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FOREST SERVICE HANDBOOK
ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION (REGION 2)
DENVER, CO
FSH 2509.25 – WATERSHED CONSERVATION PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER – ZERO CODE
Amendment No.: 2509.25-2006-1
Effective Date: May 5, 2006
Duration: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.
Approved: RICK D. CABLES
Regional Forester
Date Approved: 04/20/2006
Posting Instructions: Amendments are numbered consecutively by Handbook number and
calendar year. Post by document; remove entire document and replace with this amendment.
Retain this transmittal as the first page(s) of this document. The last amendment to this
Handbook was 2509.25-2001-1 to 2509.25_10.
New Document(s):
2509.25_zero_code
Superseded Document(s) by
Issuance Number and
Effective Date
2509.25_0_code_contents (Amendment 2509.2596-1, 12/26/1996)
2509.25_zero_code (Amendment 2509.25-99-1,
3/22/1999)
25 Pages
1 Page
13 Pages
Digest:
Zero Code – Incorporates direction previously contained in interim directive 2509.25-2005-1 that
removes verbiage that the handbook takes effect as each Forest Plan is revised; adds direction
requiring that watershed conservation practices also meet or exceed Best Management Practices;
removes requirement for standards to be incorporated into each Forest Plan, and cannot be
deviated from without an amendment to the Forest Plan; and removes verbiage that the design
criteria carry the same weight and must be followed to the same degree as Forest Plan guidelines.
Deletes the term “standard” from the direction and replaces it with “management measure”.
Defines management measure as an environmental goal to be attained by using design criteria
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and that attainment of the management measure ensures compliance with applicable federal and
state laws and regulations. Adds direction that alternative management measures can be used.
Adds direction that project level monitoring and restoration are guided by the Forest Plan or
project level plans, not the WCP Handbook.
01.1 – Revises caption from “MAJOR LAWS” to “KEY LAWS”. Revises description of
requirements of the National Forest Management Act of 1976 to be consistent with current
regulations (36 CFR 219). Revises description of requirements of Federal Land Policy and
Management Act of 1976 to to be consistent with current legal interpretations. Removes
reference to Forest Service as a Designated Management Agency per the Clean Water Act.
01.2 – Adds “Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of
1980”, “Resource Conservation and Recovery Act”, “Oil Pollution Act of 1990”, and “Safe
Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996” to the list of Other Laws and Regulations.
02 – Revises paragraph 2 from “Soil Productivity” to “Soil Quality”.
03 – Adds direction to “Cooperate with state, tribal, and local governments, other federal
agencies, holders of water rights, and other interested parties to manage water resources”.
04.2 – Removes direction to Forest Supervisors to incorporate this handbook into all Forest
Plans. Adds direction to implement the applicable Management Measures and Design Criteria
from this Handbook, or acceptable alternatives that meet applicable legal and regulatory
requirements, in all projects.
04.3 – Revises direction from implementing “Standards and Design Criteria from this
Handbook” to “the applicable Management Measures and Design Criteria from this Handbook,
or acceptable alternatives that meet applicable legal and regulatory requirements,” in all projects.
05 – Removes definitions for: feasible, harden, landscape, land unit, soil productivity, stream,
and viable population. Revises definitions for: aquatic ecosystem, connected disturbed areas,
desired condition, detrimental soil compaction, detrimental soil displacement, detrimental soil
erosion, inner gorge, plan period, rill, riparian areas, riparian ecosystem, road, robust stream
health, severely burned soil, stream health, stream health class, stream type, swale, trail,
travelway, unstable soils, upland site, water influence zone, and wetlands. Adds definitions for:
activity area, antidegradation, armor, at-risk stream health, bankfull/bankfull discharge, best
management practice, cross drain, diminished stream health class, effective ground cover,
ephemeral stream, fen, grazing response index, hummocky landform, intermittent stream,
perennial stream, platy surface soil, practicable, proper functioning condition, reference
condition, sensitive stream reach, soil displacement, soil quality, stable bank, stream channel
integrity, stream order, valley bottom, watershed condition, and watershed conservation practice.
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06.1 – Revises “soil productivity” to “soil quality”.
06.2 – Revises discussion of Dynamic Equilibrium to include biological processes as well as
physical landform processes.
06.4 – Revises discussion of designing stream crossings to clarify concept of design and risk and
to remove direction to design crossings to have 80% chance of remaining stable against floods
during their expected life.
07 – Removes references not cited elsewhere in the handbook. Adds references to current
literature, research and policy relevant to the handbook direction.
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Table of Contents
01 – AUTHORITY ........................................................................................................... 6
01.1 – Key Laws ......................................................................................................................... 6
01.2 - Other Laws and Regulations ............................................................................................ 8
02 - OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................ 10
03 - POLICY .................................................................................................................. 10
04 - RESPONSIBILITY ................................................................................................. 10
04.1 - Regional Forester............................................................................................................ 10
04.2 - Forest Supervisors .......................................................................................................... 10
04.3 - District Rangers .............................................................................................................. 10
05 - DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................ 11
06 - SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES ..................................................................................... 18
06.1 - Watershed Processes ...................................................................................................... 18
06.2 - Dynamic Equilibrium ..................................................................................................... 19
06.3 - Land and Stream Types .................................................................................................. 19
06.4 - Design and Risk .............................................................................................................. 20
07 - REFERENCES....................................................................................................... 20
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This handbook contains proven watershed conservation practices to protect soil, aquatic, and
riparian systems. If used properly, the watershed conservation practices will meet applicable
Federal and State laws and regulations, including State Best Management Practices (BMPs).
The watershed conservation practices translate legal provisions and scientific principles into
solid, common sense stewardship actions that support continued sustainable resource use. The
watershed conservation practices cover five areas: hydrologic function, riparian areas and
wetlands, sediment control, soil quality, and water purity. Each watershed conservation practice
consists of a management measure, a set of design criteria used to achieve the specific
management measure, and guidance for monitoring and restoration.
Maintaining the physical and chemical integrity of watersheds and water bodies through these
watershed conservation practices is necessary to provide quality habitat for aquatic, riparian and
wetland flora and fauna. This handbook does not, however, provide all necessary direction for
aquatic resource management on NFS lands in Region 2, particularly as related to biological
aspects of species management (that is, species conservation, population viability, invasive
species, and so forth).
1. The management measures are environmental goals to be attained using one or more
design criteria (EPA, 2005). The management measures are performance expectations consistent
with applicable laws and regulations. Attainment of the management measure will ensure that
management actions comply with applicable federal and state laws and regulations. Alternative
management measures can be proposed for a project, however, the project NEPA document must
demonstrate that the alternative management measure will ensure compliance with applicable
federal and state laws and regulations.
2. The design criteria are specific practices to be used in project design and
implementation to attain the management measure using current knowledge and technology.
They may be revised as knowledge and technology improve. Other methods may be used if they
result in the same outcome directed by the management measure, but the project NEPA
document must tell why these other methods will be as effective.
3. The monitoring guides give advice on where to focus monitoring efforts to measure
achievement of the associated management measure, as part of the project activity. Site specific
monitoring efforts (amount, intensity, location, and responsible party) are directed by Forest Plan
or project monitoring plans.
4. The restoration guides give examples of how to attain the management measure if it is
not currently being met. Site specific restoration efforts (activity, location, and responsible
party) are directed by the Forest Plan or project implementation plans.
The application of restoration measures often depends on availability of funds that the Forest
Service does not control. Failure to keep up with restoration schedules due to lack of proper
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funds may not be avoidable, but new actions must maintain existing watershed conditions or
contribute to long-term restoration.
01 – AUTHORITY
01.1 – Key Laws
Forest Service watershed conservation is based on six key federal laws that set a consistent landand-water stewardship vision. These laws direct Forest Service actions to protect watersheds
through sound management.
Brief summaries of these laws and their direction for management related to watersheds are
included below. Federal regulations contain the current interpretations and direction specific to
these laws.
1. Organic Administration Act of 1897 (16 U.S.C. 475). This law defines original
National Forest purposes to improve and protect the forest, secure favorable conditions of water
flows, and furnish a continuous supply of timber. Years of concern about watershed damage led
to creation of the National Forest System. Watersheds must be cared for to sustain their
hydrologic function as "sponge-and-filter" systems that absorb and store water and naturally
regulate runoff. The goals are good vegetation and ground cover, streams in dynamic
equilibrium with their channels and flood plains, and natural conveyance of water and sediment.
2. Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act of 1960 (16 U.S.C. 528). This law amplifies
National Forest purposes to include watershed, wildlife and fish, outdoor recreation, range, and
timber. Renewable surface resources are to be managed for multiple use and sustained yield of
the several products and services that they provide. The principles of multiple use and sustained
yield include the provision that the productivity of the land shall not be impaired.
3. Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 U.S.C. 1531-1536, 1538-1540). This law was
written to conserve endangered and threatened species of wildlife, fish, and plants and the
ecosystems on which they depend. Federal agencies must conserve endangered and threatened
species and cooperate with State and local agencies to resolve resource issues (Section 2).
Conservation means the use of all means needed to recover any endangered or threatened species
to the point where the measures provided pursuant to this law are no longer needed (Section 3).
Each Federal agency shall, with the consultation and help of the Secretary of Interior, ensure that
any action authorized, funded, or done by the agency is unlikely to jeopardize the continued
existence of any endangered or threatened species or result in adverse modification of their
critical habitat (Section 7). The Forest Service is required to consult with the Fish and Wildlife
Service and to prepare biological assessments.
4. National Forest Management Act of 1976 (16 U.S.C. 1600-1602, 1604, 1606, 16081614). The Forest Service must be a leader in conserving natural resources (Section 2).
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Programs must protect and, where appropriate, improve the quality of soil and water (Section 5).
Timber must be harvested only where soil, slope, and watershed conditions are not irreversibly
damaged; the land can be adequately restocked within five years after harvest; and streams,
lakes, wetlands, and other water bodies are protected from detrimental impacts (Section 6g).
The overall goal of managing the National Forest System is to sustain the multiple uses of its
renewable resources in perpetuity while maintaining the long-term productivity of the land.
Maintaining or restoring the health of the land enables the National Forest System to provide a
sustainable flow of uses, benefits, products, services and visitor opportunities (36 CFR 219.1
(2005)). The overall goal of the ecological element of sustainability is to provide a framework to
contribute to sustaining native ecological systems by providing ecological conditions to support a
diversity of native plant and animal species (36 CFR 219.10 (2005)). Ecological conditions are
the components of the biological and physical environment that can affect diversity of plant and
animal communities and the productive capacity of ecological systems. These components could
include the abundance and distribution of aquatic and terrestrial habitats, roads and other
structural developments, human uses, and invasive, exotic species (36 CFR 219.16 (2005)).
5. Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (43 U.S.C. 1752). Rights-of-way
for water diversion, storage, and/or distribution systems, and other uses must include terms and
conditions to protect the environment and otherwise comply with the requirements of Section
505.
6. Clean Water Act of 1977 (33 U.S.C. 1251, 1254, 1323, 1324, 1329, 1342, 1344). This
series of laws was written to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity
of the Nation's waters (Section 101). Congress sought to sustain the integrity of water quality
and aquatic habitat so that waters of the United States will support diverse, productive, stable
aquatic ecosystems with a balanced range of aquatic habitats. All issues are framed by the intent
of Congress to improve and preserve the quality of the Nation's waters (540 F2.d 1023; 543 F2.d
1198; 612 F2.d 1231; 97 S.Ct 1340; 97 S.Ct 1672). States have authority over water rights
(Section 101g).
The Forest Service must comply with federal, state and local water quality laws and rules,
coordinate actions that affect water quality with States, and control nonpoint source pollution
like anyone else (Section 313).
The Forest Service must comply with federal, state and local water quality laws and rules,
coordinate actions that affect water quality with States, and control nonpoint source pollution
like anyone else (Section 313).
The Forest Service must apply BMPs, considering local factors, to control nonpoint source
pollution and meet water quality standards (Sections 208, 303, and 319). State-classified water
uses, and the water quality they need, must be sustained to comply with the antidegradation
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policy, unless States decide that vital economic and social development justify impacts (40 CFR
131.12).
Waters of the United States include perennial and intermittent streams, lakes, wetlands, and their
tributaries. Aquatic ecosystems are waters of the United States that serve as habitat for
interrelated and interacting communities and populations of plants and animals (40 CFR 230.3).
Section 404, in concert with other provisions, provides rigorous criteria to control discharges of
pollutants, by direct placement or runoff, into waters of the United States (40 CFR 230.11). The
Forest Service must strongly pursue options that avoid crossing, coming near, or discharging
material into special aquatic sites before choosing a course of action that does so (40 CFR
230.10a). Special aquatic sites are sanctuaries and refuges, wetlands, mud flats, vegetated
shallows, coral reefs, and riffle-pool complexes (40 CFR 230.3).
Section 404 sets a no-impairment rule for waters of the United States. This rule is met if
mandatory BMPs (33 CFR 323.4) are applied and stream health is not degraded beyond that
allowed by applicable nationwide permits. Roads that meet conditions of nationwide or regional
general 404 permits or qualify for exemption from a permit must use mandatory BMPs to protect
water quality, extent of waters, and aquatic ecosystems (Section 404(f)(1); 33 CFR 330,
Appendix A; 40 CFR 230.7). If such permit conditions and exemption criteria are not met, an
individual permit is required (40 CFR 230).
Impacts to flow patterns, temperature, dissolved oxygen, sediment, and pollutant levels must be
controlled (33 U.S.C. 1311 and 1314; 843 F2.d 1194; 753 F2.d 759). Compliance is based on
standards and protection of uses, not BMPs (Anderson 1987; Whitman 1989). Physical features
needed to support existing uses for antidegradation include substrate, cover, flow, depth, pools,
and riffles (40 CFR 131.10, 230.10, and 230.11).
01.2 - Other Laws and Regulations
Additional laws and regulations complement the land-and-water stewardship vision of the six
key federal laws.
1. Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937 (7 U.S.C. 1010). This law mandates
conservation of land to correct land abuse, control erosion, mitigate floods, conserve soil
moisture, and protect watersheds.
2. Sustained Yield Forest Management Act of 1944 (16 U.S.C. 583). This law ties the
goal of sustained yield to maintaining water supply, regulating stream flow, preventing soil
erosion, and preserving wildlife.
3. Anderson-Mansfield Reforestation and Revegetation Act of 1949 (16 U.S.C. 581j).
This law recognizes good forest and other vegetation cover to be vital for watershed protection
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and provides for reforestation and revegetation on NFS lands to protect watersheds, reduce flood
damages, and sustain water supplies.
4. Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act of 1954 (16 U.S.C. 1001). This law
authorizes watershed improvement works to prevent floods, conserve ground water recharge and
water quality, and protect aquatic life (16 U.S.C. 1004).
5. Granger-Thye Act of 1950 (16 U.S.C. 5801). This law authorizes issuance of grazing
permits having terms that preserve land and resources from erosion and flood damage. The
Forest Service may reduce livestock numbers (608 F.2d 803) and cancel grazing permits (696
F2.d 712) if land is overgrazed.
6. Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978 (43 U.S.C. 1903). This law directs that
range condition and productivity be improved to protect watershed function, soil, water, and fish
habitat (43 U.S.C. 1901-1902).
7. Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973 (16 U.S.C. 1502). This law requires
land and resources to be protected from erosion and pollution.
8. Pipelines Act of 1920 (30 U.S.C. 185). This law mandates erosion control and
reclamation on oil-gas pipelines.
9. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (30 U.S.C. 1269). This law
mandates erosion control and reclamation on surface coal mines.
10. Emergency Wetlands Resources Act of 1986 (16 U.S.C. 3921). This law recognizes
key wetland functions and directs the USDA to cooperate in a national wetlands priority
conservation plan.
11. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980
(CERCLA; 42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq.). This law provides for liability, compensation, cleanup and
emergency response for hazardous substances released into the environment. It also provides for
the cleanup of inactive waste disposal sites.
12. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA 42 U.S.C. 6901 et seq.). This law
establishes the guidelines for solid waste management mandatory for all federal agencies and
directs federal agency compliance with all federal, state and local requirements, both substantive
and procedural.
13. Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA; 33 U.S.C. 2701 et seq.). This law establishes a
fund, and concomitant liability, for the removal of discharged oil and for the assessment and
restoration of natural resource injuries caused by discharges of oil into ocean and inland waters.
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14. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 (SDWA; 42 U.S.C. 300f et seq.).
This law establishes standards for public drinking water systems, well-head protection, and
source area assessments.
15. Executive Orders 11988 (Floodplain Management) and 11990 (Protection of
Wetlands) intend to preserve the natural and beneficial values of floodplains and wetlands (flood
moderation, water quality protection, ground water recharge, wildlife habitat, and so forth).
02 - OBJECTIVES
1. Hydrologic Function: Conserve the ability of watersheds and riparian areas to absorb
water, filter sediment, and sustain stream channel integrity.
2. Soil Quality: Restore and maintain the long-term inherent productive capacity of the
soil.
3. Aquatic Systems: Sustain water quality and aquatic habitat in each aquatic ecosystem,
unless excepted by law.
03 - POLICY
Apply watershed conservation practices to sustain healthy soil, riparian, and aquatic systems.
Adopt a stewardship ethic that treats land and resources as public assets for long-term benefits.
Temper land and resource use to conserve limited resources for future generations. Cooperate
with state, tribal and local governments, other federal agencies, holders of water rights, and other
interested parties to manage water resources.
04 - RESPONSIBILITY
04.1 - Regional Forester
It is the responsibility of the Regional Forester to ensure that sound and consistent watershed
stewardship is achieved on each national forest and grassland.
04.2 - Forest Supervisors
Forest Supervisors have the authority and responsibility to incorporate this handbook into all
management programs. The Forest Supervisors are also responsible for implementing the
applicable Management Measures and Design Criteria from this Handbook, or acceptable
alternatives that meet applicable legal and regulatory requirements, in all projects.
04.3 - District Rangers
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District Rangers are responsible for implementing the applicable Management Measures and
Design Criteria from this handbook, or acceptable alternatives that meet applicable legal and
regulatory requirements, in all projects.
05 - DEFINITIONS
Activity Area. An area of land impacted by a management activity ranging from a few
acres to an entire watershed depending on the type of monitoring being conducted. It is
commonly a timber sale cutting unit, a prescribed fire burn unit or an allotment pasture. (FSH
2509.18, R-2 supplement).
Antidegradation. Policy designed to preserve water quality in outstanding water
resources; keep clean waters clean where possible, given important social and economic
development; and prevent loss of existing uses through degradation.
Aquatic Ecosystem. The stream channel, lake or estuary bed, water and biotic
communities and the habitat features that occur therein. (FSM 2526.05).
Armor. 1) To apply rock, mulch, or vegetation to damaged areas to serve as protective
covering. 2) To use rock, concrete, asphalt, gravel, riprap, gabions, or equivalent for protection
of a ditch, channel, or low water crossing. 3) Any natural-occurring quality, characteristic,
situation or thing that serves as a protective covering. (EPA, 1980).
At-risk Stream Health Class. Stream exhibits moderate geomorphic, hydrologic and/or
biotic integrity relative to its natural potential condition (as represented by a suitable reference
condition). For a quantitative analysis, moderate integrity is indicated by conditions that are
59 – 73 % of a reference condition (after Plafkin et. al, 1989; EPA, 1999; CDPHE, 2002).
Physical, chemical and/or biologic conditions suggest that State assigned water quality
(beneficial, designated or classified) uses are at risk and may be threatened.
Bankfull/Bankfull Discharge. The bankfull stage corresponds to the discharge at which
channel maintenance is the most effective, that is, the discharge at which moving sediment,
forming or removing bars, forming or changing bends and meanders, and generally doing work
that results in the average morphological characteristics of channels. Bankfull discharge is
associated with a momentary maximum flow which, on the average, has a recurrence interval of
1.5 years as determined using a flood frequency analysis. (Dunne and Leopold, 1978).
Best Management Practice. 1) “BMP” means a practice or a combination of practices
that is determined by a governmental agency after a problem assessment, examination of
alternative practices, and appropriate public participation, to be the most effective, practicable
(including technological, economic, and institutional considerations) means of preventing or
reducing the amount of pollution generated by nonpoint sources to a level compatible with
quality goals (CDPHE, 2001; WY DEQ, 2001). 2) Methods, measures, or practices selected by
an agency to meet its nonpoint source control needs. BMPs include, but are not limited to,
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structural and nonstructural controls and operation and maintenance procedures. BMPS can be
applied before, during and after pollution-producing activities to reduce or eliminate the
introduction of pollutants into receiving waters (40 CFR 130.2(m)). 3) Schedules of activities,
prohibitions of practice, maintenance procedures, and other management practices to prevent or
reduce the pollution of surface waters of the State on a voluntary basis, including treatment
requirements, operating procedures, and practices to control site runoff, spillage or leaks, sludge,
waste disposal, or drainage from raw material storage (SD DENR; NE DEQ, 2005).
Concentrated-Use Sites. Areas designed and managed for high density of people or
livestock, such as developed recreation sites and livestock watering areas.
Connected Disturbed Areas. (CDAs) High runoff areas like roads and other disturbed
sites that have a continuous surface flow path into a stream or lake (USFS, 1999). Hydrologic
connection exists where overland flow, sediment or pollutants have a direct route to the channel
network. CDAs include roads, ditches, compacted soils, bare soils, and areas of high burn
severity that are directly connected to the channel system. Ground disturbing activities located
within the water influence zone should be considered connected unless site-specific actions are
taken to disconnect them from streams (USFS, 1999; Furniss et. al., 2000).
Cross Drain. A ditch or relief culvert or other structure or shaping of the traveled way
designed to capture and remove surface water from the traveled way or other road surfaces
(USFS, 1998).
Desired Condition. The land and resource conditions within the project area which are
expected to result if goals and objectives are fully achieved.
Detrimental Soil Compaction. 1) A 15 % increase in bulk density from the average
undisturbed bulk density, or 2) 1.25 g/cc – silt and clay, 1.30 g/cc – silty clay, silty clay loam,
silt loam, 1.40 g/cc – loam and clay loam, 1.50 g/cc – sandy loam, sandy clay loam, sandy clay,
1.60 g/cc – sand, loamy sand (FSH 2509.18, R-2 supplement).
Detrimental Soil Displacement. The removal of the forest floor and the surface soil from
a continuous area of 100 square feet or more. (FSH 2509.18, R-2 supplement). See definition of
Soil Displacement.
Detrimental Soil Erosion. 1) Sheet erosion – the general loss of soil from the soil
surface. Indicators include pedestalled rocks and plants, deposition of soil on the uphill side of
rocks and plants, and/or erosion pavement, 2) Rills and Gullies (FSH 2509.18, R-2 supplement).
Diminished Stream Health Class. Stream exhibits low geomorphic, hydrologic and/or
biotic integrity relative to its natural potential condition (as represented by a suitable reference
condition). For a quantitative analysis, low integrity is indicated by conditions that are less than
58% of a reference condition (after Plafkin et. al., 1989; EPA, 1999; CDPHE, 2002). Physical,
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chemical and/or biologic conditions suggest that State assigned water quality (beneficial,
designated or classified) uses may not be supported.
Dynamic Equilibrium. The continual adjustment of land-and-stream forms and processes
within a natural range of conditions, interrupted only by extreme disturbance (reset) events
(Dunne and Leopold 1978).
Effective Ground Cover. All living and dead herbaceous and woody materials in contact
with the ground and all rocks greater than ¾ inch diameter (FSH 2509.18, R-2 supplement).
Ephemeral Stream. A stream that flows only in direct response to precipitation in the
immediate locality (watershed or catchment basin), and whose channel is at all times above the
zone of saturation (Briggs, 1996).
Fen. Geographically restricted wetlands where perennial groundwater discharge occurs
on the time scale of millennia and where little erosion or mineral sediment deposition occurs.
Fens are generally characterized by their stable presence on the landscape for thousands of years
and associated plant and animal communities that may be relics from historic glaciation periods
(Cooper, 1990).
Filter Strip. A strip of land next to streams, lakes, and wetlands whose ground cover
traps sediment coming from upslope. Its width depends on climate, soil type, landform, ground
cover and roughness, and nature of soil disturbances.
Geomorphic Floodplain. The flat area adjoining a river channel constructed by the river
in the present climate and overflowed at times of high discharge (Dunne and Leopold 1978).
Grazing Response Index. An evaluation tool used to assess the effects of annual grazing
pressure, and effects of repeated defoliations during the growing season in terms of frequency,
intensity and opportunity (USFS, 1996).
Gully. An erosion channel greater than one foot deep (Dunne and Leopold, 1978).
Hummocky Landform. Area consisting of round or conical knoll, mound or other small
elevation. Also a slight rise of ground above a level surface. Commonly in alpine areas and
areas prone to frost action and in aquic (wet) soil conditions (USFS, 1998).
Humus. The organic layer lying immediately beneath the litter layer from which it is
derived and consisting of partly to well decomposed litter (USFS, 1966).
Inner Gorge. A geomorphic feature that consists of channel side slope situated
immediately adjacent to the stream channel, below the first break in slope above the stream
channel. Debris sliding and avalanching are the dominant mass wasting processes associated
with the inner gorge (USFS, 2000).
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Intermittent Stream. A stream or reach of stream channel that flows, in its natural
condition, only during certain times of the year or in several years. Characterized by
interspersed, permanent surface water areas containing aquatic flora and fauna adapted to the
relatively harsh environmental conditions found in these types of environments. (Briggs, 1996).
Lake. An inland body of standing water, perennial or intermittent occupying a
depression in the earth's surface, and too deep to permit vegetation to take root completely across
the expanse of water.
Land Treatments. Human actions that disturb vegetation, ground cover, or soil.
Land Type. A category of land having a unique combination of soils, geology,
geomorphology, and vegetation (USFS, 1993).
Litter. Loose, undecomposed leaves, needles, twigs, bark, and other organic debris on
the ground surface (USFS, 1966).
Long-Term. A period of five years or longer.
Organic Ground Cover. All living and dead plant matter, litter, and humus in contact
with the ground, measured in both areal extent and depth (USFS, 1966).
Perennial Stream. A stream or reach of a channel that flows continuously or nearly so
throughout the year and whose upper surface is generally lower than the top of the zone of
saturation in the areas adjacent to the stream. (Briggs, 1996).
Plan Period. The time period between regularly-scheduled revisions of a forest plan.
Unless otherwise specified by law, a plan must be revised at least every 15 years (36 CFR
219.2(d)(3)).
Plastic Limit. The water content at which soil begins to break apart and crumble when
rolled by hand into threads 3 mm in diameter (Sowers 1979).
Platy Surface Soil Structure. Arrangement of soil particles that have developed
predominantly along horizontal axes; laminated, flaky (SSSA, 1996).
Practicable. Available and capable of being done after taking into consideration cost,
existing technology, and logistics in light of overall project purposes (40 CFR 230.3). Resource
objectives should also be considered when determining practicable alternatives to meet a
project’s overall purposes.
Proper Functioning Condition (PFC) Protocol. An interagency protocol developed to
provide a consistent approach for considering hydrology, vegetation and erosion/deposition
(soils) attributes and processes to assess the condition of riparian-wetland areas. It focuses on
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assessing the ability of vegetation, landform or large woody debris to dissipate stream energy
associated with high water flows, thereby reducing erosion and improving water quality; filter
sediment, capture bedload and aid floodplain development; improve flood-water retention and
groundwater recharge; develop root masses that stabilize streambanks against cutting action;
develop diverse ponding and channel characteristics to provide the habitat and the water depth,
duration and temperature necessary for fish production, waterfowl breeding, and other uses; and
support greater biodiversity. The functioning condition of riparian-wetland areas is a result of
interaction among geology, soil, water and vegetation. (BLM, 1993; 1994; 1998).
Reclaim. Stabilize disturbed sites by restoring soil structure and establishing permanent
drainage and vegetation cover.
Reference Condition. The set of selected measurements and/or conditions used as
representative of the natural potential condition of a stream. The selected measurements and/or
conditions describe a minimally impaired watershed or reach characteristic of a stream type in an
ecoregion. Minimally impaired sites are those with the least anthropogenic influences and
represent the best range of conditions that can be achieved by similar streams within an
ecoregion. Reference conditions can be established using a combination of methods: a single or
multiple reference sites; historical data; simulation models; and/or expert opinion/professional
judgment (from EPA, 1996).
Rill. An erosion channel less than one foot deep (Dunne and Leopold, 1978).
Riparian Areas. Geographically delineable areas with distinctive resource values and
characteristics that are comprised of the aquatic and riparian ecosystems (FSM 2526.05).
Riparian Ecosystem. A transition area between the aquatic ecosystem and the adjacent
terrestrial ecosystem; identified by soil characteristics or distinctive vegetation communities that
require free or unbound water (FSM 2526.05).
Road. A motor vehicle route over 50 inches wide, unless identified and managed as a
trail. A road may be a forest road, a temporary road or an unauthorized road (36 CFR 212.1).
Robust Stream Health. Stream exhibits high geomorphic, hydrologic and/or biotic
integrity relative to its natural potential condition (as represented by a suitable reference
condition). For a quantitative analysis, high integrity is indicated by conditions that are 74 –
100% of a reference condition (after Plafkin et. al., 1989; EPA, 1999; CDPHE, 2002). Physical,
chemical and/or biologic conditions suggest that State assigned water quality (beneficial,
designated or classified) uses are supported.
Sediment Traps. Structures such as slash windrows, weed-free straw bales, sediment pits,
log steps, and silt fences keyed into the ground below roads, trails, and similar soil disturbances
to disperse runoff energy, trap sediment, and assist filter strips in keeping sediment out of water
bodies.
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Sensitive Stream Reach (Response Reach). A stream reach where changes in flow
amount and timing, sediment supply, bank stability or other stressors is most likely to become
evident. Sensitivity of stream reaches may change depending on the metric of concern. For
example, low gradient reaches may be sensitive to changes in sediment supply, and non-forested
reaches may be sensitive to changes is stream temperature.
Severely Burned Soil. Soil is in a condition where most woody debris and the entire
forest floor is consumed down to bare mineral soil. Soil may have turned red due to extreme
heat. Also, fine roots and organic matter are charred in the upper one-half inch of mineral soil.
(FSH 2509.18).
Soil Displacement. The movement of forest floor (litter, duff and humus layers) and
surface soil from one place to another by mechanical forces such as a blade used in piling or
windrowing. Mixing of the surface soil layers by disking, chopping, bedding or conventional
timber harvest operations is not considered displacement (FSH 2509.18). See definition of
Detrimental Soil Displacement.
Soil Quality. Soil Quality refers to the inherent capacity of a specific soil, as determined
by its inherent physical, chemical and biological characteristics, to perform its biologic,
hydrologic and ecologic functions.
Stable Bank. A streambank that shows no evidence of the following: breakdown
(clumps of bank are broken away and banks are exposed); slumping (banks have slipped down);
tension cracking or fracture (a crack visible on the bank); or vertical and eroding (the bank is
mostly uncovered, less than 50 percent covered by perennial vegetation, roots, rocks of cobble
size or larger, logs of 0.1 meter diameter or larger, and the bank angle is steeper than 80 degrees
from the horizontal) (EPA, 1993). Undercut banks are considered stable unless tension fractures
show on the ground surface at the back of the undercut (USFS, 1992).
Stock Crossing. A place where livestock prefer or are forced to cross a stream.
Stock Driveway. Expanded stock trails used to move large numbers of livestock to new
pastures, handling facilities, feed, or water.
Stream Channel Integrity. A condition of the stream system where channel
characteristics (width, depth, roughness, velocity/slope) mutually adjust to accommodate
changes in discharge and load of debris, where there is equilibrium between erosion and
deposition, and the form of the channel cross-section is relatively stable – more or less constant,
but the position of the channel may not be. (Gordon et. al., 1992; Leopold, 1994; Montgomery
and Buffington, 1998; Montgomery and MacDonald, 2002).
Stream Health. The condition of a stream versus reference conditions for the stream type
and geology, using metrics such as channel geometry, large woody debris, substrate, bank
stability, flow regime, water chemistry, and aquatic biota.
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Stream Health Class. A category of stream health. Three classes are recognized in the
Rocky Mountain Region: robust, at-risk and diminished. These classes are recommended to be
used for assessing long-term stream health and impacts from management activities.
Stream Order. A method of numbering streams as part of a drainage basin network. The
smallest unbranched mapped tributary is called first order, the stream receiving the tributary is
called second order, and so on (EPA, 1980).
Stream Type. A class of stream reach having a discrete combination of valley
geomorphology and climate, flow regime, stream size, and channel morphology; and differing
from other stream types in its ability to support aquatic biota and respond to management.
Rosgen classification (Rosgen, 1996) is the Regional/Agency accepted/recognized stream typing
system.
Swale. A landform feature lower in elevation than adjacent hillslopes, usually present in
headwater areas of limited areal extent, generally without display of a defined watercourse or
channel that may or may not flow water in response to snowmelt or rainfall. Swales exhibit little
evidence of surface runoff and may be underlain by porous soils and bedrock that readily accepts
infiltrating water. These are areas where soil moisture concentrates that often do not exhibit
pedalogic or botanic evidence of saturated conditions (Random House, 1967; Dunne and
Leopold, 1978).
Trail. A route 50 inches or less in width or a route over 50 inches wide that is identified
and managed as a trail (36 CFR 212.1).
Travelway. The portion of the trail or roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive
of shoulders.
Unstable Soils. Those soils that have properties that make them susceptible to
dislodgement and downslope transport of soil and rock material under direct gravitational stress.
The process includes slow displacement such as creep and rapid movements such as landslides.
Upland Site. The higher ground of a region, in contrast with a valley, plain or other lowlying land; or the elevated land above the low areas along a stream or between hills; any elevated
regions from which rivers gather drainage (Gary et. al., 1972).
Valley Bottom. The gently sloping or flat area surrounding a stream channel that
effectively decouples the geomorphic processes operating on the hillslopes or uplands from those
operating in stream channels. This unique landform creates a suitable environment for dynamic
processes that directly influence the establishment of riparian and wetland ecosystems and
associated aquatic species. The valley bottom width is dependent upon the relief of the
surrounding hillslopes and the channel gradient, with the boundary of the valley bottom being
characterized by a sharp break of ground slope.
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Water Budget. An accounting of the inflow to, outflow from and storage in, a watershed,
aquifer, lake, or wetland (USGS 1960).
Water Gap. An opening or fenced area providing access to a developed or natural water
supply (SRM 1974).
Watershed. Drainage basin or catchment (USGS 1960).
Water Influence Zone. The land next to water bodies where vegetation plays a major role
in sustaining long-term integrity of aquatic systems. It includes the geomorphic floodplain
(valley bottom), riparian ecosystem, and inner gorge. Its minimum horizontal width (from top of
each bank) is 100 feet or the mean height of mature dominant late-seral vegetation, whichever is
most.
Watershed Condition. The state of a watershed based on physical and biological
characteristics and processes affecting hydrologic and soil functions.
Watershed Conservation Practice (WCP). WCPs are stewardship actions based upon
scientific principles and legal requirements to protect soil, aquatic and riparian resources. Each
watershed conservation practice consists of a management measure, a set of design criteria used
to achieve the management measure, and guidance for monitoring and restoration.
Wetlands. Those areas that are inundated by surface or groundwater with a frequency
sufficient to support and that, under normal circumstances, do or would support a prevalence of
vegetation or aquatic life that requires saturated or seasonally saturated soil conditions for
growth and reproduction. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas
such as sloughs, potholes, wet meadows, river overflows, mud flats, and natural ponds. (FSM
2527.05).
06 - SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES
Watershed conservation practices are based on key scientific principles. Comprehension of these
principles is needed to better understand the practices.
06.1 - Watershed Processes
Watersheds are drained by a stream network of perennial streams that flow year-round,
intermittent streams that flow seasonally, and ephemeral streams (including swales) that flow
only during runoff events. The stream network expands during runoff events. Most material that
enters any part of the network will eventually reach an aquatic ecosystem.
Most material that enters streams comes from an adjacent source zone whose width depends on
land form, stability, and ground cover. Sediment is natural, but roads and other disturbed sites
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can act as channels that multiply sediment loads to the stream network during runoff events.
Such "connected disturbed areas" can be a major source of damage to aquatic ecosystems.
If organic ground cover in a watershed is reduced enough to markedly increase the magnitude or
duration of high flows, stream channels may erode their banks to damage their stability and
aquatic habitat. Direct bank damage may add large amounts of sediment directly into streams.
Soil quality depends on soil structure, organic matter, nutrient pools, and biotic processes. Soil
quality is impaired when these qualities are markedly degraded for a period of years. Severe
disturbances can impair soil quality by heating, displacing, compacting, or eroding the soil.
Historic ranges of native aquatic biota were determined by physiographic and hydrologic
boundaries and biotic behavior. These patterns have been changed by fishing pressures,
introduction of exotics, and migration barriers such as dams and diversions, as well as by habitat
impacts. Biotic strategies that address these relationships are needed as well as watershed
conservation practices in order to sustain vigorous populations of desired aquatic communities.
06.2 - Dynamic Equilibrium
A healthy watershed operates in dynamic equilibrium. Soil and water quality, flow regimes, and
aquatic and riparian habitats vary within a certain range of conditions. Large natural disturbance
events shift a watershed out of equilibrium. Recovery then begins. Poor land management
practices can shift a watershed out of equilibrium.
Laws and common sense direct us to maintain equilibrium conditions between large natural
disturbance events, avoid actions that may shift a watershed out of equilibrium or worsen major
events, and assist watershed recovery. The natural resilience of the system must be conserved in
order to sustain ecosystem health.
Some disturbance can occur and still sustain watershed health. If runoff and sediment regimes,
soil and channel conditions, water quality, and aquatic and riparian habitats are maintained
between large natural disturbance events, watershed health is conserved.
The concept of dynamic equilibrium can be applied to biological processes as well as physical
landform processes. Natural processes are not static or absolutely stable, but there is a tendency
for the form to maintain relatively stable characteristics. Natural perturbations influence these
natural processes, which then begin the process of moving toward pre-event characteristics.
Dynamic equilibrium can be both ‘short-term’ such as life-history changes of fish associated
with the annual hydrograph or ‘long-term’ such as the stream channel adjustments following
natural fire events.
06.3 - Land and Stream Types
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The goal of watershed conservation is to sustain and restore watershed health in each watershed.
Land and water conditions must be kept within the dynamic equilibrium ranges for the local
landscape. Land and stream types, and their dynamic equilibrium ranges, vary within and among
landscapes due to variations in climate and geology. This variation must be taken into account.
In each landscape, dynamic equilibrium conditions vary by land types and stream types. These
ranges can be defined by sampling reference land and stream types in that landscape. The
efficacy of watershed conservation practices is assessed by comparing each land type and stream
type with its own capability.
Land factors reflecting soil and stream health include ground cover, soil bulk density, connected
disturbed areas, and slope stability. Water factors include channel widths-depths, large woody
debris, substrate, bank stability, flow regime, and water chemistry. Other factors may also be
locally important.
06.4 - Design and Risk
Watersheds experience periodic disturbance events that vary in their size, duration, and
frequency. The randomness of such events implies some level of risk with any design. This risk
is a product of the probability of an event occurring and its consequences. Watershed
conservation practices are designed to control runoff damage from at least a 10-year storm of any
duration. The Environmental Protection Agency and many States use a 10-year, 24-hour event
for storm runoff design.
Designing stream crossings and other instream structures to remain stable against expected high
flow events during their design life will reduce the risk of adverse effects to watershed function.
Probability can be used to determine the chance of success or failure of a structure remaining
stable. For example, a structure with a desired 20 year design life would need to be able to pass
a 100-year flood in order to have an 80% chance of remaining stable during those 20 years
(Schmidt, 1978). The chance of success or failure for a structure provides the margin of safety
for capital investments and resources. Tailings dams and reservoirs that involve health or safety
risks need an increased margin of safety (that is, greater chance of success). Other factors that
need to be considered in the design are the potential for blockage by debris, recreational uses of
the stream and the need to allow desired movement of aquatic life.
07 - REFERENCES
Anderson, H.M. 1987. Water quality planning for the national forests. Envir. Law 17: 591-641.
Baker, C.O.; Votapka, P.E. 1990. Fish passage through culverts. Report No. FHWA-FL-90-008.
San Dimas, CA: U.S. For. Serv., Tech. & Dev. Ctr. 67 p.
BLM (Bureau of Land Management). 1993. Process for assessing proper functioning condition.
USDI Bur. Land Mgt. Tech. Ref. 1737-9. Denver, CO. 51 p.
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BLM (Bureau of Land Management). 1994. Process for assessing proper functioning condition
for lentic riparian-wetland areas. USDI Bur. Land Mgt. Tech. Ref. 1737-9. Denver, CO. 51 p.
BLM (Bureau of Land Management). 1998. A User Guide to Assessing Proper Functioning
Condition and the Supporting Science for Lotic Areas. USDI Bur. Land Mgt. Tech. Ref. 173715. Denver, CO 126 pp.
Bohn, B.A. 1998. Designing forest stream crossings using bankfull dimensions and the computer
program XSPRO. Stream Notes, Stream Systems Tech. Ctr., April 1998.
Briggs, M.K. 1996. Riparian Ecosystem Recovery in Arid Lands, Strategies and References.
University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Burroughs, E.R. Jr.; King, J.G. 1989. Reduction of soil erosion on forest roads. Gen. Tech. Rep.
INT-264. Boise, ID: U.S. For. Serv., Intermountain Res. Stn. 18 p.
CDPHE. 2001. Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. Regulation No. 31
The Basic Standards and Methodologies for Surface Waters (5 CCR 1002-31).
CDPHE. 2002. Provisional Implementation Guidance for Determining Sediment Deposition
Impacts to Aquatic Life in Streams and Rivers. Colorado Department of Public Health and
Environment, Water Quality Control Commission Policy 98-1.
Clary, W.P.; Webster, B.F. 1989. Managing grazing of riparian areas in the Intermountain
Region. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-263. Boise, ID: U.S. For. Serv., Intermountain Res. Stn. 11 p.
Cooper, J.D. 1990. The ecology of wetlands in Big Meadows: Rocky Mountain National Park,
Colorado: The correlation of vegetation, soils, and hydrology. U.S. Department of Interior, Fish
and Wildlife Service, Biological Report 90(15).
Dunne, T.; Leopold, L.B. 1978. Water in environmental planning. San Francisco, CA: W.H.
Freeman & Co. 818 p.
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1980. WRENSS: an approach to water resources
evaluation of nonpoint silvicultural sources (a procedural handbook). EPA-600/8-80-012
Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Approx. 800 p.
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1983. Technical support manual: waterbody surveys
and assessments for conducting use attainability analyses. U.S. Envir. Prot. Agency, Office
Water Regs. and Stds. Washington, DC.
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EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1993. Monitoring protocols to evaluated water
quality effects of grazing management on western rangeland streams. By Bauer, S.B. and T.A.
Burton. EPA 910/R-93-017. Seattle, WA. Water Division, Surface Water Branch.
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1996. Biological criteria, technical guidance for
streams and small rivers. EPA 822-B-001. Revised edition. EPA Office of Water.
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1999. Rapid Bioassessment Protocols for Use in
Wadable Streams and Rivers. Second Edition. EPA Office of Water, Washington DC.
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 2005. National Management Measures to Control
Nonpoint Source Pollution from Forestry. EPA Office of Water (April, 2005).
Furniss, M.J., S. Flanagan, and B.McFadin. 2000. Hydrologically-connected roads: an
indicator of the influence of roads on chronic sedimentation, surface water hydrology, and
exposure to toxic chemicals. USDA Forest Service, Stream Systems Technology Center, Stream
Notes, July, 2000. Fort Collins, CO.
Gary, M., R. McAfee Jr., and C.L. Wolf, eds. 1972. Glossary of Geology. American
Geological Institute, Washington DC. 857 pp.
Gordon, N.D., T.A. McMahon and B.L. Finlayson. 1992. Stream Hydrology: An Introduction
for Ecologists. John Wiley & Sons, LTD. West Sussex, England. 526 pp.
Hynes, H.B.N. 1970. The ecology of running waters. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press.
555 p.
Ice, G.G. and J.D. Stednick. 2004. A Century of Forest and Wildland Watershed Lessons.
Society of American Foresters. Bethesda MD. 287 pp.
Jones, J.A.; Grant, G.E. 1996. Peak flow responses to clear-cutting and roads in small and large
basins, western Cascades, Oregon. Water Resour. Res. 32(4): 959-974.
Kochenderfer, J.N.; Wendel, G.W.; Smith, H.C. 1984. Cost of and soil loss on minimumstandard forest truck roads constructed in the central Appalachians. Res. Paper NE-544. Parsons,
WV: U.S. For. Serv., Northeastern Res. Stn. 8 p.
MacDonald, L.H. and J.D. Stednick. 2003. Forests and Water: A State-of-the-Art Review for
Colorado. CWRRI Completion Report No. 196. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO.
65 pp.
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Montgomery, D.R. and J.M. Buffington. 1998. Channel process, classification and response.
In: River Ecology and Management. R.J. Naimen and R.E. Bilby, eds. Springer Verlag Inc.,
New York, NY. Pp. 13-42.
Montgomery, D.R. and L.H. MacDonald. 2002. Diagnostic approach to stream channel
assessment and monitoring. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 38(1):1-16.
Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality. (NE DEQ). 2005. Title 119 Chapter 1.
Odum, E.P. 1971. Fundamentals of ecology. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Co. 574 p.
Plafkin, J.L., M.T. Barbour, K.D. Porter, S.K. Gross and R.M. Hughes. 1989. Rapid
Bioassessment Protocols for Use in Streams and Rivers: Benthic Macroinvertebrates and Fish.
EPA/444/4-89-001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington, DC.
Reid, L.M.; Ziemer, R.R. 1994. Evaluating the biological significance of intermittent streams.
Humboldt Interagency Watershed Analysis Center, Summary of 5/4/94 Workshop, 15 p.
Rosgen, D. 1996. Applied River Morphology. 370 pp.
Schmidt, L.J. 1978. The use of risk in specifying job quality. Hydrology Note No. 8.
Albuquerque, NM: U.S. For. Serv., Southwestern Region. 8 p.
SCS (Soil Conservation Service). 1993. National soil survey handbook, title 430-VI.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
SSSA (Soil Science Society of America). 1996. Glossary of Soil Science Terms.
South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources (SD DENR). Surface Water
Quality Standards Chapter 74:51:01.
South Dakota State University, South Dakota Cooperative Extension, USEPA, South Dakota
DENR and South Dakota Department of Agriculture (SDSU et. al.). 2003. Forestry Best
Management Practices for South Dakota. 26 pp.
Sowers, G.F. 1979. Introductory soil mechanics and foundations: geotechnical engineering, 4th
edition. MacMillan Publ. Co., Inc. 621 p.
SRM (Society for Range Management). 1974. A glossary of terms used in range management.
Kothmann, M.M., chairman. Range Term Glossary Committee. Denver, CO: Soc. for Range
Mgt. 36 p.
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Swift, L.W. 1984. Soil losses from roadbeds and cut and fill slopes in the southern Appalachian
Mountains. So. Jour. Appl. Forestry 8(4): 209-215.
Terrene Institute. 1994. Riparian road guide: managing roads to enhance riparian areas.
Washington, DC: Terrene Institute. 33 p.
Troendle, C.A.; Olsen, W.K. 1994. Potential effects of timber harvest and water management on
streamflow dynamics and sediment transport. In: Covington, W.W.; DeBano, L.F., coords.
Sustainable ecological systems: implementing an ecological approach to land management, July
1993, Flagstaff, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-247. Ft. Collins, CO: U.S. For. Serv., Rocky Mtn. Res.
Stn. p. 34-41.
USFS (USDA Forest Service). 1966. Forest and range hydrology handbook (FSH 2518).
Washington, DC: U.S. Forest Service. 272 p.
USFS (USDA Forest Service). 1990. Vegetation management in the Ozark/Ouachita Mountains.
Atlanta, GA: U.S. Forest Service, Southern Region, Management Bulletin R8-MB-45, two
volumes.
USFS (USDA Forest Service). 1992. Integrated riparian evaluation guide: Intermountain
Region. Ogden, Utah.
USFS (USDA Forest Service). 1993. National hierarchical framework of ecological units.
Washington, DC: U.S. Forest Service, ECOMAP. 28 p.
USFS (USDA Forest Service). 1995. Biological evaluation for sensitive species in riparian areas
grazed by domestic livestock. Golden, CO: U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region. 19 p.
USFS (USDA Forest Service). 1996a. Rangeland ecosystem analysis and management training
guide. Golden, CO: U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region.
USFS (USDA Forest Service). 1996b. A guide for road closure and obliteration in the Forest
Service. USDA Forest Service, San Dimas Tech. & Dev. Ctr., 4E41L03, 49 p.
USFS (USDA Forest Service). 1998a. Cross Drain Update. USDA Forest Service, San Dimas
Tech. & Dev. Ctr., Water/Road Interaction Technology Series, 20 pp.
USFS (USDA Forest Service). 1998b. A Geomorphic Classification System. USDA Forest
Service Geomorphology Working Group. February 1998, Version 1.4.
USFS (USDA Forest Service). 1999. Indicators for analysis of water/road interactions,
Appendix 2. In: Roads analysis, informing decisions about managing the National Forest
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EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006
DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.
2509.25_zero_code
Page 25 of 25
FSH 2509.25 – WATERSHED CONSERVATION PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER – ZERO CODE
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Office.
USFS (USDA Forest Service). 2000. Water Quality Management for Forest System Lands in
California. Best Management Practices. Vallejo, CA: USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest
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Wemple, B.C. 1994. Hydrologic integration of forest roads with stream networks in two basins,
western Cascades, Oregon. MS Thesis. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 87 p. plus maps.
Whitman, R. 1989. Clean water or multiple use? Best management practices for water quality
control in the national forests. Ecol. Law Quart. 16: 909-966.
Woodard, H.J. 1993. Literature review: nutrient cycling, effects of whole tree harvesting,
burning forest components, and soil compaction in conifer forests as it pertains to management
practices in the Black Hills National Forest. Custer, SD: U.S. Forest Service, Black Hills
National Forest. 69 p.
WRENSS: See EPA (1980).
WY DEQ. 2001. Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality. Water Quality Rules and
Regulations Chapter 1. Wyoming Surface Water Quality Standards.
Ziemer, R.R. 1981. Storm flow responses to road building and partial cutting in small streams of
northern California. Water Resour. Res. 17(4): 907-917.