VOCABULARY IN MATH CLASS:
INCREASING PROFICIENCY IN MATHEMATICS
Except where reference is made to the work of others, the work described in this thesis is my
own or was done in collaboration with my Advisor. This project does not include proprietary of
classified information.
Charles Everett Tatom
Certificate of Approval:
____________________________
__________________________
Donald R. Livingston, Ed.D.
Sharon Livingston, Ph.D.
Associate Professor and Project Advisor
Associate Professor and Project Advisor
Education Department
Education Department
VOCABULARY IN MATH CLASS:
INCREASING PROFICIENCY IN MATHEMATICS
A thesis submitted
by
Chuck Tatom
to
LaGrange College
in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
EDUCATION SPECIALIST
in
Curriculum and Instruction
LaGrange College
July , 2011
Vocabulary in Math Class iii
ABSTRACT
Vocabulary in math class: Increasing proficiency of low socio-economic students in mathematics
The advent of No Child Left Behind in 2001 ushered in an era of increased accountability
for schools across the nation. As a result, school personnel felt and continue to feel the increasing
pressure of test score requirements as the law requires that all students should be reading and
completing math on grade level by the year 2014 (U.S. Dept of Education, 2007). The purpose of
this research was to introduce the strategies of literacy practices in the math curriculum to increase
vocabulary proficiency in mathematics in order to improve student learning and test scores.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ................................................................................................................................ iii
Table of Contents............................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables and Figures ................................................................................................. v
Chapter I: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1
Statement of the Problem........................................................................................... 1
Significance of the Problem ....................................................................................... 2
Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks................................................................ 4
Focus Questions........................................................................................................... 5
Overview of Methodology ......................................................................................... 5
Human as Researcher .................................................................................................. 6
Chapter II: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ......................................................... 8
Chapter III: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................. 13
Research Design ......................................................................................................... 13
Setting ........................................................................................................................... 14
Sample / Subjects / Participants ............................................................................. 14
Procedures / Data Collection .................................................................................. 15
Validity and Reliability Measures............................................................................. 15
Analysis of Data ......................................................................................................... 15
Chapter IV: RESULTS .................................................................................................... 17
Chapter V: ANALYSIS and DISCUSSION OF RESULTS ................................... 18
Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 18
Discussion ................................................................................................................... 18
Implications ................................................................................................................. 19
Impact on Student Learning .................................................................................... 19
Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................ 21
Vocabulary in Math Class v
References........................................................................................................................... 23
Appendixes ......................................................................................................................... 25
MISSING LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES PAGE
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
Effective mathematics problem solving often depends on understanding of key
mathematical terms. Students of low socio-economic status tend to perform below the state
standards on mandated tests at our high school. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
(2006), in the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics states that students who have
opportunities, encouragement, and support for speaking, writing, reading, and listening in
mathematics classes reap dual benefits: they communicate to learn mathematics, and they learn to
communicate mathematically. As stated by the National Mathematics Advisory Panel (2008), a
large achievement gap of importunate disparities in mathematics as related to race and income
must be acknowledged. If this gap continues unaddressed, it will not only be more devastating for
individuals and families, but also project poorly for the nation’s future, given the high growth rates
of the largest minority populations (National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008, p.xi).
Georgia Performance Standards, the state’s math curriculum, expect student learning to
incorporate comprehension of mathematics and integrate their linguistic, cognitive, and
metacognitive skills in developing proficiency (Donovan, 2004). Proficiency defines the state or
quality of being proficient, competent or with expertness (American Heritage Dictionary, 2010).
This aptitude develops in a setting of a community of learners where students are encouraged and
engaged to share knowledge and understanding.
With a curriculum that fosters students to reason mathematically, they must learn to
evaluate problems and mathematical arguments, and explicitly use the language of mathematics to
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communicate information and ideas precisely. These types of problems create anxiety in a math
class. Garbe (1985) states, "perhaps we do not spend enough time teaching the vocabulary
necessary for students to read and understand mathematics" (p. 39). Reading and understanding
word problems is truly different from reading out of a textbook. Reading and comprehension of
word problems involve recognizing mathematical concepts that may or may not be obvious (Flood
& Lapp, 1990). By improving mathematical literacy of language and vocabulary, as well as
increasing deductive skills, teachers can prepare students to be actively engaged in learning and
exceed the expectations of the goals of the state curriculum.
Significance of the Problem
Acknowledging the “Race to the Top” application submitted by the Georgia Governor’s
Office (2010), it states there is an achievement gap between subgroups in reading and mathematics
(p. 43). According to the Georgia Department of Education (2005) and the implemented Georgia
Performance Standards, the education system and educators will enhance students’ reading across
the curriculum. With this new performance curriculum in place and standardized testing having a
greater impact on the meaning of success and proficiency of students, educators must search for
effective means for the achievement of all students, particularly at-risk students. Amid
governmental policies, such as “No Child Left Behind” and the A+ Education Reform Act of 2000
mandating student performance on standardized testing in the content areas of reading, language
arts, and mathematics, it is apparent that teachers must prepare students to be proficient in all
subject areas and seek to increase the performance of at-risk students.
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One of the cornerstones of NCLB, Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), serves as “an annual
measure of student participation and achievement of statewide assessments and other academic
indicators” (Georgia Department of Education [GADOE], 2008). NCLB mandates that every state
set high academic standards and implement a testing program which is aligned to those standards
in order to measure students’ achievements; each individual school district is held accountable for
the academic success of their students.
Rural schools are an important focus, especially in the state of Georgia, since, as of 2003,
one-third of Georgia’s school’s are located in a rural area and due to the continued consolidation of
rural schools, and Georgia has the largest rural schools in the nation (Georgia Humanities Council
[GHC], 2004. Many of the rural schools in Georgia serve students who live in poverty, and these
schools face a variety of issues regarding student performance since correlations are shown to exist
between that of students attending large schools and the performance of poverty-stricken students.
Because of the AYP requirements, these rural school districts are more concerned than ever about
raising test scores and student performance while continuing to fight against the implications of
large schools with overwhelming numbers of students from poverty-stricken families (GHC,
2004).
Many mathematic teachers view literacy instruction as merely helping students read their
textbooks. Some educators of math curricula tend to emphasize disproportionately computational
skills at the expense of problems-solving skills (Jones & Southern, 2003). Mathematics educators
should help students learn how to read, write, listen, speak, and think in math (Draper, 2002).
Questions and discussions elicit students’ thinking and build solution strategies that lead to greater
clarity and precision. A significant amount of class time is spent developing mathematical ideas,
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not just practicing skills (Donovan & Bransford, 2004, pp.215-256). Too often students learn and
practice procedures without understanding why they work (Flood & Lapp, 1990).
Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks
Intending to integrate comparative international education reading and literacy skills in my
mathematics classes, we will focus on vocabulary to develop problem solving and comprehension
proficiency. My focus will engage students in meaningful, real-life activities to encourage and
expand mathematical knowledge of functions and vocabulary. This can be accomplished by
building on prior knowledge, and integrating the richness of language, specifically vocabulary, to
enable the students to articulate the mathematic processes of problem solving.
Constructivists recognize that experience and environment play a large role in how well the
learner learns, and that language plays a key role in the acquisition of knowledge (Dewey,
1938/1997; Larochelle, Bednarz, & Garrison, 1998). Constructivism advocates a shift in the
behavior of the mathematics classroom toward mathematical communities of learning, and away
from a simple collection of individuals. In addition, the learning environment should stress
mathematical reasoning, conjecturing, inventing, and problem solving, and away from merely
memorizing procedures and answer finding in order for proficiency to take place (National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000).
Social constructivism extends constructivism by incorporating the role of other
stakeholders and culture in development by stressing interaction over observation. This involves
teachers who teach as if they value what their students think and create learners. Discussion and
interactive discourse promote learning because they afford students the opportunity to use language
as a demonstration of their independent thoughts (Nystrand, 1996). Active reflection and
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discussion elicits sustained responses from students that encourage meaning making through
negotiating with the ideas of others. Nystrand (1996) states social constructivism is a type of
learning that “promotes retention and in-depth processing associated with the cognitive
manipulation of information” (p. 28).
In alliance with Tenet 1: Enthusiastic Engagement in Learning of LaGrange College
Education Department’s [LCED] (2010) Conceptual Framework, this research aligns closely to the
Competency Cluster 1.3, Knowledge of Learners. The strategies used will provide for learning
opportunities that support students where they are and of the influences of socio-economics,
expecting that students can learn at high levels and be proficient in the mathematics classroom.
Further, the study will seek to build on students’ existing knowledge of mathematics vocabulary
and close the recognized socio-economic achievement gap.
There are six domains of the Georgia Framework for Teaching [GFT] (LCED, 2010).
Domain 2 is closely aligned with this research, by relating, developing, and supporting student
learning and achievement. Students acquire the most meaningful understandings and appreciations
of their learning environment and problem solving experiences if they are engaged in learning
activities that allow them to discover relationships and solutions for themselves (Jones & Southern,
2003).
The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards [NBPTS] has five core
propositions that frame the foundations for experienced teachers (LCED, 2010). Proposition
Number One aligns most clearly with this study, stating that educators must treat all students
equitably and with a commitment to provide an environment contributing to learning.
Additionally, this study will allow for professional growth, reflecting on input from others,
in conjunction with the instructional design to increase opportunities of achievement for diverse
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learners with high expectations for all students. This growth and action relates with Tenet 3: Caring
and Supportive Classrooms and Learning Communities, specifically imploring Competency
Cluster 3.3 (LCED, 2010). Blending with Domains Five and Six of the GFT, Element 1G of
NCATE Standard One, INTASC Principle Nine, and Core Proposition Four of the NBPTS, a
tremendous call to action involving teachers in their development of professional character of
instructional strategies and learning environments as they reflect and evaluate the outcomes of their
actions (LCED, 2010).
Implementing effective strategies and actively engaging learners in a well rounded learning
environment should be the goal of every educator. Based on this and the above stated premises,
social constructivism should be used in teaching mathematics in the classroom to assist students in
achieving proficiency in mathematics.
Focus Questions
Increasing test score requirements have forced school systems to explore new strategies in
order to continually raise scores because as every educator knows, it is very difficult, if not
impossible, to get 100 percent of students to pass a required test. The avenue of exploration of this
research is to implement an international pedagogical approach to teaching for mathematics
proficiency.
The following questions were of interest in my research and helped drive this focus:
1. How does the integration of vocabulary strategies into the mathematics curriculum increase
low socio-economic students’ proficiency in mathematics?
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2. What are the attitudes and opinions of the adopted curriculum strategies among teacher
leaders and learners?
3. What was the level of success of change in the process strategies among administrators,
students, and teacher leaders?
Overview of Methodology
Applying action research in my study, mixed methods of quantitative and qualitative
measures will be used to assess the results. These outcomes will be measured by incorporating the
use of literacy skills and pedagogy practices from Jamaica. The testing of these effects show how
these instructional strategies based on vocabulary proficiency affects mathematical knowledge in
student learning.
Using test scores, to compare previous classes, my control group, taught without
incorporating these comparative educational strategies, to those taught with the integrated literacy
practices of Jamaica, my treatment group. Implementing these strategies and expecting to show
significant gains in the low socio-economic students’ academic performance in mathematics will
be the quantitative part of the research. This research will statistically compare student test scores
from pre-post tests and the End of Course Tests for Mathematics II from this year 2010-2011 and
the previous school year 2009-2010. The achievement difference of the treatment group will be
compared to the control group of the previous year using independent t-tests to determine if there is
significant difference in applying the vocabulary practices.
Qualitative data will be collected from interviews and surveys of all teachers,
administrators, and students who participated in the use of these instructional literacy strategies.
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The interviews will be conducted using a specific set of questions. The surveys will implore coding
for themes that align with student success in improvement and perceived learning.
Human as Researcher
Having a strong background in mathematics and being a Chemical Engineer, I understand
the hands on approach to learning, and the necessity of a logical progression in solving math
problems. It is extremely important to use the knowledge of the student as you begin to teach new
concepts. As a traditional style educator, I struggled to engage some of my students in
mathematical thinking and problem solving. To become a more effective teacher leader and
improve pedagogical practices through continued education, a reflective practitioner must ensure
that mathematics in the classroom must be engaging and create a learning environment that is not
resistant to combining literacy instruction with regular academic teaching of mathematics (Draper,
2002).
Teaching in the same Class 2A high school for eight years, I have developed a good
working rapport with the central office, school administrators, teachers, and students at all levels of
mathematic ability. Wanting to better engage my students and assure mathematical comprehension
and understanding, I believe there is a need to develop a more student-centered classroom
promoting student mathematical conversation in the use of vocabulary, such as asking them to
discuss and justify strategies they use to solve problems. Lending to proficiency, I will address
changes in my approach to teaching math by utilizing comparative education literacy strategies,
and taking advantage of the teaching moments to foster insight and student learning.
This research will be conducted with the intent of providing secondary math teachers and
administrators with useful information, ideas, and methods concerning vocabulary strategies in
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math class to increase proficiency. Lessons need to be designed with specific mathematical
learning goals in mind in order to utilize vocabulary effectively and provide the avenue for a rich
learning environment for all students no matter the socio-economic status.
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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Why integrate vocabulary?
The U.S. system for teaching children mathematics is large and complex with numerous
components. The curriculum contains learning goals, spelling out the mathematics to be studied. It
also includes instructional programs and materials that organize the mathematical content, together
with assessments for determining what has been learned. In addition, and of primary importance, it
is through teaching that students encounter the mathematical content afforded by the curriculum
(Department of Education, 2002). Success in mathematics is not just a matter of national concern,
but should also be for the individual learner, because it lends itself to college and career options, as
well as it increases prospects for future income. This academic achievement in high school
mathematics correlates powerfully with access to college, graduation from college, and earning
income in the top quartile from employment in the workforce (National Mathematics Advisory
Panel, 2008).
In today’s fast paced society, no one can live without the use of mathematics. Whether at
school, in the workforce, or at home, while reading, relaxing, shopping, interacting with others,
and making practical decisions, people are compelled to make use of mathematics, and often must
employ its language and methods (Encyclopedia of Education and Human Development, 2005).
One must have a goal in mathematics education to prepare students for these tasks, as well as
provide for the further development of new knowledge.
According to Drazin (1995), mathematics permeates every aspect of our daily life, such as
grocery shopping, paying for fuel, travel, telephone calls, interpreting newspaper or internet
graphic information, and using calculators. Agreeing that mathematics has application in daily
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living, Borsuk (2003) clearly states that “competence in mathematics can open the door to highpaid jobs; technology of our times increasingly means that people are working in settings where
the foundation is built on mathematics; our daily lives lead us to call on mathematics for
everything from understanding a tax bill to following the news, to figuring out what 30% off on a
pair of shoes means” (p. 346). Mosvold, Vaananan and Trottenberg (2008) stress the importance of
mathematics to everyday living, such as marketing, interpreting data, computer technologies, and
predicting weather conditions.
How do we talk math?
The key to increasing vocabulary development is ensuring that students with poor
vocabularies not only learn the meaning of words but also have the opportunity to use them
frequently. Definitions alone do not provide enough support for readers to be able to transfer those
definitions to reading contexts (Allen, 1999). Schools should teach students to be literate in the
most general sense, by being capable of reading, writing, speaking, computing, reasoning, and
manipulating verbal and visual symbols and concepts (Donovan & Bransford, 2004, pp.215-256).
This lends itself to the question: is mathematics a language?
Language is defined as communication of thoughts and feelings through a system of
arbitrary signals, such as voice sounds, gestures, or written symbols. Further, it is a system of
signs, symbols, gestures, or rules used in communicating (American Heritage Dictionary, 2010).
Mathematics is a complex language that is used for communicating, problem solving, reasoning,
creating works of art, and designing mechanical tools. The language of mathematics involves the
use of numerals, words, and symbols that are at times interrelated and interdependent and at other
times disjointed and autonomous (Adams, 2003). In fact, Wakefield (2000) stated the following
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characteristics of mathematics do indeed qualify it as a language: verbal or written symbols
representing ideas or images are used to communicate; the processes are uniform and consistent;
expressions are linear and serial; understanding increases with practice; success requires
memorization of symbols and rules; translations and interpretations are required for novice
learners; meaning is influenced by symbol order using PEMDAS; communication requires
encoding and decoding, intuition, insightfulness, and "speaking without thinking" to accompany
fluency. Experiences from childhood supply the foundation for future development, and the
possibilities for expressions are infinite.
Effective mathematics problem solving often depends on the understanding of key
mathematical terms. This is especially true in solving word problems and performance- based
tasks, which can be difficult even for students who are very proficient with mathematical
procedures. Vocabulary is a concept that is fluent throughout the entire Georgia Performance
Standards of school curriculum. Although interest in vocabulary has repeatedly waxed and waned
with the research community and elementary schools, vocabulary instruction has always been an
interest of middle and secondary school teachers, probably because they recognize its importance
and are familiar with procedures for teaching vocabulary (Jetton & Dole, 2004 p.173). For the
most part, vocabulary instructionIN MATHEMATICS? has been less comprehensive and more
systematic. Students need and deserve a comprehensive and well-planned program of vocabulary
instruction for proficiency of MATH terminology (Jetton & Dole, 2004, p.173).
What is math vocabulary?
Mathematics has its own system of communication, particularly the meticulous
terminology that is used to communicate ideas within the discipline. These terms have meanings
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specific to mathematical topics and may or may not make sense outside of the math environment.
The words, terminology, and vocabulary used in mathematics are important factors in obtaining
proficiency in the communication process of mathematics (Adams, 2003). In mathematics, it is
acceptable for students to use informal definitions as an introduction to formal definitions. These
informal definitions help students to construct their own understandings, and these are the
definitions students might use when reading word problems or instructions. A student's ability to
recognize and employ the formal definition of terms is the key to understanding and applying
concepts when reading mathematical text (Adams, 2003). An informal definition is a good starting
point and should be encouraged in order to lead a student to construct his or her own understanding
of the term. These informal interpretations will begin to allow the student, when reading
mathematical text, to develop the critical part of comprehension and lend itself to proficiency.
As students build their mathematical proficiency and extend vocabulary, they become more
confident of their ability to learn mathematics and to use it. The more mathematical concepts they
understand, the more sensible the whole subject becomes. In contrast, when they think
mathematics needs to be learned by memorizing rather than by making sense of it, they begin to
lose confidence in themselves as learners. Students who are proficient in mathematics believe that
they can solve problems, develop understanding, and learn procedures through hard work, and that
becoming mathematically proficient is worthwhile for them (Donovan & Bransford, 2004, pp.215256).
School structure in Jamaica
Education in Jamaica is administered under the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Culture
[MOEY&C] with a headquarters office and six regional field offices (MOEY&C, 2004). These
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regional offices are structured similar to the hierarchy of a state’s board of education with the
respective local boards of education being responsible for school’s personnel, supervision, and
maintenance. The education system in the Caribbean, particularly the island country of Jamaica,
models itself after the British system. The public education system is divided into four categories:
early childhood, primary, secondary, and tertiary.
This study will focus on the primary and secondary levels of education. Early childhood,
our Pre-K program, focuses on psychomotor and cognitive behavior for ages four to five years old.
The primary level, or elementary school, utilizes an integrated approach of subjects for Grades 1-3
and discreet subjects for Grades 4 and 5. After successful mastery on the Grade Six Achievement
Test, the student may then move on to the secondary level, it being divided into two levels, low
grades 7-9 and high grades 10-11. Once completing the five year requirements at the secondary
level, a student may “sit” the Caribbean Examination Council’s exit exam, or CXC (MOEY&C,
2004). This is equivalent to taking the graduation tests and qualifying to receive a diploma.
The Jamaican Ministry of Education, Youth and Culture [MOEY&C] is the government
agency responsible for providing a system of universal, almost free, public schooling for young
people through Grade 12. Education is considered a national priority and essential for the Jamaican
country to be successful. Educational reform in Jamaica, under the motto of “Education for All”, is
aimed at improving literacy and numeracy, producing a globally competitive workforce (Davis,
2004). The MOEY&C (2004) stated in their national report on education there are seven strategic
objectives set forth in this reformation: devise and support initiatives striving toward literacy;
secure teaching and learning opportunities to optimize access, equity, and relevance throughout the
education system; support student achievement and core standards to insure national goals are met;
promote cultural development, awareness, and self-esteem for all; establish a system of
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accountability and performance management to improve student performance and win public
confidence and trust; provide effective professional development for staff in all aspects of service
to increase student learning; provide and use technology as preparation for life in the national and
global communities.
Attitudes and Skills of Math in Jamaica
Poor attitudes toward mathematics are evident among many students, and some view the
subject as being of little use to them outside of school (MOEY&C, 2003). Unsatisfactory student
performance in mathematics and the low levels of numeracy impacted the MOEY&C to develop
an initiative aimed at improving mathematic and numeracy proficiency at all levels of education,
but specifically in the primary and secondary schools. This led to cooperation and development
of standards and policies to be taught by educators nationwide. The Jamaican government,
through the MOEY&C, pledged to support the policies by providing human, material, and
institutional resources. Further, the policy stated teacher training and professional development
had to be restructured in order to ensure mathematics learning and the high levels of numeracy
expected in order to be competitive on the global marketplace of the 21st century in both males
and females, and across all levels of socioeconomics (MOEY&C, 2003). Teachers had
previously been asking for supplementary resources and a lower teacher- to- student ratio
(Ganser, 2001). Less experienced or beginning teachers stated that their pre-service did not
prepare them for the reality of teaching, and preparation was needed for the “work world” upon
completion and employment (Ganser, 2001). Principals went even further in interviews with
Ganser (2001) to say that classroom management skills and pedagogical content was lacking, but
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stopped short of stating that although these are desirable traits, this may be difficult to implement
training and get practicum experience at the teacher colleges.
Jamaican males have consistently performed poorly or underachieved on standardized
examinations and have been steadily marginalized at all levels of the education system
(MOEY&C, 2010). The ministry commissioned a study of gender differences in academic
achievement in order to determine why boys were achieving less than girls, and to discover what
part, if any, the school plays in this disparity. The research was designed to emphasize schoolrelated factors, although recognizing that socialization within the home and community may
contribute a great deal to students’ motivation to achieve (Evans, 1999). Socialization and
culture have impacted the significance of school performance among male and female students
in regards to participation and engagement of learning (Clarke, 2005). The interactive process
through which we construct our meanings, values, and behavioral norms is what is called
socialization (American Heritage Dictionary, 2009). Teachers are prepared to cope with this
social issue and the instructional challenges that confront them daily in their classrooms,
enabling the effectiveness of their teaching strategies to contribute to the successfulness of their
students’ achievements (Clarke, 2005).
The Joint Board of Teacher Education [JBTE] is the centralized quality control agency
for Teacher College’s curriculum, the certification agency for teachers, and prepares final
examinations and provisions for external assessments of students’ work (JBTE, 2008). This
agency stated that a new way of teaching be established. One of student-centered learning,
teaching under a constructivist attuned environment with such strategies as: cooperative learning,
grouping, project work, sharing of ideas and questioning for understanding. These teachers must
be able to think alongside their students, giving informal and formal assessments with re-
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teaching as necessary to provide mastery of misunderstandings in order to bridge the gaps and
develop critical thinking and problem solving skills (JBTE, 2008). As Clarke (2005) states, the
emergent teacher engages in reflective practices and uses their repertoire to understand and
stimulate a constructivist learning environment, while encouraging the same level of reflection
among their students.
The Taskforce on Educational Reform (2004) concluded that every learner will maximize
their potential in a learner-centered education environment with maximum use of learning
technologies supported by committed, qualified, competent, effective and professional educators.
They went further to state that the education system will be equitable and accessible to all
students through Grade 11. In contrast to many countries where 12 or 13 years of formal
schooling is provided, Jamaica provides 11 years from Grades 1-11. Accountability,
transparency and performance are to be the hallmarks of a system that is excellent, selfsustaining and resourced and welcomes full stakeholder participation. The system produces full
literacy and numeracy, a globally competitive, quality workforce and a disciplined, culturally
aware and ethical Jamaican citizenry (Taskforce on Educational Reform, 2004).
While visiting classrooms in Jamaica, Evans observed that there were clear gender
differences in the way boys and girls responded to the curriculum and to the teaching methods
(1999). Topics taught also elicited different responses from boys and girls. While there were a
few instances in which there was equal participation from boys and girls, in most cases the girls
showed more interest, were more eager to answer questions, to spell words, to read and, in
general, to carry out academic tasks (Evans, 1999). Additionally, lessons in which the boys were
involved and interested can be characterized as requiring action or active participation on the part
of the students, or as activities which drew on students’ experiences, knowledge, or skill, or the
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subject matter was of intrinsic appeal to boys. When the teaching method required students to
take notes or to copy from the chalkboard, the boys were less likely to become engaged. It was
hypothesized that school practices can influence students’ motivation to learn and to stay in
school which, in turn, influence students’ academic performance (Evans, 1999). Based on
research findings in Jamaica and elsewhere, it was also expected that these factors would affect
boys and girls differently.
The adopted Jamaican curriculum strategiesUtilizing international pedagogical practices
in numeracy and literacy, the policy of the Jamaican Ministry of Youth and Culture on
Mathematics and Numeracy (2007) and the Mathematics Curriculum (2003) highlight the value of
helping students appreciate the value of mathematics in everyday living, as well as critical
thinking, developing reasoning, and problem solving skills. The Policy further states that
mathematics is useful for developing and learning spatial and visual skills, for learning science
subjects, as well as economics and other disciplines of the business world. Many students in the
United States and Jamaica encounter problems coping with mathematics. Ramsay and Bailey
(2008), state in many cases these students are capable of managing mechanical or straight-forward
problems, but struggle in solving real world worded mathematical problems. In most instances, the
issue is comprehension of vocabulary and students incorrectly interpret the terminology and
perform the wrong operation. Further, if students are requested to reflect and articulate the different
steps to apply vocabulary to solve mathematical problems, they will internalize the mathematical
procedures. Reflecting on learning and verbalizing mathematical ideas can allow students to clarify
thinking, demonstrate understanding and prompt new thoughts. Knowing a word involves more
than knowing a word’s definition (Stahl, 2010). Over time, the acquired vocabulary and language
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being used will become more readily understood as students assimilate the terms being modeled
(Approaches to teaching and learning mathematics, 2007).
Teachers, educators, and school administrators have reflected on the Caribbean
Examinations Council, General Certificate of Education, and Secondary School Certificate
examinations frequently and believe to fully engage students in mathematics content and
concepts must continually re-teach, remediate, and revise for proficient learning (Lee, 2001). The
Department of Education and Skills [DES] (2004) set forth programs to reach the most difficult
students, males and low socio-economic pupils. Motivation and effective teaching strategies are
what they determined is needed to reach these students.
In order to increase student learning and achievement, this department surveyed a group
of students and found that lower attaining pupils gave different responses from higher-attaining
pupils (DES, 2004). In the findings, lower attaining and low socio-economic students were less
confident and wanted more opportunities to be shown how to do something, through either
demonstration or modeling. Gifted or bright students, on the other hand, preferred to be given
assignments or tasks, and then be given opportunities to discuss their discoveries (DES, 2004).
Mvududu (2005) also believes that involving your own students in exploring the factors
that help them learn can provide you with useful information that will enable you to tailor and
target your teaching. In the findings, the DES (2004) identified techniques and strategies for a
more student-focused learning classroom: having key words for the lesson on their desks or on
the wall; saying new words out loud then having the opportunity to reason out informal
definitions; analyzing text together with the teacher; repeating a newly learned skill until they
have mastered it; having a small part of the lesson that reviews work; being shown how what
they are learning links explicitly with other work; being shown the big picture; having
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opportunities to visualize abstract ideas using model and analogy; getting immediate feedback on
their work and praise for success; having the chance and time to improve their work and correct
mistakes; working with a partner in peer to peer tutoring; making sure that much of the learning
is related to real life; using writing frames to structure writing; using games and competitions to
inject a ‘fun’ element.
Applying the strategies
In engaging students with formal vocabulary, it is extremely necessary to allow students to
use informal vocabulary and the knowledge and language at which they brought initially to the
classroom in defining terminology (Mvududu, 2005). This allows students to build on prior
knowledge, formulate procedure, and logically explain mathematical concepts. In light of a
constructivist classroom, an environment of problem-solving creates an atmosphere where students
feel safe to explore, conjecture, hypothesize, and brainstorm (Morrow, Gambrell, & Pressley,
2003). When discussing problems in groups as a community of learners or working on the board,
students are continually encouraged to move towards a proficient math vocabulary. These
opportunities for cooperative learning and interaction between students encourage and allow
students to develop meanings of multiple words and arriving at proficiency in mathematical
terminology (Ganser, 2001).
In the standards-based classroom in Georgia, many classrooms have displays of key words
around the room, known as a word wall (Georgia Department of Education, 2005). While this may
make for colorful decoration, it seems to cause confusion for lower ability students. The problem is
that they do not know which words relate to their particular topic or unit (DES, 2004). One
particular literacy strategy to promote a more active use of these mathematical words is known as
Vocabulary in Math Class 26
looping cards. In utilizing looping cards, the DES (2004) states educators should use them
frequently throughout a topic as a quick timed informal assessment of student proficiency. This
strategy allows students to write the vocabulary and collaboratively create a definition on a blank
note card, or develop the steps to solving a mathematical process.
Webbing, or brainstorming, effectively activates students’ prior content knowledge
(Barton, Heidema, & Jordan, 2002). This allows students to generate quickly what they know
about a topic or key concept. Brainstorming involves two basic steps: identifying a key concept
while reflecting on the main topic of study, and students working in small groups to generate a list
of words related to the concept in a given number of seconds. This process captivates the students’
interests much more than the traditional rote of memory review (Vacca & Vacca, 2002, p.171).
One such example of webbing that will improve students’ understanding of mathematical
terminology and the ability to recognize symbols is a word wall. In Jamaica the students have their
own word wall right on their desk. This simple graphic organizer can be effective in increasing
mathematical proficiency.
In a constructivist classroom, questions and discussions that elicit students’ thinking build
solution strategies that lead to greater clarity and precision. A significant amount of class time
should be spent developing mathematical ideas, not just practicing skills (Donovan & Bransford,
2004, pp.215-256). This concept lends itself to group work. The usual form of group work tends to
allow students to develop bad habits of gravitating to their comfort zone and do more talking than
working. Behavioral and instructional guidelines and goals are clearly established and
communicated to each peer tutoring group (DES, 2004). A flexible grouping strategy will
accommodate student interests, learning styles, and social needs, such as friendship, in addition to
meeting instructional needs and goals of mastery or proficiency.
Vocabulary in Math Class 27
School Change
The state of Georgia believes in setting high standards, expecting every child to achieve
them, measuring performance, and providing supports to help all children succeed. Georgia has
established an outcomes-based environment which helps the State seed and then scale innovative
practices, while leveraging the creativity of on-the-ground practitioners (Georgia Governor’s
Office, 2010). With each school district being held accountable for their students’ academic
success, the state of Georgia has begun a process of systemic equity whereby all learners are in a
standards based classroom, know as tier 1 (Georgia Department of Education [GADOE], 2008).
Annual Yearly Progress (AYP) serves as one part of the Single Statewide Accountability
System (SSAS) which “integrates both federal and state requirements dealing with educational
accountability…[and] makes the resulting rewards and consequences virtually identical for all
Georgia Schools” (GADOE, 2008, para. 2). In order to make AYP, each school and district is
required to meet the following three criteria:
1. Each school and all student groups (comprising at least 40 members) must have a
95% or greater participation rate on selected state assessments in Reading/English
Language Arts and Mathematics.
2. Each school and all student groups must meet or exceed the state’s Annual
Measurable Objectives (AMO) with regard to the percentage of students who
meet the standard or exceed the standard on state assessments in
Reading/Language Arts and Mathematics.
3. Each school and all student groups must meet the standard or show progress
toward meeting the standard on a second indicator. Second indicators include
graduation rate and attendance rates. (GADOE, 2008)
Vocabulary in Math Class 28
Each year the Annual Measurable Objectives for the selected assessments increases, and each year,
Georgia school systems feel increased pressure to raise test scores in order to make AYP. By the
2013-2014 school year, the AMOs will reach 100 percent; that means that 100 percent of students
are expected to take and pass either the Reading/Language Arts and Math CRCT or the English
Language Arts and Math Georgia High School Graduation Test (GHSGT). These increasing test
score requirements have forced school systems to explore new avenues in order to continually raise
scores because as every educator knows, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to get 100 percent of
students to pass a required test.
Teachers and administrators know, based on evidence of the Georgia High School
Graduation Test, that an achievement gap or educational inequity does exist based on gender, race
and socioeconomic status. Therefore, as teachers and leaders, we must be willing to face the
inequity of this situation and take ownership of the problem, the success of every student. Change
can be a difficult if not painful process, but in the field of education change is expected. Smith
(1999) pursues the idea that “understanding that which confronts us as new is made possible in the
“now” by virtue of the forestructure of understanding which is already through past experience”
(page #). In order to be a change agent, teachers and administrators must effectively evaluate and
assess student engagement, learning, questioning, discussion, teaching practices, and help to
prevent gaps in achievement from occurring (Skrla, McKenzie, & Scheurich, 2009). If a teacher
can quickly assess and evaluate learning or misunderstanding early, they can avoid a gap and
ensure equity.
When schools begin to access data and really utilize the information in benchmarks and
state mandated tests to be accountable to all student learning and performance, then the gaps in
student achievement will begin to close. Administrators and school leaders must be able and
Vocabulary in Math Class 29
willing to reflect, categorize, and address the strengths and weaknesses within the data, recognizing
that every student counts (Skrla et al., 2009, p.63). Keeping the research strategies in mind, the
instructional team must collaboratively reflect on the successes and weaknesses in the theories and
institute a procedure to actively engage students to construct learning. As the nation continues to
move towards high stakes testing and performance based curriculum, teachers must be willing to
become less dominating, and become “problem-posing”, real world application communicators,
that listen to students to become jointly responsible for this process of growth (Friere, 2005). By
constantly reflecting on the problem submitted to the students, the educator must continually
consider and reflect on the knowledge level of himself and of his ever-changing students.
Teaching is influenced by the teachers’ values and personality. To effectively have an
equity attitude and create a school that is successful and equitable for all students, it is necessary to
treat everyone with respect, appreciation, and care (Skrla, et al., 2009). When addressing these
attitudes one must have courageous conversations in being a change agent and these interactions
are always characterized by that same respect, appreciation, and care. Thus, if a mistake is made or
a gap has been closed in raising student performance, it is important to remind oneself of the longterm endurance of equity work and to continue with a consistent and persistent focus of change
(Skrla, et al., 2009).
Vocabulary in Math Class 30
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Research Design
My research is a mixed methods action research study of qualitative and quantitative
data. Action research helps educators reflect on their practice, collect data about their practice,
and create alternative ways to improve their practice. This study is simply a form of selfreflective inquiry. It consists of planned, continuous, and systematic procedures for reflecting on
professional practice and for trying out alternative practices to improve outcomes. Stringer
(2007) states action research works through three basic phases: look, act, and think. When
evaluating, or looking, we define, describe, and investigate the problem and the context in which
it is set. We also describe what all the participants have been doing. After evaluating, we analyze
and interpret the situation. We reflect on what participants have been doing, and we look at areas
of success and any deficiencies, issues or problems. Finally, in evaluation we judge the worth,
effectiveness, appropriateness, and outcomes of those activities (Stringer, 2007). We act to
formulate solutions to any problems.
Data were collected over a period of two years implementing two separate teaching
programs. Achievement data were compared from benchmark pre-post tests and the Mathematics
II state adopted End of Course Test. The differences in scores from my four Mathematics II classes
were analyzed using independent t-tests of the pre-post test data and EOCT data. In the instance of
this research study, action research was effectively used for teaching in two of these 10th grade
Mathematics II classes with the treatment of vocabulary in the application of looping cards, or note
cards, having key words on desk, and a modified group work strategy of literacy and numeracy
practices from Jamaica.
Vocabulary in Math Class 31
Setting
The setting of this research is in a rural county high school, in West Central Georgia. The
school population for 9th through 12th was approximately 600 students. Permission was sought
and secured from the high school principal before any research had taken place. Informed
consent forms were given to students for parental permission and to participating administrators
in the study. These forms acknowledged parental consent and the students’ willingness to be in
the study and participate in a survey once the research was completed. All of the sample
populations information, scores, and responses are held confidential.
Subjects and Participants
The subject population, 10th and 11th grade students of four independent Mathematics II
classes, were termed Groups A, B, C, and D. Groups A and B represent my students from last year
when I taught Mathematics II without focusing on literacy skills practices from Jamaica. Groups C
and D, the treatment groups, represent my current Mathematics II students who have received
instruction in math introducing and applying these literacy and numeracy skills. These classes were
grouped heterogeneously. Also, the students from these groups came from an uneven mixture of
socioeconomic status consisting of lower to middle class families.
The students in groups A and B consisted of ?? students. Of the ?? students, ?? were
female and ?? were male. Student ethnic backgrounds consisted of ?? African Americans and ??
Caucasians (see Table 3.1).
Table 1: Mathematics II – 2009 / 2010
Total
Group A
Group B
Female
Male
African
American
Caucasian
Vocabulary in Math Class 32
There were ?? students, ?? females and ?? males, in Groups C and D. The racial make-up
of the class consisted of ?? African Americans and ?? Caucasians (see Table 2).
Table3.2: Mathematics II – 2010 / 2011
Total
Female
Male
African
American
Caucasian
Group C
Group D
There were two administrators who will be participants in this study. One being the
principal as the leader of our school, and other the assistant principal who is responsible for
instruction and curriculum will be interviewed because they will be involved in assisting in the
systematic change of instruction methods and professional development of teachers.
Procedures and Data Collection Methods
PROCEDURES REFERS TO WHAT IT IS THAT YOU WILL BE DOING IN YOUR
STUDY. YOU NEED TO EXPLAIN THE PROCEDURES YOU WILL BE
IMPLEMENTING TO INTEGRATE THE USE OF VOCABULARY INTO YOUR
CURRICULUM. WHO/WHAT/WHERE/HOW/WHEN/WHY
Table 3.3 shows the overall alignment of data collection methods with the study’s focus
questions. EMBED TABLE 3.3 HERE
The quantitative data for Groups A through D are of a pre-post benchmark department
generated test and the End of Course Test that is mandated by the state of Georgia. Teachers in
the Heard County school system created the benchmark test to assess student learning of
Vocabulary in Math Class 33
mathematics, and as an indicator of performance on the states’ high stakes tests. The State Board
of Education of Georgia adopted end of course assessment in grades nine through twelve in the
core subject areas of English Language Arts, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies as
mandated by the A+ Educational Reform Act of 2000, O.C.G.A. §20-2-281. There are eight
content area assessments comprising the End of Course Testing program. I will only be
analyzing the Mathematics II data.
The state mandates that the End of Course Tests count fifteen percent of the student’s grade
in the class. These tests are graded by the state and the results are reported to the school system at
the end of each semester (Georgia Department of Education, 2005).
The qualitative data will be collected from student surveys and the administrator
interviews. This data will be coded for themes while utilizing a chi squared tests.
Table 3.3. Data Shell
Focus
Question
Literature
Sources
How data were
gathered and
what type of data
How these data
are analyzed
Why these
data provide
valid data
Rationale
Strengths/
Weaknesses
Vocabulary in Math Class 34
How does the
integration of
vocabulary
strategies into
the
mathematics
curriculum
increase low
socioeconomic
students’
proficiency in
mathematics?
Department
of
Education.
(2005).
National
Math
Advisory
Panel.
(2008).
U.S. Dept
of Educ.
(2007).
Skrla, L.
(2009).
What are the
Bryan, B.
attitudes and
(2004).
opinions of the Lockheed,
adopted
M., et al
curriculum
(2006).
among teacher
Ganser, T.
leaders and
(2001).
learners?
Mvududu,
N. (2005).
Method:
Quantitative:
Assessment
Dependent ttest
Draper, R.
(2002).
Friere, P.
(2005).
Content*
Pre / Post
Quantitative:
Validity
determine if
there are
significant
differences
Reliability
Dependability
Bias
Independent ttests
Qualitative:
Math 2 EOCT
look for
categorical
and repeating
data
Data:
Interval
Method:
Quantitative:
Survey, reflection
Chi Square test
Type of
Validity:
Content
Cronbach
alpha
Construct
Data:
Quantitative:
Validity
determine if
there are
significant
differences
Reliability
Dependability
Bias
Predictive
Nominal,
Qualitative
Evans, H.
(1999).
What was the
level of
success of
change in the
process
Type of
Validity:
Qualitative:
Qualitative:
Coded for
themes.
look for
categorical
and repeating
data
Method:
Quantitative:
Survey,
reflection,
interview
Chi Squared
test
Cronbach
Type of
Validity:
Content
Quantitative:
Validity
determine if
there are
significant
Reliability
Dependability
Vocabulary in Math Class 35
strategies
among
administrators,
students, and
teacher
leaders?
National
Council of
Teachers
of Math
(2006).
alpha
Data:
Nominal,
Qualitative
Construct
differences
Bias
Predictive
Qualitative:
Qualitative:
Coded for
themes
look for
categorical
and repeating
data
Analysis of Data
The quantitative data of Groups A through D were collected and analyzed. The comparison
of the central tendency showed significant improvement and gains between the groups, gender, and
by race where reading strategies were introduced and implemented.
By combining the four groups into two, the control group of A and B and the treatment group of C
and D, a t-test for independent means calculated with a significance level of p < 0.05 was
conducted using the scores from the state mandated End of Course Test.
The analysis of the central tendency and the t test show that there is statistical significance
in teaching mathematics with regard to reading and literacy strategies.
Vocabulary in Math Class 36
Working References
FQ 1:
Department of Education. (2005). No child left behind [NCLB Overview]. Available from
Department of Education, http//:www.ed.gov/nclb

Under No Child Left Behind, states are working to close the achievement gap and make sure all
students, including those who are disadvantaged, achieve academic proficiency.

No Child Left Behind] has forced schools to focus on their minority students like never before,
[State Schools Superintendent Kathy] Cox said.”(Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 6/13/05)

Forty years after the Brown v. Board of Education decision, some schoolchildren were taught
well while others – mostly poor and minority – were left to struggle or drop out.

A growing "achievement gap" between white and African American students was left
unaddressed for far too long. Ed.gov (2005) NCLB
National Mathematics Advisory Panel. (2008). Foundations for success: The final report of the
national mathematics advisory panel. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
Vocabulary in Math Class 37

The 2007 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), U.S. 15-year-olds ranked
25th among 30 developed nations in math literacy and problem solving (Baldi, Jin, Shemer,
Green, Hergert, & Xie, 2007). P.4

“The achievement gap between students of differing ethnic and socioeconomic groups can be
significantly reduced or even eliminated if low-income and minority students increase their success
in high school mathematics and science courses” (as cited by NMAP from Evan et al., 2006, p. 11).

“There are large, persistent disparities in mathematics achievement related to race and income—
disparities that are not only devastating for individuals and families but also project poorly for the
nation’s future, given the youthfulness and high growth rates of the largest minority populations”
Vocabulary in Math Class 38
FQ 2:
Bryan, B. (2004). Language and literacy in a creole-speaking environment: A study of primary
schools in jamaica. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 17(2), 87-96. Retrieved from
ERIC database.

English as 2nd language - principles of: (1) Immersion; (2) Practice; (3) Scaffolding; and
(4) Contrasts. Teaching as ELL for vocabulary
Lockheed, M., Harris, A., Gammill, P., Barrow, K., Jayasundera, T., & Academy for Educational
Development, W. (2006). New Horizons for Primary Schools in Jamaica: Inputs,
Outcomes and Impact. Revised. Academy for Educational Development, Retrieved from
ERIC database.
1. innovative mathematics and literacy programs
2. in-service teacher training
3. governance and leadership training
4. parent education and training
5. selective nutrition and health programs
6. supplementary reading and math materials
7. establishing computer use in school and training
teachers
8. training resource teachers
9. integrating databases (JSAS)
10. linking project schools with EMIS

NHP more advantaged
NHP more advantaged
NHP more advantaged
No difference (both low)
No difference
NHP more advantaged (both high)
NHP more advantaged
NHP more advantaged
NHP more advantaged
NHP more advantaged (both low)
Drop Everything and Read program, the presence of Competence Shelter (most schools did
not have one) or being a Summer Literacy Camp venue (most schools reported being one)

supplemental reading and math materials, and NHP schools reported receiving a greater
variety of materials, including books and computer software, all in support of the RPC (figure
3.1). Ninety-three percent of NHP and 79 percent of matched non-NHP schools received
supplementary reading materials (p < .05), and 85 percent of NHP and 54 percent of matched
non-NHP schools received supplementary math materials (p < .001)

The survey describes support teachers, as follows: “In some primary schools, experienced
teachers have been identified as persons who can provide support to other teachers. These
Vocabulary in Math Class 39
support teachers are called Resource Teachers or Literacy/Numeracy/Assessment
Coordinators. Some larger schools have Support Teachers that help other teachers on a
grade by grade basis, called Grade Coordinators. …We call all of these types of teachers
Support Teachers.”

emphasis on computers

Since USAID interventions are typically targeted at raising the math and literacy achievement
of lower performing students, USAID monitoring indicators need to be sensitive to small
changes in the performance of low scorers as well as in changes overall.
Ganser, T. (2001). Beginning Teaching in Jamaica: Challenges and Assistance. Retrieved from
ERIC database.

perceptions of school teachers, principals, and college lecturers regarding the challenges,
obstacles, and needs faced by beginning teachers in Jamaica. the knowledge the teacher has of
each student
 the act of parenting and that a good teacher exhibits very strong affective and caring
characteristics in his or her elations with children within the classroom context. He defines the
term pedagogy as ‘… “excellence of teaching or parenting”
 High/Scope early childhood education philosophy - This curriculum model emphasizes
adult–child interaction, a learning environment carefully designed to promote active learning
from key experiences and a plan-do-review process for all learning activities stimulating,
with many attractive and colorful charts and pictures mounted on the walls, a wide range of
manipulative table top materials
 build trusting and comfortable relationships with the children
 four main strategies: (1) building and maintaining positive, caring and respectful relationships
with the children; (2) creating an orderly classroom environment with acknowledged rules; (3)
proactively motivating and recognizing good behavior among the children; and (4) using
specific and consistent approaches for punishing inappropriate and unacceptable behavior.
 opportunities for small group cooperative learning, encouraged hands on-learning and
interaction with the wide range of games and manipulative materials she provided. Story
telling.
Mvududu, N. (2005). Constructivism in the Statistics Classroom: From Theory to
Practice. Teaching Statistics, 27(2), 49-54.

In engaging students with formal vocabulary, it was extremely necessary to allow students to
use informal vocabulary and the knowledge and language at which they brought initially to
the classroom. When discussing problems in groups as a community of learners or working
on the board, students were continually encouraged to move towards a proficient math
Vocabulary in Math Class 40
vocabulary. This allowed students to build on prior knowledge, formulate procedure, and
logically explain mathematical concepts. In light of a constructivist classroom, an
environment of problem-solving was created to build an atmosphere where students felt safe
to explore, conjecture, hypothesize, and brainstorm.
FQ 3:
Draper, R. (2002). School mathematics reform, constructivism, and literacy: A case for literacy
instruction in the reform-oriented math classroom. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 45(6),
520.

Locate the common language and goals among educators and administrators.

As long as mathematics teachers pose problems, solve problems, and the analyses
appear as text, educators have an obligation to help their students negotiate and
make meaning of the text in order to keep mathematics within the reach of all
student. When math teachers attend to literacy needs of their students and the
need to construct meaning because of the interaction with mathematical text, then
they will be truly engaging and educating their students for mathematical
proficiency.

As professional educators, and more importantly mathematics teachers, we should
be less resistant to combining literacy instruction with the regular academic
teaching of mathematics.
Friere, P. (2005). From pedagogy of the oppressed. The Critical Middle School Reader.
Brown, E. and Saltman, K. (Eds). New York: Routledge.

As the nation continues to move towards high stakes testing and performance
based curriculum, teachers must be willing to become less dominating, and
become “problem-posing”, real world application communicators, that listen to
students to become jointly responsible for this process of growth. By constantly
Vocabulary in Math Class 41
reflecting on the problem submitted to the students, the educator must continually
consider and reflect on the knowledge level of himself and of his ever-changing
students.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2006). Overview: Principle for school
mathematics [The Learning Principle]. Available from NCTM, http://standards.nctm.org

States that students who have opportunities, encouragement, and support for speaking,
writing, reading, and listening in mathematics classes reap dual benefits: they
communicate to learn mathematics, and they learn to communicate mathematically.
Vocabulary in Math Class 42
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US seen as inadequate. Available from http://www.testsonline.com/story/indexspx?/id=175561
Bryan, B. (2004). Language and literacy in a creole-speaking environment: A study of primary
schools in Jamaica. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 17(2), 87-96. Retrieved June 16, 2010
from ERIC database.
Clarke, C. (2005). Socialization and teacher expectations of Jamaican boys in schools: The need for a
responsive teacher preparation program. International Journal of Education Policy, Research,
and Practice, 5(4), 3-34. Retrieved July 16, 2010 from Eric.
Davis, R. (2004). Jamaica a transformed education system. Kingston, Jamaica: Ministry of Education.
Department of Education. (2005). No child left behind [NCLB Overview]. Available from
Department of Education, http//:www.ed.gov/nclb.
Vocabulary in Math Class 43
Department of Education and Skills. (2004) Pedagogy and practice: Teaching and learning in secondary
schools. Norwich: Cambridge University Press
Dewey, J. (1938/1997). Experience and education. New York: Touchstone.
Donovan, S., & Bransford, J. (Eds). (2004). How students learn: Math in the classroom.
Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Draper, R. (2002). School mathematics reform, constructivism, and literacy: A case for literacy
instruction in the reform-oriented math classroom. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy,
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Vocabulary in Math Class 46
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