart.
Psychiatry Res. 2001 Nov 30;108(2):111-21.
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Brain sources of EEG gamma frequency during volitionally
meditation-induced, altered states of consciousness, and experience
of the self.
Lehmann D, Faber PL, Achermann P, Jeanmonod D, Gianotti LR, Pizzagalli
D.
The KEY Institute for Brain-Mind Research, University Hospital of Psychiatry,
Lenggstr. 31, CH-8029 Zurich, Switzerland. dlehmann@key.unizh.ch
Multichannel EEG of an advanced meditator was recorded during four different,
repeated meditations. Locations of intracerebral source gravity centers as well as
Low Resolution Electromagnetic Tomography (LORETA) functional images of
the EEG 'gamma' (35-44 Hz) frequency band activity differed significantly
between meditations. Thus, during volitionally self-initiated, altered states of
consciousness that were associated with different subjective meditation states,
different brain neuronal populations were active. The brain areas predominantly
involved during the self-induced meditation states aiming at visualization (right
posterior) and verbalization (left central) agreed with known brain functional
neuroanatomy. The brain areas involved in the self-induced, meditational
dissolution and reconstitution of the experience of the self (right fronto-temporal)
are discussed in the context of neural substrates implicated in normal selfrepresentation and reality testing, as well as in depersonalization disorders and
detachment from self after brain lesions.