CHAPTER 10 – ADOLESCENCE AND ADULTHOOD
MODULE 10.1 ADOLESCENCE
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Define puberty
 Describe the changes in cognitive development that occur during adolescence
 Explain Kohlberg' levels of moral reasoning
 Discuss Gilligan' criticisms of Kohlberg' theory
 Explain what Erikson believed to be the major developmental challenge
Key Terms and Concepts:
Adolescence
Puberty
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Primary Sex Characteristics
Menarche
Imaginary Audience
Personal Fable
Ego Identity
Identity Crisis
Role Diffusion
I.
II.
III.
Physical Development
A.
Adolescent growth spurt
B.
Puberty—reaching full sexual maturity
1.
Secondary sex characteristics (pubic hair, voice changes)
2.
Primary sex characteristics—directly involved in reproduction
3.
Menarche—onset of menstruation in females
C.
Timing of puberty has social and emotional effects—based on people’s reactions to puberty,
not the physical changes themselves
Cognitive Development
A.
Piaget’s formal operational stage
B.
Adolescent egocentrism
1.
Imaginary audience—adolescents believe others are keenly interested in themselves
and their concerns
2.
Personal fable—exaggerated sense of own uniqueness and invulnerability
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
A.
Methodology—present participants with vignettes; ask why behavior seen as right or wrong
B.
Levels of moral reasoning (based on these responses)
1.
Preconventional—only concerned with consequences
a.
Stage 1: obedience and punishment
b.
Stage 2: instrumental purpose
2.
Conventional—conformity with rules as they currently exist
a.
Stage 3: “good boy−good girl”
b.
Stage 4: authority or law-and-order
3.
Postconventional
a.
Not everyone reaches
b.
Applying one’s own moral principles
c.
Stage 5: social contract
d.
Stage 6: universal ethical principles
C.
Note: moral reasoning not necessarily related to moral behavior
D.
Cross-cultural and gender-based research on Kohlberg’s model
1.
Children do tend to follow these stages, and there is evidence for universality of
findings
2.
Criticism: morality associated with Western and male values
3.
Carol Gilligan’s research (some evidence for these views)
a.
Females have a care orientation
IV.
b.
Males have a justice orientation
Psychosocial Development
A.
Adolescent-parent relationships
1.
Children need to pull away somewhat in order to become independent
2.
Close ties, secure emotional base with parents still crucial
3.
Distance part of teen’s effort to discover own individual identity
B.
Erikson’s view of adolescence
1.
Answering “Who am I?”
2.
Psychosocial challenge of adolescence is ego identity vs. role diffusion
3.
Ego identity—clear, stable sense of self
4.
Role diffusion—uncertainty regarding identity, lack of sense of direction
C.
Identity crisis—represents intense self-examination, need for knowing self
D.
Peer relationships
1.
Become increasingly important
2.
Parental closeness can ameliorate undesirable peer influences
E.
Adolescent sexuality
1.
Much interest during adolescence regarding sexuality
2.
Rate of intercourse slightly lower than ten years ago
3.
Teen pregnancy rate also has dropped
4.
Sexual activity related to peer pressure, personal values, goals
MODULE 10.2 EARLY AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Discuss the cognitive and physical changes that occur as people age
 Explain how theorists conceptualize social and personality development during early and middle
adulthood
 Describe the major variations in adult lifestyles today
Key Terms and Concepts:
Fluid Intelligence
Crystallized Intelligence
Menopause
Emerging Adulthood
Midlife Crisis
Empty Nest Syndrome
Homogamy
I.
II.
III.
Early and Middle Adulthood
A.
Human development is a lifelong process
B.
Early adulthood encompasses age range of twenties and thirties
C.
Middle adulthood encompasses age range of forty to sixty-five
D.
Markers for start of middle adulthood (“middle age”) vary widely
Cognitive and Physical Development
A.
Both peak in early adulthood
B.
Greatest declines in fluid intelligence; crystallized intelligence is stable or may improve
C.
Physical issues
1.
Decline in muscle mass and strength—can be offset by weight-bearing exercise
2.
Menopause
a.
May have some physiological side effects
b.
Woman’s attitude is most important determinant of adjustment
3.
Osteoporosis—loss of bone density
Psychosocial Development
A.
Arnett—Five key characteristics of emerging adulthood
1.
Age of identity exploration
2.
Age of instability
3.
Self-focused age
IV.
V.
4.
Age of feeling in-between
5.
Age of possibilities
B.
Erikson’s stage for early adulthood: intimacy vs. isolation
C.
Ability to establish intimate relationships related to earlier formation of identity
D.
Middle adulthood—loosening of traditional gender roles
E.
Erikson’s stage for middle adulthood: generativity vs. stagnation
1.
Generativity—fostering the well-being of next generation
2.
Stagnation—continued self-absorption; inability to move ahead with psychosocial
issues and development
F.
Levinson—midlife transition begins around age 40
G.
Midlife crisis
1.
Concern that options in life are disappearing
2.
True crisis more the exception than the rule
3.
Many believe middle adulthood is time of new opportunities, perspectives
4.
May be period of greatest productivity
H.
Empty nest syndrome
1.
Sense of loss of purpose once children leave the home
2.
Not typical for women today, especially those with careers
3.
Many adult children either don’t leave home or later return
Lifestyles in Adulthood
A.
Marriage
1.
A universal societal institution
2.
Most people marry, at least once
3.
Sexual activity no longer tied to marriage
4.
Marriage for stability, to create a family unit (raising children), for lasting
companionship and intimacy, to have a life partner
5.
Homogamy—like marry like
B.
Singlehood
1.
May be chosen as permanent, not temporary, style of life
2.
Most adults in twenties are not married
3.
May not be married, but may choose to live with another
C.
Divorce
1.
40 percent of first marriages, 65 percent of second marriages end in divorce
2.
Divorce laws have been liberalized; divorce viewed as more acceptable
3.
Women more economically independent
4.
Associated with emotional and financial difficulties
5.
Children tend to suffer during divorce because of instability and parental trauma,
hostility towards each other
Exploring Psychology: Cohabitation: Trial Marriage or Marriage Alternative?
A.
In over half of contemporary marriages, couples cohabited first
B.
Some couples prefer cohabitation to marriage for emotional, legal, and/or economic reasons
C.
Other couples view cohabitation as a “trial run” for marriage
D.
Cohabiting couples are more likely to break up than to marry
E.
Divorce rate higher among those who cohabitate first (but this relationship is correlational,
not necessarily causal)
MODULE 10.3 LATE ADULTHOOD
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the physical and cognitive changes that occur in late adulthood
 Discuss Alzheimer' disease
 Explain how theorists characterize the psychosocial challenges of late adulthood
 Describe how our emotions change as we age
 Discuss the qualities associated with successful aging
 Describe the stages of dying identified by Kübler-Ross
Key Terms and Concepts:
Dementia
Alzheimer’s Disease
Ageism
Bereavement
Mourning
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Over 65—the Fastest Growing Segment of the Population
A.
Life expectancy is continuing to increase
B.
Again, age is a state of mind, and “old” partly a function of current age
C.
Many infectious diseases have been controlled; smoking is less prevalent
Physical Development
A.
General decline in sensory and motor abilities
B.
General decline in immune system functioning
Cognitive Development
A.
Performance on tasks requiring fluid intelligence tends to decline
B.
Older individuals need more time to solve problems, grasp new information
C.
Increasing difficulty with memory tasks, pattern recognition
1.
Usually has no significant impact on daily functioning
D.
Bulk of mental abilities are retained throughout life (dementia is the exception)
E.
Crystallized intelligence (a store of knowledge gained from experience)
1.
Often more crucial to functioning than fluid intelligence
2.
Tends to be maintained or even enhanced into old age
3.
Helps the individual deal with real problems he or she is likely to encounter
F.
Alzheimer’s disease
1.
Irreversible brain disease leading to inevitable mental functioning deterioration and
death
2.
Characterized by progressive death of brain cells
3.
Genetic, neurochemical factors appear to play a role
4.
No cure, but some symptoms may be slowed by medications
G.
Gender and ethnic differences
1.
Women outlive men by about seven years
2.
Older men more likely to have a spouse, financial stability, good health
3.
White non-Hispanic Americans tend to live longer than other ethnic groups
4.
Socioeconomic status related to longevity
a.
More ethnic minorities live below poverty line
b.
Lower socioeconomic status associated with less healthy lifestyles
Psychosocial Development
A.
Psychosocial theories of late adulthood
1.
Erikson’s stage for older adulthood: ego integrity versus despair
a.
Important issue is maintaining a sense of meaning
b.
Possible to remain satisfied and fulfilled throughout life
2.
Views of Daniel Levinson and Robert Havighurst
a.
Recognized need is to accept physical and psychological realities
b.
Havighurst listed older adult’s developmental tasks—adjusting to loss of loved
ones, to physical changes and to retirement
c.
Levinson emphasizes older adult can rediscover self, meaningful activities that
maintain connections with others
B.
Aging and sexuality
1.
Ageism—prejudice against older individuals
2.
Sexual activity normal and healthy for older adults
3.
Older adults report high level of sexual satisfaction
C.
Depression in late adulthood
1.
The most common emotional problem faced by older adults (as many as 15 percent
of older population)
2.
Concern with physical problems may overshadow awareness of depression
3.
Suicide rate higher among older adults, especially white males
4.
Reasons for depression
a.
Loss of longtime friends and loved ones
b.
Move to nursing home or assisted living
c.
Loss of meaning, purpose, sense of worth due to retirement
d.
Health problems and care of self, aging spouse
Successful aging
1.
Most people in their seventies are satisfied with their lives
2.
Income level, social contact are important factors
3.
Happiness may increase with age along with greater control over important life
factors (work, finances, marriage)
4.
Keys to successful aging
a.
Be selective in use of time, choose activities that maximize one’s abilities
b.
Support and maintain an optimistic outlook; assume success is likely and all
challenges can be met
c.
Remain involved in activities, or better yet, begin new ones that are
appropriate (do more of the things that matter)
Death and Dying
A.
Death in fact can occur at any age
B.
Though young, we may be severely affected by death of others (e.g., loved ones)
C.
Kübler-Ross’s stages of dying
1.
Denial—refuse to believe
2.
Anger—resentment towards others not in same predicament
3.
Bargaining—attempting to make a deal with God
4.
Depression—hopelessness in face of reality of situation
5.
Final acceptance—end result is inevitable, retain dignity and peace
D.
Bereavement—intense feeling of grief and loss following death of a loved one
E.
Mourning—culturally established ways of dealing with death and loss
F.
Patterns of grief similar to Kübler-Ross’s stages of dying
D.
V.
MODULE 10.4 APPLICATION: LIVING LONGER, HEALTHIER LIVES
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Summarize some of the ways people can live longer and healthier lives
I.
II.
III.
Living Longer
A.
Genetic heritage one factor in longer life
B.
Another factor is under our control—lifestyle choices, habits and behaviors
Steps We Can Take to Increase the Likelihood of a Longer and Healthier Life
A.
Developing healthy exercise and nutrition habits
1.
Physical exercise slows effects of aging, reduces risk for some diseases, aids in
mental acuity
2.
A nutritious, balanced diet helps reduce risk of disease
B.
Staying involved
1.
Keeps mind sharp
2.
Reduces risk of depression
3.
Associated with longevity
C.
Lend a hand—giving support to others is associated with longer life
D.
Think positively about aging
E.
Avoiding harmful substances—tobacco, illicit drugs, excessive alcohol all related to health
problems
F.
Maintaining a healthy weight
1.
Obesity is a major health risk
2.
Adjust diet and exercise to compensate for slight slowing of metabolism rate
G.
Managing stress—stress impairs physical and psychological well-being
H.
Exercising the mind—intellectually stimulating activities help preserve cognitive functioning
Do Healthy Habits Pay Off?
A.
People who adopt healthier life habits (as listed above) are more likely to live longer,
healthier lives
B.
One experimental study (Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group, 2002) provided
evidence that individuals randomly assigned to a weight loss and exercise program have
less incidence of Type 2 diabetes, in comparison to a control group without this intervention