Writing Conference and Journal Abstracts
an adaptation of chapter 5 of the
Handbook of Biomedical Research Writing
with examples across the sciences, social sciences, and humanities
Jocelyn Graf
Director of the LACC STEM Academy
© 2014 Jocelyn Graf
grafj@lacitycollege.edu
Page 1
The abstract is the most important part of a research article. It is the most widely read, and it includes all the
main points. However, it may also be the most difficult to write. So much must be included within a limited
number of words. This chapter will review the structure of abstracts, address issues specific to abstract
writing using examples from the field of clothing and textile studies across the disciplines, and present a
number of language tips for writing abstracts.
1. Comparison of Abstracts and Journal Articles
The following chart shows similarities and differences between a journal article abstract and the main body of
a journal article.
Abstract
Article
Audience: People searching in the library.
People doing similar research read and
sometimes cite the paper.
Audience: People reading abstract collections.
Graduate students may be required to read the
paper in survey courses.
Audience: All article readers.
Only a few practitioners read the whole paper.
Audience: Almost all readers only read the abstract
(anecdotal estimate 95%).
Relatively few people read some or all of the
article (anecdotal estimate 5%).
Purpose 1: Summarize the article.
Purpose: Participate in the academic
community.
Purpose 2: “Sell” your paper.
Read first
Almost always read after the abstract
Written last
Almost always written before the final draft of
the abstract
Short word limit
Longer word limit
May be translated into several languages
Is normally written in one language
Reader may have knowledge of the background of
and justification for your study
Reader should learn the background of and
justification for your study from the text
Reader should be able to understand your main
findings
Reader should learn the details, limits, and
implications of your results
Knowledgeable reader can understand the basics, but
not critique or replicate your study (exception: clinical
medicine)
Reader should be able to understand, critique,
and replicate your study
Both Abstracts and Full Articles
Agree on all details
Use the same writing style, formality
Both must meet the requirements of the journal guidelines
Each can be read independently of the other text
Follow the same structure
© 2014 Jocelyn Graf
grafj@lacitycollege.edu
Page 2
2. The Structure and Content of Abstracts
2.1 Structured Abstracts
All good abstracts have a structure. However, “structured abstracts” are those with a particular structure
required by the journal editor. A structured abstract is divided into sections with headings in italics or bold
type. Among the journals that use these headings are International Journal of Clothing Science and
Technology and Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management. Note that other journals may use somewhat
different headings.
Example:
Potential niche markets for luxury fashion goods in China
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate market segmentation of affluent Chinese consumers and
develop profiles of identified segments for potential target markets for luxury fashion goods.
Design/methodology/approach – The data are from the 2006 edition of an annual survey called the “China's New
Rich Study”. The respondents form a representative sample of affluent consumers, 18 to 45 years old, residing in
China's 12 largest cities. A psychographic segmentation approach is employed to classify these consumers.
Findings – Five distinct market segments of affluent Chinese consumers are identified and profiled. Of these
segments, three seem the most promising target markets for luxury fashion goods.
Practical implications – When companies understand the similarities and differences between consumer segments
as well as the unique characteristics of segments, they have a meaningful basis for selecting receptive target
markets and formulating and implementing effective marketing strategies. The findings of this study can be useful
not only to companies that offer luxury fashion goods, but also to those targeting the upscale market with a
plethora of products and services like yachts, luxury cars, high-end electronics, resort vacations, and credit cards
and other financial services.
Originality/value – This is the first study on segmentation of Chinese consumers for potential target markets for
luxury fashion goods. Results reveal heterogeneity among affluent urban Chinese consumers. Strategies for
marketing luxury fashion goods to promising target markets in China are outlined on the basis of segment profiles
and culturally based motivations for purchasing such goods.
Ling Gao, Marjorie J.T. Norton, Zhi-ming Zhang, Chester Kin-man To, (2009) "Potential niche markets for luxury fashion goods in China", Journal
of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol. 13 Iss: 4, pp.514 - 526
The structured abstract was originally developed in the field of medicine for a unique audience, medical
doctors and nurses who need to be familiar with the latest studies. It is designed for readers who don’t have
time to read the whole article and may often not be doing research at all. However, if you are in a more
humanities or social science-oriented area, don’t skip to the next section yet. The trend toward requiring
structured abstracts is gradually spreading throughout the experimental sciences and may eventually become
common in every field. Even if your field’s key journals don’t use structured abstracts yet, they may soon. It’s
a good idea to be familiar with how structured abstracts work.
The author’s guidelines of a journal that requires structured abstract headings will give a list of required and
optional headings. Sometimes there are variations for different types of articles. For example, for
International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology and Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management,
the following guidelines are given on the publisher’s website:
© 2014 Jocelyn Graf
grafj@lacitycollege.edu
Page 3
Purpose
What are the reason(s) for writing the paper or the aims of the research?
Design/methodology/approach
How are the objectives achieved? Include the main method(s) used for the research. What is the
approach to the topic and what is the theoretical or subject scope of the paper?
Findings
What was found in the course of the work? This will refer to analysis, discussion, or results.
Research limitations/implications (if applicable)
If research is reported on in the paper this section must be completed and should include suggestions for
future research and any identified limitations in the research process.
Practical implications (if applicable)
What outcomes and implications for practice, applications and consequences are identified? How will the
research impact upon the business or enterprise? What changes to practice should be made as a result of
this research? What is the commercial or economic impact? Not all papers will have practical
implications.
Social implications (if applicable)
What will be the impact on society of this research? How will it influence public attitudes? How will it
influence (corporate) social responsibility or environmental issues? How could it inform public or
industry policy? How might it affect quality of life? Not all papers will have social implications.
Originality/value
What is new in the paper? State the value of the paper and to whom.
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/authors/guides/write/abstracts.htm?part=1&#2
The structured abstract requirement also forces the author to cover all the main points that should be in an
abstract: the background, research methodology, results, and implications. Therefore, even if you are writing
for a journal that does not use structured abstracts, it may be helpful to use the headings as a guideline for
your writing. In a convenience sample of 100 abstracts, 10 each from 10 of the top journals in clothing and
textile studies, which I collected while preparing this handout, I found that the structured abstracts were
more consistently well written. They were more likely to include all the key points and to clearly organize the
points in a way that was easy to read.
Quiz: Here is an example of an unstructured abstract that is missing important information. What is missing?
Dyeing and fastness properties of natural dyes extracted from eucalyptus leaves using
padding techniques
A natural dye extracted from eucalyptus leaves was applied to a silk and wool fabric by the use of two
padding techniques, namely the pad-batch and pad-dry techniques under different conditions. Silk and
wool fabrics dyed in a solution composed of eucalyptus extract from leaves showed a shade of pale
yellow to brown. The exception was when the fabric was dyed with ferrous mordant, resulting in a shade
of dark grayish-brown. The fastness properties ranged from good to excellent, while light fastness was
fair to good.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/k30452r5l73260gg/
© 2014 Jocelyn Graf
grafj@lacitycollege.edu
Page 4
Here is another example of a structured abstract:
Fashion value brands: the relationship between identity and image
Purpose – This study seeks to develop previous research into value branding by investigating potential
misalignments between brand identity as intended by the brand owner, and the way in which the brand
image is perceived by young consumers.
Design/methodology/approach – Kapferer's model was used to create a detailed brand identity for a
value fashion brand. A survey of 150 business students provided a map to identify any gaps between the
intended and perceived brand image. Theoretical concepts underpinning the paper include value
branding and the relationship between brand identity and brand image.
Findings – A marked difference was observed in the way in which value brands are intended and how
they are perceived; these misalignments may have significant implications. In particular, young
consumers' perceptions of value brands' fashion content could create barriers during decision making.
However, the relationship facet indicates potential for developing lifelong loyalty from the sample.
Research limitations/implications – The research provided a visual map of perceived brand image to
allow comparison between identity and image. A longitudinal study could identify how attitudes might
change throughout the purchasing life of the sample group.
Practical implications – It was found that the brand owner needed to develop and effectively
communicate the reflection element of brand identity to improve the perception of how the typical
customer is viewed by others.
Originality/value – The relationship between brand identity and brand image is particularly important
in the value fashion sector. Although some research has been undertaken in this field, it mainly relates to
how corporate brands are perceived, while this study focuses on the product level.
Jill Ross, Rod Harradine, (2011) "Fashion value brands: the relationship between identity and image", Journal of Fashion Marketing and
Management, Vol. 15 Iss: 3, pp.306 - 325
It is also unnecessary to use the headings in the abstract as the subheadings in the body of the paper. For
example, in the abstract above, the headings are as follows: Purpose, Design/methodology/approach,
Findings, Research limitations/implications, Practical implications, Originality/value. However, the body of the
paper is divided into the following sections and subsections:
1. Introduction
4.2 Tesco brand image
Overview of survey results
Brand image: physique
Brand image: personality
Brand image: relationship
Brand image: culture
Brand image: reflection
Brand image: self-image
4.3 Brand identity and image maps
2. Literature review
2.1 Brand identity and brand image
2.2 Facets of brand identity Assignment
2.3 Perceptions Intervention
3. Methodology
4. Findings and discussion
4.1 Tesco brand identity
Brand identity: physique
Brand identity: personality
Brand identity: relationship
Brand identity: culture
Brand identity: reflection
Brand identity: self-image
© 2014 Jocelyn Graf
5. Conclusions
grafj@lacitycollege.edu
Page 5
2.2 Unstructured Abstracts
Background
General
Most journals in the social sciences and humanities, and some in the
sciences, do not yet require structured abstracts. Instead, you as the
author have the freedom to allocate the limited space as you choose.
Nevertheless, there are some common practices for organizing the
abstract of a research report.
Purpose
First of all, abstracts present material in the same order as the body of
the paper. However, some sections of the paper contribute more detailed
information to the abstract, while other sections can almost be skipped.
The typical experimental or engineering paper will use the most abstract
space for results. However, in areas of research more related to social
science, such as business and behavioral studies, the introduction may
deserve more abstract space. If your paper presents a new research
procedure, the method section of the abstract will be larger.
Specific
Quiz: Which section is the largest in the following abstract?
A. Background
B. Purpose
C. Method
D. Results
E. Implications
General
Methods
Results
Implications
Addressing Sustainable Apparel Design Challenges With Problem-Based Learning
As consumers' social and environmental concerns have grown in the last decade, so has interest in ecofashion. Behind fast-changing fashion trends, the apparel industry generates substantial environmental
and resource depletion problems throughout the textile lifecycle. To respond to these trends, fashion
designers and merchandisers have been motivated to practice sustainability in design and production.
Some sustainable options are available, such as organic fibers and environmentally safe dyes. Still, there
are challenges for apparel designers and merchandisers when trying to realize sustainability. To help
undergraduate apparel students learn problem-solving approaches to sustainable garment design, a
problem-based learning project was created and implemented in an undergraduate design course. In the
course, students designed and produced an original sustainable garment. Student feedback following the
project was largely positive, with most students indicating they would continue using sustainable
practices in future work.
http://ctr.sagepub.com/content/29/3/202.abstract
From my 100-abstract sample, I found that the background and implications sections are often omitted, but
this is not a recommended practice. Tips for fitting complicated background information and implications in a
brief number of words will be discussed below.
Also, note that the Originality/value heading for the structured abstracts is similar to the Background content
of an unstructured abstract. The Background provides information that will help the reader understand the
study and why it is important. The Originality/value section does the same thing, but in light of the results of
the specific study that the abstract is summarizing. If you have to resubmit an article written for a journal
with one kind of abstract to a journal with the other kind of abstract, it is probably possible to just move the
sentences about Background or Originality/value from the end to the beginning or vice versa with only minor
changes.
© 2014 Jocelyn Graf
grafj@lacitycollege.edu
Page 6
2.3 Examples of Unstructured Abstracts
Below are two examples of unstructured abstracts. Notice how clear the structure is, even though they are
“unstructured” abstracts.
Biomimetics of Plant Structure in Knitted Fabrics to Improve the Liquid Water Transport
Properties
Background of the research
Biomimetics of the branching structure of a plant can improve the water
absorption and one-way transport property of the fabric.
Purpose/Method
The present work focused on the development of a branching network in
knitted fabrics to improve liquid water transport properties.
Method/Results
Fabrics developed with such a branching structure and made from different
combinations of yarns exhibited faster water absorption and improved
moisture management property, as measured on the Transplanar Water
Transport Tester and Moisture Management Tester. Furthermore, the novel
structure also improved the air permeability of the fabric.
Implications
The improved water absorption rate, moisture management property and
air permeability are beneficial to clothing comfort.
http://trj.sagepub.com/content/80/6/568.abstract
Prediction of Dimensional Changes in Circular Knitted Cotton Fabrics
Background of the research
Cotton fiber continues to be the most important textile fiber in the world;
Problem
however, in contrast to its excellent attributes of comfort, knit fabrics
produced in cotton have a high degree of dimensional instability.
Study design
In this study, a knowledge database of the relaxation process of cotton knit
fabrics, during all phases of their production up to the finished textile, has
been developed.
Solution
To obtain cotton knit fabrics with dimensional stability, apart from
controlling the manufacturing process, a development system is required
which simulates all of the process variables. This can be used to select the
characteristics of the raw material, machines and processes which best
attend to the quality needs of the client.
Implications
This procedure allows the final quality of the product to be determined in
advance without the need to generate costs and wastages with experimental
lots.
http://trj.sagepub.com/content/80/3/236.abstract
© 2014 Jocelyn Graf
grafj@lacitycollege.edu
Page 7
2.4 Other Types of Abstracts
There are a number of types of abstracts other than the standard journal article abstract. Here are three
common ones.
Abstracts for Math Papers
Papers that have extensive math or engineering theory (engineering papers without an experiment or
product development) often have short abstracts because it is impossible to say much about the math in
words. However, if possible, the implications or applications of the math or theory should be included in the
abstract. Social science papers with extensive statistical analysis are not included in this group. They follow
the standard social science abstract structure.
A Mathematical Model for Rotor-Spun Composite Yarn Spinning Process
A mathematical model is established for a stable rotor-spun composite yarn spinning process based on
force balance and mass conservation. From the established model, we can easily determine the position
of the convergent point, the section area and the line density of the composite yarn.
http://trj.sagepub.com/content/80/6/487.abstract
Abstracts for Literature Reviews, History, or Theory Articles
Reviews in most journals are like textbook chapters covering the latest research. They aim at an audience of
graduate students and those who are not experts on the subject of the review. They summarize and discuss
the work of many studies. They do not have their own methods and results because they are just gathering
the information from other studies. Therefore the traditional structure of background – methods – results –
implications will not fit. Instead the entire abstract is just background, summary of other studies, and
implications.
Similarly, articles from the humanities focus on history or theory and do not report on an experiment. They
may review the literature on or history of a subject and present a new interpretation or analysis of the
subject. Here is an example of a history abstract with this structure: background – historical summary –
implications.
Codes of Fair Competition: The National Recovery Act, 1933-1935, and the Women’s Dress
Manufacturing Industry
Controversial issues prevalent in today’s ready-to-wear apparel industry include the right of workers to
join unions, the proliferation of sweatshops and sweatshop conditions, and design piracy. The idea of
forming codes of conduct to establish criteria of ethical business practices is not new to the apparel
industry. Indeed, the women’s dress manufacturing industry discussed and debated codes of fair
competition under the New Deal Policies of the National Recovery Act (NRA) of 1933 to 1935. Primary
sources for this study included governmental hearings in the establishment of the NRA Dress Code, The
New York Times, Women’s Wear Daily, and the Journal of the Patent Office Society. The history of the NRA
codes implemented in the U.S. women’s ready-to-wear apparel industry provides an important case
study highlighting the difficulties and complexities of creating and achieving industry-wide standard
practices through self-regulation. The failure of the NRA demonstrates that even with the joint
cooperation of industry, labor, and consumer groups and the backing of the force of law, codes of fair
competition proved impossible to enforce.
http://ctr.sagepub.com/content/28/3/189.abstract
© 2014 Jocelyn Graf
grafj@lacitycollege.edu
Page 8
Abstracts for case reports
In the study of clothing and textiles, case reports are detailed descriptions of a “case,” that is, a single
situation, and what happened. They are useful for teaching and are commonly used in business schools. Case
reports need a different type of abstract. For educational case reports, Emerald Publishing has these
guidelines for a structured abstract:





Subject area of the case
Student level and proposed courses the case can be used on
Has this case been used previously, and if so, with what student level and on what courses? If
this case hasn’t been previously used, what audience do you see benefiting most from it?
Brief overview of the case
What are the main points of the case? What is the argument you are trying to make?
Expected learning outcomes
What should readers of this case get out of it?
List of supplementary materials
For example teaching notes (which should be included in every case study), class exercises, etc.
Optional:


List of further reading materials
Multimedia accompaniment to the case (e.g. audio, visual files)
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/products/case_studies/index.htm
3. More Abstract Writing Tips
1. Avoid abbreviations, jargon, and other language shortcuts that may lead to confusion
If you use an abbreviation, write out the meaning. If you are absolutely certain all your readers will
understand, you can use the abbreviation. Consider readers from other countries and new graduate students
when you decide whether to define your abbreviation. A few journals also have a short list of abbreviations
that do not need to be defined.
Be sure to put the long form first, followed by the short form inside parentheses, not vice versa. Also, leave a
space before the first parenthesis.
Examples of abbreviations and their meanings:
X WHO (World Health Organization)
X World Health Organization(WHO) no space
O World Health Organization (WHO)
If you need to use a long term or phrase several times in the abstract, you can create an abbreviation for it. It
should be defined the first time you mention it in the abstract, and again the first time you mention it in the
body of the article. However, there is no reason to use an abbreviation only once in an abstract unless the
abbreviation is more widely known that the full-length form.
© 2014 Jocelyn Graf
grafj@lacitycollege.edu
Page 9
2. New terms are defined
If you create a new name for a concept, or if you use a word that is not well-known in the field, it is necessary
to define it. Many authors also define every very common words if they are central concepts in a paper.
3. Avoid repetition
Sometimes repetition helps the reader follow your argument. Because there isn’t enough room for repetition
in the abstract, it can be more difficult to read.
4. Avoid footnotes
Citations are not generally used in journal article abstracts, although they may be used in conference
abstracts, particularly longer abstracts.
5. Avoid paragraphing
In the convenience sample of 100 abstracts, only one had more than one paragraph. It is recommended that
multiple paragraphs not be used because in some databases, they will not appear anyway, and some journals
will just push the paragraphs together before publication.
6. Don’t try to surprise the reader
Holding back significant points or information to try to get the reader to read the article is not a good idea.
Researchers use the abstract to decide whether to obtain the article, and may have to pay or do extra work
to obtain it. An abstract is not a mystery story but should contain all the significant points of the article.
7. Avoid vague and meaningless phrases
Quiz: What’s wrong with this abstract?
X Example:
This paper discusses research which was undertaken in the author's country. A theoretical framework is
developed from a literature search and this is used by the authors as the basis of an analytical model. The
researchers collected data within this framework and analysed it according to the precepts laid down by earlier
researchers in the field. The data is used to demonstrate that our understanding can be significantly increased and
this is discussed in the light of previous work. Conclusions are drawn and it is shown that these may be useful for
practitioners.
Hughes W. Refereed journal papers: Practice and process. 2005. http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~kcshuwil/publish/Glasgow2005.pdf .
Retrieved November 2006.
Obviously, the sample abstract above contains no details. Although this is an extreme case (actually it’s a joke,
not a real abstract), many writers do make the error of using some of these useless expressions, such as “The
data is discussed in the light of previous work.” If it is not possible to summarize a number of complex points
briefly, do not write a vague sentence. Instead, choose the most important point, and explain it clearly. If you
are dealing with the discussion/conclusion, you may wish to drop the sentence altogether.
Quiz: In the following abstract, which section is too vague?
A. Purpose
B. Methodology
C. Results
D. Implications
© 2014 Jocelyn Graf
grafj@lacitycollege.edu
Page 10
Effects of Level of Internet Retailer’s Service Quality on Perceived Apparel Quality, Perceived
Service Quality, Perceived Value, Satisfaction, and Behavioral Intentions Toward an Internet
Retailer
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of the level of Internet retailer’s service quality
(IRSQ) on perceived apparel quality, perceived service quality, consumer value perception of apparel
shopping, satisfaction with apparel shopping experience, and future behavioral intentions regarding
apparel shopping with the Internet retailer. We also investigated interrelationships among these
variables in both IRSQ levels. The quality-value-satisfaction model (Cronin, Brady, & Hult, 2000) was
adopted and expanded to serve as a theoretical framework for this study. A convenience sample of 361
female college students in two U.S. regions participated in and provided usable responses to this
experimental study. Multi-group analysis via a structural equation modeling technique revealed positive
interrelationships between perceived apparel quality, perceived service quality, perceived value,
satisfaction, and behavioral intentions. In addition, these interrelationships were stronger in higher
IRSQ level, compared to the lower level. Implications and recommendations for future research are
discussed.
http://ctr.sagepub.com/content/28/1/56.abstract
4. Dealing with the Word Limit
One the most difficult aspects of writing an abstract is the strict word limit. For example, the word limit for
the structured abstracts in International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology and Journal of Fashion
Marketing and Management is 250 words. A few of the published abstracts from my convenience sample had
a word count of 250-300 words. However, this is not recommended for two reasons. First, any deviation from
the journal’s author guidelines is a potential reason that your submitted article can be rejected. If a journal is
competitive, the editors sometimes throw out all articles that don’t follow the author’s guidelines in the first
stage of review.
You can count the number of characters automatically in MS Word. In older versions, go to Tools > Word
Count and view Characters (with spaces). In newer versions of MS Word, go to the Review toolbar and over
on the left, in the Spelling & Grammar area, click on the small white icon that looks like this:
Here are some examples of techniques for shortening the word count:
Eliminate preliminaries
Although it would be good style or for a presentation or some kinds of writing, there is not enough space in
the abstract to explain what you will talk about next.
Example:
X This paper discusses three issues.
Instead, just mention the three issues.
© 2014 Jocelyn Graf
grafj@lacitycollege.edu
Page 11
Eliminate phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are phrases containing a common verb plus one or more prepositions (in, on, at, etc.). The
combined words have a different meaning than the meaning of each word separately. For example “find out”
does not mean “to find something outside.” It means “to determine” or “to discover.”
Examples:
X find out  O determine
X carry out  O perform
X look into  O investigate
Eliminate superlatives
Instead of using words like “very” and “extremely,” try to choose stronger nouns and verbs or just drop the
superlative.
Examples:
X very large  O huge
X extremely pale  O pale
Cut some prepositions, especially unneeded “of”
X the opinions of the shoppers from Japan  O the Japanese shoppers’ opinions
Change long noun phrases to verbs
X the necessity of  O need
Find one-word synonyms
X not satisfied  O unsatisfied
Shorten relative clauses
X opportunities for meeting others who are in similar situations 
O opportunities for meeting others in similar situations
Shortcuts to avoid
The list below includes several steps that will make your abstract shorter, but they are not acceptable. Do
NOT . . .
 Cut articles (a/an/the): This is sometimes done in abstracting journals, but you shouldn’t do it for
your own articles.
 Cut “and” and other logical connectors critical to your meaning
 Create contractions (don’t, can’t, they’ll, etc.)
 Create abbreviations that are not widely known (remember your international and graduate student
readers)
 Cut whole sections of the abstract
 Write vague statements
© 2014 Jocelyn Graf
grafj@lacitycollege.edu
Page 12
5. Recommended Reading
Cummings P, Rivara FP, Koepsell TD. Writing informative abstracts for journal articles. Arch Pediatr Adolesc
Med. 2004 Nov;158(11):1086-8.http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/158/11/1086 [Many good
examples for a clinical article.]
Journal of Neuroscience website. http://www.jneurosci.org/misc/ifa_minireviews.shtml
Swales JM, Feak CB. English in Today’s Research World. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan Press; 2000.
Taylor, D. and Rose, JB. Writing an abstract in the health sciences and social work. University of Toronto
Health Sciences Writing Centre website. http://www.utoronto.ca/hswriting/abstract.htm
© 2014 Jocelyn Graf
grafj@lacitycollege.edu
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