Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
Chapter 17
Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
Learning Objectives
After reading Chapter 17, you should be able to:
1.
Define and give examples of observational learning.
2.
List and define the processes governing observational learning.
3.
Define Bandura's concept of triadic reciprocal causation.
4.
Explain and give at least one example of the effect that chance
encounters and fortuitous events may have on a person's life path.
5.
Define and discuss Bandura's concept of human agency.
6.
Define and give examples of self-efficacy.
7.
Describe the sources of self-efficacy.
8.
Define and give examples of proxy agency.
9.
Define and give examples of collective efficacy.
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
10. Discuss Bandura's concept of self-regulation through moral agency.
11. Discuss ways in which people justify their own actions through
disengagement of internal control.
12. Describe Bandura's approach to understanding dysfunctional
behavior.
13. Briefly describe some of the recent research generated by Bandura's
theory.
Summary Outline
1.
Overview of Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura's social cognitive theory takes an agentic perspective,
meaning that humans have some limited ability to control their
lives. In contrast to Skinner, Bandura (1) recognizes that chance
encounters and fortuitous events often shape one's behavior; (2)
places more emphasis on observational learning; (3) stresses the
importance of cognitive factors in learning; (4) suggests that
human activity is a function of behavior and person variables, as
well as the environment; and (5) believes that reinforcement is
mediated by cognition.
II.
Biography of Albert Bandura
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Albert Bandura was born in Canada in 1925, but he has spent his
entire professional life in the United States. He completed a PhD
in clinical psychology at the University of Iowa in 1951 and since
then has worked almost entirely at Stanford University, where he
continues to be an active researcher and speaker.
III.
Learning
Bandura takes a broad view of learning, believing that people
learn through observing others and by attending to the
consequences of their own actions. Although he believes that
reinforcement aids learning, he contends that people can learn in
the absence of reinforcement and even of a response.
A. Observational Learning
The heart of observational learning is modeling, which is more
than simple imitation, because it involves adding and subtracting
from observed behavior. At least three principles influence
modeling: (1) people are most likely to model high-status people,
(2) people who lack skill or status are most likely to model, and
(3) people tend to model behavior that they see as being rewarding
to the model. Bandura recognized four processes that govern
observational learning: (1) attention, or noticing what a model
does; (2) representation, or symbolically representing new
response patterns in memory; (3) behavior production, or
producing the behavior that one observes; and (4) motivation; that
is, the observer must be motivated to perform the observed
behavior.
B. Enactive Learning
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All behavior is followed by some consequence, but whether that
consequence reinforces the behavior depends on the person's
cognitive evaluation of the situation.
V.
Triadic Reciprocal Causation
Social cognitive theory holds that human functioning is molded by
the reciprocal interaction of (1) behavior; (2) personal factors,
including cognition; and (3) environmental events—a model
Bandura calls triadic reciprocal causation.
A. Differential Contributions
Bandura does not suggest that the three factors in the triadic
reciprocal causation model make equal contributions to behavior.
The relative influence of behavior, environment, and person
depends on which factor is strongest at any particular moment.
B. Chance Encounters and Fortuitous Events
The lives of many people have been fundamentally changed by a
chance meeting with another person or by a fortuitous, unexpected
event. Chance encounters and fortuitous events enter the triadic
reciprocal causation paradigm at the environment point, after
which they influence behavior in much the same way as do
planned events.
VI. Human Agency
Bandura believes that human agency is the essence of humanness;
that is, humans are defined by their ability to organize, regulate, and
enact behaviors that they believe will produce desirable
consequences.
A. Core Features of Human Agency
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Human agency has four core features: (1) intentionality, or a
proactive commitment to actions that may bring about desired
outcomes: (2) foresight, or the ability to set goals; (3) selfreactiveness, which includes monitoring their progress toward
fulfilling their choices; and (4) self-reflectiveness, which allows
people can think about and evaluate their motives, values, and life
goals.
B. Self-Efficacy
How people behave in a particular situation depends in part on
their self-efficacy, that is, their beliefs that they can or cannot
exercise those behaviors necessary to bring about a desired
consequence. Efficacy expectations differ from outcome
expectations, which refer to people's prediction of the likely
consequences of their behavior. Self-efficacy combines with
environmental variables, previous behaviors, and other personal
variables to predict behavior. It is acquired, enhanced, or
decreased by any one or combination of four sources: (1) mastery
experiences or performance, (2) social modeling, or observing
someone of equal ability succeed or fail at a task; (3) social
persuasion or listening to a trusted person's encouraging words;
and (4) physical and emotional states, such as anxiety or fear,
which usually lowers self-efficacy. High self-efficacy and a
responsive environment are the best predictors of successful
outcomes.
C. Proxy Agency
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura also recognizes the influence of proxy agency through
which people exercise some partial control over everyday living.
Successful living in the 21st century requires people to seek
proxies to supply their food, deliver information, provide
transportation, etc. Without the use of proxies, modern people
would be forced to spend most of their time securing the
necessities of survival.
D. Collective Efficacy
Collective efficacy is the level of confidence that people have that
their combined efforts will produce social change. At least four
factors can lower collective efficacy. First, events in other parts of
the world can leave people with a sense of helplessness; second,
complex technology can decrease people's perceptions of control
over their environment; third, entrenched bureaucracies discourage
people from attempting to bring about social change; and fourth,
the size and scope of worldwide problems contribute to people's
sense of powerlessness.
VII. Self-Regulation
By using reflective thought, humans can manipulate their
environments and produce consequences of their actions, giving
them some ability to regulate their own behavior. Bandura
believes that behavior stems from a reciprocal influence of
external and internal factors.
A. External Factors in Self-Regulation
Two external factors contribute to self-regulation: (1) standards of
evaluation, and (2) external reinforcement. External factors affect
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
self-regulation by providing people with standards for evaluating
their own behavior.
B. Internal Factors in Self-Regulation
Internal requirements for self-regulation include: (1) selfobservation of performance; (2) judging or evaluating
performance; (3) and self reaction, including self-reinforcement or
self-punishment.
C. Self-Regulation through Moral Agency
Internalized self-sanctions prevent people from violating their own
moral standards either through selective activation or
disengagement of internal control. Selective activation refers to
the notion that self-regulatory influences are not automatic but
operate only if activated. It also means that people react
differently in different situations, depending on their evaluation of
the situation. Disengagement of internal control means that
people are capable of separating themselves from the negative
consequences of their behavior. People in ambiguous moral
situations—who are uncertain that their behavior is consistent with
their own social and moral standards of conduct—may separate
their conduct from its injurious consequences through four general
techniques of disengagement of internal standards or selective
activation. The first is redefining behavior, or justifying
otherwise reprehensible actions by cognitively restructuring them.
People can use redefinition of behavior to disengage themselves
from reprehensible conduct by: (1) justifying otherwise culpable
behavior on moral grounds; (2) making advantageous comparisons
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
between their behavior and the even more reprehensible behavior
of others; (3) using euphemistic labels to change the moral tone of
their behavior. Second, people can disengage their behavior from
its consequences by displacing or diffusing responsibility. A third
set of disengagement procedures involves dehumanizing or
blaming the victims. A fourth method is to distort or obscure the
relationship between behavior and its injurious consequences.
People can do this by minimizing, disregarding, or distorting the
consequences of their behavior.
VIII. Dysfunctional Behavior
Dysfunction behavior is learned through the mutual interaction of
the person (including cognitive and neurophysiological processes),
the environment (including interpersonal relations), and
behavioral factors (especially previous experiences with
reinforcement).
A. Depression
People who develop depressive reactions often (1) underestimate
their successes and overestimate their failures, (2) set personal
standards too high, or (3) treat themselves badly for their faults.
B. Phobias
Phobias are learned by (1) direct contact, (2) inappropriate
generalization, and (3) observational experiences. Once learned
they are maintained by negative reinforcement, as the person is
reinforced for avoiding fear-producing situations.
C. Aggression
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
When carried to extreme, aggressive behaviors can become
dysfunctional. In a study of children observing live and filmed
models being aggressive, Bandura and his associates found that
aggression tends to foster more aggression.
IX.
Therapy
The goal of social cognitive therapy is self-regulation. Bandura
noted three levels of treatment: (1) induction of change, (2)
generalization of change to other appropriate situations, and (3)
maintenance of newly acquired functional behaviors. Social
cognitive therapists sometimes use systematic desensitization, a
technique aimed at diminishing phobias through relaxation.
X.
Related Research
Bandura's concept of self-efficacy has generated a great deal of
research demonstrating that people's beliefs are related to their
ability to perform in a wide variety of situations, including coping
with the threat of terrorism and managing Type 2 diabetes.
A.
Self-Efficacy and Terrorism
Psychologists have always been interested (even before 9/11/01)
in both how people are drawn into terrorist culture, and how
innocent people cope with the constant threat of terrorism (BenZur & Zeidner, 1995; Moghaddam & Marsella, 2004; Zeidner,
2007). After 2001, this interest in terrorism increased
exponentially, and some researchers began to consider how selfefficacy might help people cope with terrorism. People report
feeling less personal security following a terrorist attack (Gallup,
2002). An increased sense of self-efficacy may help to offset this
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
insecurity and negativity. Peter Fischer and colleagues wanted to
investigate relationships among self-efficacy, religion, and coping
with the threat of terrorism (Fischer, Greitemeyer, Kastenmuller,
Jonas, & Frey, 2006). They used Allport’s Religious Orientation
Scale (ROS; see Chapter 13). Previous research had found that
using prayer as a coping mechanism is related to an increased
feeling of internal control over events (Ai, Peterson, Rodgers, &
Tice, 2005), so Fischer and colleagues predicted that intrinsically
religious people would experience greater self-efficacy. The
results of their study found that the intrinsically religious did
report greater feelings of self-efficacy, and better moods due to the
increased sense of self-efficacy, but only when the salience of
terrorism was high. When salience of terrorism was low,
religiosity caused no difference among test subjects. The
conclusion is that in the face of a threat, self-efficacy is crucial to
decreasing the threat’s harmful effects.
B. Self-Efficacy and Diabetes
Bandura himself has written about the usefulness of his theory for
encouraging people to engage in healthy behaviors that can
increase overall well-being and longevity (Bandura, 1998).
Recently, William Sacco and colleagues (2007) studied selfefficacy related to diabetes. Since depression is twice as prevalent
in diabetics as in the general population (Anderson, Freeland,
Clouse, & Lustman, 2001), and a hallmark of depression is lack of
motivation, the strict adherence to diet and exercise plans required
of Type 2 diabetes management is especially problematic. Sacco
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
and his colleagues (2007) thus wanted to explore the role of selfefficacy in raising adherence to disease management plans, and in
lowering negative physical and mental health symptoms. The
results clearly showed that self-efficacy is important to managing
chronic disease: Higher levels of self-efficacy were related to
lower levels of depression, lower BMI, lower incidence and
severity of diabetes symptoms, and higher levels of adherence to
doctors’ orders. BMI was positively correlated with depression,
and adhering to doctors’ orders was negatively correlated with
depression. Self-efficacy was directly responsible for the
relationships of depression to both BMI and adherence. Of the
many parts of social-cognitive theory that have influenced
psychological research, these studies on terrorism and diabetes
show the far-reaching implications of the construct of selfefficacy. Bandura’s theory continues to generate an impressive
amount of research.
XI
Critique of Bandura
Bandura's theory receives the highest marks of any in the text
largely because it was constructed through a careful balance of
innovative speculation and data from rigorous research. In
summary, the theory rates very high on its ability to generate
research and on its internal consistency. In addition, it rates high
on parsimony and on its ability to be falsified, organize
knowledge, and guide the practitioner.
XII. Concept of Humanity
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura sees humans as being relatively fluid and flexible.
People can store past experiences and then use this information to
chart future actions. Bandura's theory rates near the middle on
teleology versus causality and high on free choice, optimism,
conscious influences, and uniqueness. As a social cognitive
theory, it rates very high on social determinants of personality.
Test Items
Fill-in-the-Blanks
1.
Bandura's _______________________ reciprocal causation
determinism model assumes that personality is shaped by an
interaction of person, behavior, and environment.
2.
A ___________________ encounter is an unintended meeting of
persons unfamiliar to each other.
3.
A ____________________ event is an environmental experience
that is unexpected and unintended.
4.
If behavior were completely a function of the _________________,
Bandura believes that it would be much more varied and less
consistent.
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
5.
The core of observational learning is ________________________.
6.
Adolescents are most likely to model __________________ people.
7.
The first process governing observational learning is
_____________________.
8.
Bandura believes that ___________________ factors, such as
memory and foresight, give some unity to personality.
9.
Self-____________________ refers to our beliefs about our
capabilities to exercise control over events that affect our lives.
10. Those expectations that refer to the likely consequences of our
behavior are called __________________ expectations.
11. Ordinarily, _____________________, or mastery, provides the
strongest source of self-efficacy.
12. Self-efficacy is increased when we observe people of
_____________________ ability performing an activity.
13. Social _________________________ increases self-efficacy when
a trusted individual convinces us that we have the ability to perform
an activity.
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
14. High efficacy and a responsive _______________________ are the
best predictors of a successful outcome.
15. With __________________ agency, we rely on the work of other
people to control those social conditions that affect everyday living.
16. __________________ efficacy is the level of confidence people
have that their combined efforts will produce social change.
17. _________________________ of internal control is used to justify
to oneself a behavior that would normally be morally unacceptable.
18. One form of disengagement is to blame the __________________.
19. When a terrorist blows up a government building, kills many adults
and children, and refers to the deaths of the children as "collateral
damage," he is using ____________________ labeling to disengage
himself from the moral consequences of his actions.
True-False
_____1. Bandura's social cognitive theory assumes that people have
the capability to exercise some control over their lives.
_____2. Compared with Skinner, Bandura has developed a much
more cognitive theory.
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
_____3. Bandura believes that chance plays a role in people's
environment and behavior.
_____4. Basic to Bandura's social cognitive theory is the assumption
that consistency of behavior is the outstanding characteristic
of humans.
_____5. Compared to Skinner, Bandura places more emphasis on
observational learning.
_____6. Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation notion assumes that
behavior is the product of two variables—heredity and
environment.
_____7. Most of our chance encounters have a significant and
permanent impact on our personality.
_____8. Bandura believes that personality is mostly the product of
heredity.
____9.
In Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation hypothesis, all three
factors typically make equal or nearly equal contributions to
action.
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
____10. Chance encounters and fortuitous events enter the triadic
reciprocal causation model at the point of behavior.
____11. The self-system makes personality extremely consistent and
resistant to change.
____12. Bandura believes that all human behavior is ultimately the
product of an aggressive drive.
____13. People's belief that they can or cannot execute those
behaviors necessary to produce desired outcomes is
Bandura's definition of disengagement.
____14. It is possible to have high efficacy and yet have low
confidence that one's actions will produce the desired
results.
____15. Ordinarily, the strongest source of self-efficacy is mastery
experiences.
____l6.
The type of efficacy that involves indirect control over the
social conditions that affect a person's life is called selfefficacy.
____17. Bandura believes that collective efficacy is inherited from
one's ancestors.
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
____18. Bandura believes that although reinforcement facilitates
learning, it is not a necessary condition for learning.
____19. Bandura suggests that responses need not occur in order to
be learned.
____20. High levels of anxiety generally increase self-efficacy.
Multiple Choice
______1. Bandura believes that human functioning is a product of the
mutual interaction of environment, person, and
a. heredity.
b. learning.
c. cognition.
d. behavior.
______2. Bandura's social cognitive theory takes _____ perspective.
a. a behavioral
b. a learning theory
c. an existential
d. an agentic
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
______3. Bandura first became interested in clinical psychology when
he
a. entered graduate school at Stanford University.
b. worked on the Alaska highway after graduation from high
school.
c. met Skinner at the 1972 APA convention.
d. entered graduate school at the University of Iowa.
_____4. Bandura believes that learning
a. can occur in the absence of a response.
b. is facilitated by the unconscious mind.
c. and performance are identical.
d. is not facilitated by reinforcement.
_____5. According to Bandura, there are two major types of
learning—observational and
a. modeling.
b. instinctive.
c. developmental.
d. enactive.
e. conditioning.
____6. Modeling is enhanced when the person being modeled is
a. a low-status person.
b. attractive.
c. speaking a foreign language.
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
d. a social isolate.
e. a child.
_____7. According to Bandura, reinforcement
a. is necessary for learning.
b. is cognitively mediated.
c. is environmentally determined.
d. has extrinsic value.
______8. According to Bandura, the essence of humanness is
a. human agency.
b. imitation
c. aggression.
d. memory.
______9. The primary component of Bandura's P factor is
a. cognition.
b. probability.
c. performance.
d. environment.
______10. Chance encounters enter the triadic reciprocal causation
paradigm at this point.
a. environment
b. behavior
c. person
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
d. any or all of these
_____11. According to Bandura, if behavior were completely
controlled by the environment, it would be
a. solely the result of chance.
b. less consistent and more varied.
c. rigid and stilted.
d. solely the result of imitation.
_____12. People's expectations that they are capable of performing a
behavior that will produce desired outcomes in any particular
situation is called
a. outcome expectancy
b. self-efficacy
c. distortion of consequences
d. the self-system
_____13. Which technique is LEAST likely to increase a person's selfefficacy?
a. verbal persuasion
b. increased emotional arousal
c. vicarious experiences
d. performance accomplishments
_____14. Carlos has great confidence in himself as a hairdresser.
However, the economy in his city has recently turned
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
downward, and few people can afford a hairdresser. When
Carlos applies for a job at Mr. Dan's Hair Salon, he will
likely have high _______ and low _______.
a. self-efficacy; outcome expectations
b. self-efficacy; self-confidence
c. reward expectancy; self-efficacy
d. anxiety; motivation
_____15. Which of these is MOST likely to increase self-efficacy?
a. verbal persuasion
b. increased emotional arousal
c. decreased emotional arousal
d. performance accomplishments
_____16. Low self-efficacy and an unresponsive environment are
MOST likely to result in
a. a high level of performance.
b. apathy and feelings of helplessness.
c. decreased locus of control.
d. increased optimism and self-confidence.
_____17. The personal efficacy of many people working together to
bring about social change is called
a. collective efficacy.
b. disengagement of internal control.
c. disengagement of external control.
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
d. outcome expectations.
______18. Taylor, like most people, relies on auto mechanics, air
conditioning repairmen, network news, and hundreds of other
people who enhance her lifestyle. In so doing, Taylor is
making use of
a. collective efficacy.
b. proxy efficacy.
c. self-efficacy.
d. self-regulation.
______19. A set of cognitive structures used to evaluate behavior
describes Bandura's concept of
a. observational learning.
b. modeling.
c. the self system.
d. the ego.
e. the superego.
______20. According to Bandura, the first requirement for selfregulation is
a. self-observation.
b. modeling.
c. a responsive environment.
d. motor production.
e. reinforcement.
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
_____21. Which of the following would be an example of
disengagement of internal control?
a. A student skips class, and then tells the instructor that she
had to attend her grandmother's funeral.
b. A child is punished for playing with his genitals and
consequently represses the experience.
c. A conscientious doctor performs an illegal operation, but
justifies her actions to herself by saying the surgery was
necessary to save a life.
d. A store clerk shoplifts merchandise, feels guilty, and returns
it before anyone notices.
_____22. Bandura believes that personal conduct is controlled by
a. an autonomous internal agent called the ego.
b. environmental stimuli.
c. reinforcement.
d. the triadic reciprocal causation paradigm.
_____23. The study by Bandura, Ross, and Ross involving young
children and a Bobo doll found that
a. children exposed to an aggressive cartoon character were
more aggressive than children not subjected to an aggressive
model.
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
b. children exposed to an aggressive live model were more
aggressive than children not subjected to an aggressive live
model.
c. both of these was true.
d. neither of these was true.
______24. The ultimate goal of social-cognitive therapy is
a. self-regulation.
b. self-actualization.
c. an increase in self-efficacy.
d. uncovering hidden conflicts.
______25. Which statement is most consistent with Bandura's concept
of humanity?
a. People are most strongly motivated to increase self-efficacy.
b. Human personality is formed mostly by the forces of biology.
c. People must successfully navigate the stages of development
in order to become psychologically healthy.
d. Humans have the capacity to become many things, within the
limits set by biology.
Short Answer
1. List three differences between Skinner's and Bandura's theories.
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
2. Discuss the processes governing observational learning.
3. Explain the differences between efficacy expectations and outcome
expectations.
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
4. Name four sources of self-efficacy.
5. Explain Bandura's concept of collective efficacy and give four
examples.
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
6. Name and explain four ways a person can justify reprehensible
behavior.
Answers
Fill-in-the-Blanks
True-False
Multiple Choice
1.
triadic
1
T
1.
d
2.
chance
2.
T
2.
d
3.
fortuitous
3.
T
3.
b
4.
environment
4.
F
4
a
5.
modeling
5.
T
5.
d
6.
high-status
6.
F
6.
b
7.
attention
7.
F
7.
b
8.
cognitive
8.
F
8.
a
9.
efficacy
9.
F
9.
a
10.
outcome
10.
F
10.
a
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Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
11.
performance
11.
F
11.
b
12,
equal
12.
F
12.
b
13.
persuasion
13.
F
13.
b
14.
environment
14.
T
14.
a
15.
proxy
15.
T
15.
d
16.
Collective
16.
F
16.
b
17.
Disengagement
17.
F
17.
a
18.
victim
18.
T
18.
b
19.
euphemistic
19.
T
19.
c
20.
F
20.
a
21.
c
22.
d
23.
c
24.
a
25.
d
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