Socialization and Social Interaction
Throughout the Life Course
March 5-8, 2004
Lindsey & Beach, Essentials of Sociology
Socialization
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A lifelong process whereby the individual learns her culture,
develops a sense of self, and becomes a member of society.
For this to happen, the individual needs sustained, structured
interaction with culture & social environment.
The self develops as a result of contact with family, peers, and the
media.
Social Identity
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Self – unique identity
Personality – complex of attitudes, beliefs, behaviors and
values.
Personal Identity – comprised of the self and the
personality.
Sociologists emphasize the social aspects of identity.
The Nature vs. Nurture Debate
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Nature
 Our character is innate—genetically determined
 Sociobiology—human traits evolved as a response to natural selection
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Nurture
 Our character is developed through social interaction
 Sociologists focus on the nurture perspective
Perspectives on Socialization
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Nature vs. nurture
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Symbolic interactionism
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Psychology
Sociobiology – Critique
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Weak support for innate behaviors in human studies (as opposed to animals)
Focuses on animal behavior to provide insights into human behavior.
We can’t assume that the behaviors we see in animals mean the same thing
they do to humans.
Sociologists view people as having genetic potential – but this potential is
shaped by the social environment.
Human behaviors are not the same across cultures.
Contributions of Psychology and Sociology to Explaining the
Self
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Psychology
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Emphasizes studying the personal identity (personality and self) in an attempt to
understand attitudes and behavior
Sociology
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Emphasizes studying the development of a social identity, that part of self that is
built up over time through participation in social life
Social identity is linked to the innate need for affiliation & seeking relationship with
others
Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)
. . . and the Looking Glass Self
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We imagine how others see us and judge us.
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Our self image develops based on we believe that judgment is.
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Self-feeling is the product of the above two interactions.
George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)
. . . & The two-part self
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“I” – the spontaneous, creative, impulsive self.
“Me” – the social self who is concerned with how she is viewed by others.
As children, we look primarily to significant others and engage in role
taking or rehearsal.
The generalized other is the pattered human behavior that we understand
as typical.
Mead – Stages of Socialization
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Preparatory stage (to age 3).
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Imitation
Approval seeking
“I” develops as a result of reinforcement, with “me” in the
background & beginnings of a “self”
Not much “role taking” possible
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Mead, Stages (cont.)
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Play Stage (ages 3-5)
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Children imagine & act out roles
“Me” grows stronger as the approval of others becomes more
important to the child.
Language also fosters the development of the self (“self
expression”)
Learns the meaning of roles
Mead, Stages (cont.)
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Game Stage (early school years)
 Take on several roles simultaneously, able to take role of
“generalized other”
Continuing socialization – individuals continue to create
and recreate reality.
Anticipatory socialization – imagining the future self.
Psychology: Socialization as Crisis
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
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Socialization develops as a result of innate urges reacting with the demands
of society to act “civilized”
Id
Biological drives/impulses/pleasure seeking side
Superego
The norms and values we learn/The demands of society (the
internalized parent)
Ego
The mediator/Seeks to balance the demands of the id and superego
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Social Learning Theory
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Focuses on observable behavior rather than inner mental
dynamics.
Gender roles are learned through rewards & reprimands
Social approval is given in exchange for appropriate gendered
behaviors.
Girls learn deference & compliance while boys act based on their
higher social prestige.
Boys’ roles are less flexible than girls’ roles.
Psychology of Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
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Sensorimotor (0-2)
 Exploration through the body
 Object permanence
 Emotional attachment to a significant few
Preoperational (2-7)
 Use of language
 Imagination
 Egocentric
Concrete Operational (7-11)
 Logical reasoning
 Concrete thinking
 Traits of objects are conserved even when their shape changes
Formal Operational (12 to adult)
 Abstract thinking develops
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Problem solving and consideration of consequences begins
Stages in Moral Development: Lawrence Kohlberg
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Preconventional (begins at about 7)
Moral reasoning motivated by seeking rewards and avoiding punishment
Conventional (10 – Adolescent)
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Conservative views of morality based on authority & law.
Moral behavior is motivated by social approval.
Postconventional (adulthood)
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Moral ideas are linked to ideas of justice, reciprocity, and responsibility.
Inner “voice” may call for a standard apart from the law or authority.
Gilligan: Gender Schema and Moral Development
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Moral reasoning differs by gender
Boys choose on the basis of “justice” norms (what people
deserve)
Girls choose on the basis of social responsibility norms
(based on dependence)
Moral development reflects gender socialization.
Psychological Perspectives on Socialization: Summary
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Psychosexual Development
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Freud’s model of biological drives (id)
Tempered by socialization (superego)
Problem is to settle conflicts through the ego
Psychological Perspectives on Socialization: Summary
(Continued)
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Social Learning Theory
 Focus on observable behavior (rather than internal conflicts, i.e., Freud)
 Behavior is shaped by early experience
 Learned behavior becomes habitual through imitation followed by
reinforcement (sanctions/rewards)
 Children are rewarded for behaving in gender-appropriate ways as they
imitate their same-sex parent
 Sees boys’ roles as less flexible than girls’ roles
 Critique of SLT:
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Children may not imitate (model) their same-gender parent.
Sees children as passive “sponges”; minimizes free choice and the effect
children may have on parents.
Psychological Perspectives on Socialization: Summary
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Cognitive Development (Piaget)
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Focus is on thinking, intelligence & reason (not drives)
Develops the idea of cognitive stages & “readiness” to learn
Children develop “schema” or ways of organizing information
(“mental maps”)
Psychological Perspectives on Socialization: Summary (Cont.)
Cognitive Development: Cognition & Morality – Kohlberg
 Moral development comes in stages
 Stages of moral development follow cognitive stages
 Gender identity begins around age 3
 Behavior is organized around gender
 Identity (the self) becomes as important as the reinforcement
 Critique:
 Kohlberg used only male subjects
 Moral reasoning and moral behavior are not the same thing
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Psychological Perspectives on Socialization: Summary (Cont.)
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Gender Schema Theory (Off-shoot of cognitive)
 Children develop gender schema (“maps”) that are based on cultural norms for
males and females.
 Gender is central to the development of self
 Self-esteem is based on gender-appropriate behavior.
Gilligan
 Moral reasoning differs by gender
 Girls: intimacy & equality; emotion-centered friendships
 Boys: impersonal rules; goal oriented friendships
Life Course Perspective of Socialization
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Erickson: Development continues into adulthood
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Like Freud, the focus is on conflict between the individual and society
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But, culture is more important than biology
Development follows a series of turning points, where different routes
might be taken over the life course.
Healthy development & self-esteem depends on the resolution of conflicts.
Stages of Psychosocial Development
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0–1
2–3
3–5
6 – 12
13-19
20-40
40-65
65 +
Trust vs. Mistrust (fear)
Autonomy vs. Shame or Doubt (selfInitiative vs. Guilt (independence)
Industry vs. Inferiority (achievement)
Identity vs. Role Confusion (personal
Intimacy vs. Isolation (commitment)
Generativity vs. Stagnation (usefullness)
Integrity vs. Despair (meaning)
control)
identity)
Aging & Culture
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Stages of maturation are culturally defined, not culturally
universal.
Life stages are affected by social change & technology.
“New” Stage: recognition of death and dying (denial,
anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance)
Agents of Socialization
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Family
Education/Schools
Peers
Media
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Children and Violence in the Media
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The average American child (ages 2-17) spends 1,023 hours per year
watching TV.
The average American youth spends 900 hours per year in school.
41% of American households have 3 or more TV sets.
56% of children aged 8-16 have a TV in their room.
Children ages 2-7 spend 81% of their TV viewing hours unsupervised
70% of American day care centers use TV as part of their day.
By the age of 18, the average 18-year-old will have viewed 200,000 acts of
violence on TV
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