Body Image
Body Image - Background
I. Body image – the mental image we have of our own physical appearance; it is influenced by
many factors:
A. Weight
B. Our weight distribution,
C. Our values about physical appearance,
D. Our ethnic background,
E. Our concepts of a good physical appearance,
F. What we see in others around us
G. What we hear through the media
H. What we hear from others
II. Self-concept is important in relation to human sexuality & it is usually closely related to body
image; good body image contributes to a more confident individual
A. If we feel better about ourselves, we are more likely to pursue a potential partner
B. Body image also affects sexual behavior
1. People with positive body image are more likely to be open to sexual expression that
exposes the body
C. Body image issues seem to be growing in importance
1. It influences much of our behavior & self-esteem
2. It governs whom we meet & whom we select as life partners, day-to-day interactions &
comfort level
D. Psychology Today survey – 89% of women wanted to lose weight; 22% of men wanted to
gain weight
1. Some women avoid pregnancy because of fear of what a pregnancy would do to their
body
2. Sexual experiences affect body image & vice versa
E. Women seem to be more likely than men to have poor body image – study with >3500
people who are university or bank employees
1. Men more likely to be overweight than women, but women more likely than men to
perceive themselves as overweight, even if their weight was appropriate for height
F. More researchers now say that men also have body image problems & they are often
reluctant to seek help; if severe called the Adonis complex
1. Binge eating among college men is just as common as binge drinking (~40%)
G. Body image is unique problem for physically challenged; there can be changes in body
contour due to accident/disease & body function changes that may relate to sexuality
1. May view themselves as flawed or unattractive
III. Usually thinking about body image implies being thinner; now understand that there is a range
of beauty & attractiveness
A. For years, Barbie was the American ideal but her figure is impossible to have in real life;
that is changing
The Elusive Perfect Body
I. What is the perfect body?
A. Female athletes
1. Best swimmers – relatively tall; look like a capital Y from front with wide, flexible
shoulders, long arms and hands, narrow waist, lightweight legs
2. Top speed skaters – shorter & rather average from waist up; farther down have heavily
muscled legs with rather short thighs
3. Female gymnasts – lean, petite frame; fine-boned face, small breasts, long arms
B. Bodies closest to perfect are to a large extent born that way; take what you have & work
on it as best you can
II. Why models look so perfect?
A. Actors – month before movie starts, personal trainer gets the look the director wants;
workouts & diet are structured to get desired look
1. Clothes, makeup & lighting are chosen to enhance the chosen qualities
B. Influence of media - >2/3 of girls from grades 5- 12 said magazine photos influenced their
notion of ultimate figure; not a simple matter
1. 47% said they wanted to lose weight because of those pictures but only 27% were actually
overweight – 1999 in Pediatrics
C. Beauty pageants – also define ideal of beauty in terms of weight & body shape among others
1. Body mass index (BMI; weight divided by square of height) of Miss America winners
from 1922 to 1999 has shown decline over that time
D. Playboy – playmate bust size & hip size decreased over 50 year period while waist size
increased
1. BMI & bust-to-hip ratio decreased, while waist-to-hip & waist-to-bust ratios & androgyny
index increased
E. One study concluded that beyond media exposure, awareness & internalization of
sociocultural ideals were significant predictors of body image disturbance
IV. Diversity and body image – ideal in past in U. S. was Barbie, Ken or some version of white
person
A. African-American adolescent females seem to be happier with body & less likely to diet
than European-American adolescent females
B. This is changing as a result of pressure from those who emphasize diversity; products,
methods & goals relating to beauty have changed
Building a Better Self-Image
I. How can you improve your body image?
A. Do not feel the need to apologize for every blemish; chances are nobody notices
B. Do not base your body image on what you see & hear in advertisements; few people look &
act the way they do in ads
C. Attractive people are often judged to be more warm, interesting, friendly, considerate &
strong than those who are less attractive
D. You should be free to be yourself; message you send about appearance & ones you receive
from others may not always be the same
E. The way you move your body (body language) can also indicate the way you feel about
yourself
II. People who feel good about themselves are more attractive to others than people who do not
A. Creating your optimal body
1. Must keep genetics in mind; there can be genetic limitations – body of basketball
player or gymnast
B. Study - ~40% of adult men & 55% of adult women are dissatisfied with their body weight
1. Up to 85% of first-year college men & women want to change body weight
C. Diet business in US is big business; at any time, 48 million adult Americans (60% of adult
women are on diet; spend $36 billion annually on diet products
1. Few people have long-term weight-loss success
2. For long-term success with weight loss, approach to diets must change
D. Exercise is very important for losing weight & keeping it off
1. People who try to lose weight by exercise only (instead of diet alone) lost a higher
percentage of fat & had more success keeping weight off than those only dieting
2. Moderate exercise suppresses appetite, rather than increasing it; can exercise just before
meal to take advantage; it also strengthens muscle tissue
III. Issues related to trying to be perfect
A. Eating disorders - compulsive overeating (binge eating) & dieting; among female college
athletes, 15% of swimmers, 62% of gymnasts, 32% of all had eating disorders
1. Anorexia nervosa – condition in which individual severely limits calorie intake; selfinduced starvation; it can be fatal
a. Most people with anorexia are white females <25 years old who are focused on goal of
extreme thinness & willingly starve selves & overexercise to reach goal
2. Bulimia nervosa – condition in which person periodically binges & purges with obsessive
fear of getting fat
a. Bulimia (insatiable appetite) confused with anorexia because bingeing is common to
both, but a number of the characteristics are different
3. Binge-eating disorder (BED) – eating disorder characterized by recurrent binge eating, but
not by inappropriate weight-control behavior
B. Treating eating disorders – many approaches used in the treatment of anorexia, but prognosis
is not good
1. Drug therapy (~25% of cases) & behavior modification (~45%); sometimes a combination
C. Treating bulimia – requires establishing a normal eating pattern that eliminates dieting;
bulimics can hide their disorder from people but are more likely to seek treatment
Muscle Dysmorphia
I. Body image & goals related to it may change over time – as someone makes progress toward
goal, ideal of perfect body image may become more perfect
A. Person chases body image perpetually & can lose perspective about actual body image
II. Muscle dysmorphia – afflicts body builders & is essentially the opposite of anorexia nervosa;
involves body builders in good shape who consider themselves to be puny
A. Up to 10% of men & 84% of women bodybuilders have this negative anorexia; men who
did not think they were well built could press their own body weight
B. Increasingly common problem among athletes & nonathletes alike with both men & women
susceptible; has many similarities to established dieting disorders
1. Perhaps due to media , those with muscle dysmorphia place undue emphasis on body
weight & shape when judging their own worth
Sports and Dieting
I. Eating disorders may be the gravest health problem facing female athletes (gymnasts, figure
skaters, swimmers, distance runners, divers, tennis & volleyball players
A. SI special report – up to 62% of females in appearance sports (figure skating, gymnastics) &
endurance sports suffer from eating disorders
B. Size of women in gymnastics has been dropping since 1968 – got tinier after Olga Korbut
Steroid Use
I. Steroids are synthetic versions of the male hormone testosterone; steroid abuse is fast becoming
a serious problem among adolescent males (athletes & nonathletes)
A. Take large doses to get much greater body mass quickly
B. Potential undesired side effects – psychologically & physically addictive
1. Halt in growth & bone development
2. Testicular shrinkage
3. Increased cholesterol levels
4. Infertility & decreased sexual drive
5. Prostate cancer
6. Kidney disorders & liver malfunction
7. Aggression & violence
8. Suicidal tendencies & extreme moodiness
II. 1998 – 2.7% of MA. Middle school athletes were using steroids
A. Up to a half a million Americans <18 may be abusing anabolic steroids to improve athletic
performance, appearance & self-image
B. Not limited to males - ~6.5% of adolescent boys & 1.9% of girls reported their use without a
prescription
C. Most common reason given by male body builders for using steroids is to enhance
appearance
III. Adverse effects in women – not enough studies yet to assess fully the extent of damage to a
woman's body & whether the effects are permanent
A. Lowered voice
B. Increased body/facial hair, male-pattern baldness, enlarged clitoris, decreased breast size
C. Changes in or cessation of menstruation
IV. There is also an increased risk of HIV transmission due to shared needles; furthermore,
anabolic steroids are illegal in U. S.; stiff fines & possible imprisonment for their use
A. The "male body ideal" has led some males to develop an Adonis complex
Makeovers & Cosmetic Surgery
I. Celebrities and others presently try to constantly remake their bodies using a number of
procedures like:
A. Liposuction – technique for removing adipose (fat) tissue with a suction-pump device
1. A hollow suction tube, attached to a special vacuum, is inserted into small incisions in
skin
B. Breast implants – been around for many years but debate arose in 1990s
1. October 1998 – Dow Corning who makes silicone-based breast implants agreed to
compensate women who said they became unwell after implants
C. Cosmetic surgery – includes those already mentioned; many elect it when a part of their
body makes them self-conscious or uncomfortable
D. Rhinoplasty – surgery done to change the shape of the nose
1. Usually takes 1 – 2 hours, costs $3000 – 12,000 (average ~$4500)
E. Breast augmentation – second most frequent cosmetic surgery (~250,000 cases) in 2002; up
147% since 1997; average total cost is$6000
F. Implants to enhance pectoral muscles – being used by more men; put in pair of palm-sized
silicone disks; costs $4000 – 10,000
1. Takes <2 hours & usually performed in doctor's office under general anesthesia
G. Different sources have different procedures as top 5
1. Top 5 for men in one study – nose reshaping, liposuction, eyelid surgery, hair
transplantation, breast reduction
2. Top 5 for women – breast augmentation, liposuction, nose reshaping, eyelid surgery, face
lift
H. Breast reduction – not necessarily cosmetic surgery; depends on intention/situation; may be
done to relieve physical ailments (back/neck pain caused by large, heavy breasts)
1. Involves removal of fat & breast tissue & may leave noticeable scars
2. Usually 2 – 4 hours; costs $5000 – 10,000; may be covered by insurance if medical
problems are associated with breast size
II. Tummy tuck – more extensive than liposuction; removes excess skin & fat from lower abdomen
& tightens abdominal muscles
A. Usually requires hip-to-hip-lower abdominal incision; takes 1 – 2 hours to complete if fat
deposits are below navel; more extensive procedure needed – 2 – 5 hours
B. Costs $5000 – 9000 (average total - $6400); usually not covered by insurance
III. Other procedures – face lifts, upper/lower eyelid reduction, chin implantation; any body part
can be altered if strongly motivated & have means to pay
A. Legal in most states for any physician to advertise him/herself as a plastic/cosmetic surgeon;
candidates must select well-trained plastic surgeon for any cosmetic surgery
B. Plastic surgery will continue to be growth industry – more young people are getting such
surgery; people who have had surgery will have more
C. Nonsurgical procedures – top 5 in 2002
1. Botulinum toxin injection (Botox) – 1.6 million procedures; up 2.356% since 1997
2. Chemical peel – using chemical solution to peel away the skin's top layers; 1.4 million
procedures; up 118% since 1997
3. Collagen injection – to plump up creased or sunken facial skin or add fullness to lips; 1.1
million procedures
4. Microdermabrasion – mechanical scraping of top layers of skin to soften sharp edges of
surface irregularities; 915,000 procedures
5. Laser hair removal – 855,000 procedures
IV. Overall plastic surgery statistics
A. Baby boomers aged 35 – 50 years had the most procedures (44%)
B. Men & women aged 51 – 64 years 25% of procedures
V. Body piercing – used by some to enhance body image; making its way into socially acceptable
studios; many question motives behind body piercing
A. Myers (1992) reported that many who use it are "sane, successful people" & that it gives
people a strong sense of self & a connection with others by:
B. Most common places for body piercing – face or ears; some people pierce other parts –
tongues, nipples, abdomen, genitals
C. Not risk-free – sometimes produces infection