Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Formation
All ground water in Florida contain some level of naturally occurring organic material
(NOM). When disinfectants such as chlorine are added in amounts to produce a free
chlorine residual, some of the organic material and the chlorine will react to from
chemicals known as disinfection byproducts (DBPs). The general equation is shown
below:
NOM + Cl2
THMs + HAAs + Other DBP Compounds
Natural water contains NOM in the form of humic and nonhumic substances. The
precursors of DBP formation are generally naturally occurring organic substances, such
as humic and fulvic acids. These acids belong to a family of compounds having similar
structure and chemical properties and are formed during the decomposition of vegetation.
These natural organic DBP precursors can be subdivided into a hydrophobic (i.e., water
repellent) fraction of primarily humic material and a hydrophilic (i.e., water attractive)
fraction of primarily fulvic material. The importance here is that humic material will be
more reactive and tends to produce more disinfection by-products.
TOC as a Surrogate for Natural Organic Material Concentrations in
Source Water
Because the concentrations of the different types of NOM in source water are not easily
identified, it is necessary to use surrogate parameters. Although surrogate parameters
have limitations, they are used because they may be measured more easily. The
laboratory test used to identify the concentration of NOM is the Total Organic Carbon
test (TOC). This is a test performed in a laboratory where all forms of carbon present in
the water are digested. The amount of TOC in the water is a fair indicator of the problems
to be expected with DBP formation if chlorine residual is present.
Other laboratory tests to identify the significance of the makeup of the TOC and their
significance is shown below:
Different Makeup of NOM
And Their Significance in Source Water
NOM
Species
Description
Significance
TOC
Total amount of all forms of
Organic Carbon Present
The TOC passing through a 0.45
micron filter is dissolved
Good overall indicator of
potential DBP problems
Better indicator of the reactive
portion of the TOC
DOC
1
UV254
SUVA
Used to identify light absorption
of reactive humic components
Ratio of UV254 to DOC
Identifies the reactive potion of
the DOC
Best indicator of reactive
portion of the TOC
Water with SUVA between 5 and 7 will generally produce unacceptable levels of DBP’s.
Waters with SUVA between 3 and 4 contain higher levels of Fulvic materials these
compounds are not very removable with conventional coagulation processes.
UV254 unlike other Carbon surrogate tests, is very easy to perform and does not requires
only simple filtration with no digestion required. It can be read directly on a
spectrophotometer. Thus UV254 is often used as a process control parameter to observe
the efficiency of the treatment technique being employed to remove organic material.
Some relative values UV254 is expected to be between 0.04 to 0.8 cm-1 for source waters
and between 0.02-0.035 cm-1 for treated water. Trending of UV254 using actual water
system data is always the preferred over using typical ranges when analyzing water
system problems and will always provide superior results.
The literature as shown below, consistently indicates that UV254 tracks TOC quite well
under most all conditions. Florida Rural Water Association has equipment that can
perform this analysis for water systems. A typical comparison is shown below for a
surface water plant in Conneticut.
Use of Disinfection Formation Potentials in Identifying DBP Production
Some water systems also use DBP Formation Potentials (TOXFP or THMFP or HAAFP)
and or take extra DBP samples at locations not required by regulatory agencies.
The formation potential test identifies the ranges and degree of expected DBP problems.
Some water systems use the test to simulate the actual water treatment and water
distribution system to identify where the DBPs are being formed. It is always a good
procedure to identify where DBP’s are being formed. Typically, about 50% of the DBP’s
2
will be produced in the water treatment plant itself and 50% in the distribution system.
Knowing where these production areas are located, always leads to more productive DBP
reduction strategies.
Significance of TOC in Florida Groundwaters
The figure below illustrates the ranges of organic compounds that are found in various
types of Florida waters.
Note that groundwater would generally be expected to contain from 0.1 C-mg/l to about
2.5 C-mg/l. However, groundwater sources in Florida often exhibit some surface
connections. The TOC concentration in a swamp is expected to be 2 –3 magnitudes
higher. Because the ground surface in Florida is swamp-like, the state receives a
significant amount of rain and the Karst conditions that are present that allow water to
travel in naturally occurring sinkholes and other conduits within the aquifer, the TOC
concentrations in the Florida Aquifer where about 80% of the water systems in Florida
obtain their water supply, are typically higher as shown in the table below:
Variation in Source Water TOC Concentrations found in Florida
The concentration of TOC in the various geographic regions in Florida can vary
significantly as shown in the following table developed by the Florida Geological Survey
Department.
Concentrations of TOC C-mg/l in the Floridan Aquifer
Water Management
District
Median 1st Quartile 4th Quartile
NWFWMD
SRWMD
<1.0
2.0
<1
<1
3.2
6.2
3
SJRWMD
SWFWMD
SFWMD
Statewide Ave.
3.3
16.8
1.9
2.2
1.5
10.4
0.5
<1.0
5.4
27.1
3.5
7.9
The location of a source water well is the strongest indicator of a TOC problem. This
becomes more important when the wells are located near a surface influence such as a
river, stream or even a geological depression. The major concern of drinking-water utilities
is the potential of a source water to form disinfection by-products when chlorine is added as a
disinfectant. Waters from different hydrologic zones, different locations and conditions have
different potentials to form disinfection by-products. Utilities have long mixed water from different sources to balance the cumulative concentrations of regulated DPB’s.
The figures below illustrate some of the issues with well geographic locations in FLorida.
The figure on the left identifies areas in Florida where no confinement between upper and
lower aquifers are present. Wells in these areas would be more likely to be influenced by
surface conditions and exhibit higher levels of TOC. In the figure on the right, Karst
conditions, that are present throughout the state, can allow some surface water to reach
the drinking water aquifer. When this happens the blended source water will exhibit
higher levels of TOC.
Aquifer Confinement and Karst Conditions
In Florida
When TOC issues can be traced back to surface water influences, the well locations
should be surveyed to identify possible sources of contamination. Often when a problem
occurs, other parameters such as total coliform, color changes, and turbidity will also be
present.
It is extremely important when assessing a water system’s source water supply to
determine the concentration of TOC from the individual wells that are being used. Wells
located even a few feet away from one another, can have different concentrations of
4
TOC. In these instances water systems frequently mix less volumes of water from the
well with higher concentration of TOC, when conditions allow them to do so.
Besides TOC, bromide in source water will also react with chlorine and with ozone to for
DBP’s. Higher and reactive concentrations of bromide compounds are more common
with water systems that are located along the coasts of Florida because some brackish
water will likely intrude into the coastal aquifer. Brackish intrusion can be identified by
the water system’s reported secondary parameter for TDS. TDS values that approach or
exceed 500 mg/l will generally identify a high likelihood of bromide influence. Brackish
watercontains more bromide than fresh water and investigation of the source of a DBP
problem should always include and analysis of the DBP quarterly or yearly laboratory
results that are reported to DEP.
Groundwater systems that are inland, would be expected to have TTHMs where
Chloroform will be the predominant THM compound and systems that are near saltwater
would be expected to have higher levels of Bromoform.
Chlorine is the most common disinfectant in the United States, because it is effective, easy to use,
and inexpensive. When chlorine is used for disinfection, it produces halogenated by-products.
Specific compound classes, such as trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids, make up a majority of
these halogenated by-products. Trihalomethanes have been shown to cause cancer in laboratory
animals, and some haloacetic acids produce liver tumors in mice. Increased incidence of
spontaneous abortions or stillbirths, or latent effects such as cancer, have been attributed to
exposure to low concentrations of disinfection by-products (DBP).
The table below, identifies the regulated parameters that make up DBPs.
The Regulated Halogenated Organic byproducts
Total Trihalomethanes (TTHMs)
Chloroform
Bromodichloromethane
Dibromochloromethane
Bromoform

Haloacetic Acids (HAA5s)
Monochloroacetic acid
Dichloroacetic acid
Trichloroacetic acid
Monobromoacetic acid
Dibromoacetic acid
5
Strategies for DBP Reduction
Removing the organic precursors is the best control strategy, but this method requires
significant investment in treatment processes such as activated carbon or reverse osmosis
systems. Other systems such as air stripping can remove select volatile compounds such
as chloroform and bromoform but must be specifically designed to target these
compounds, are expensive to install and are expensive to operate. Additionally, they will
not remove Haloacetic Acids and thus target only 50% of a typical water system DBP
problem.
Disinfection is essential to inactivate microbial contaminants and DEP requires systems
to maintain a free chlorine residual of 0.2 mg/l at all points in the distribution system.
Thus balancing disinfection needs and DBPs formation is the challenge faced by
operators and that typically require strategies that can achieve simultaneous compliance .
alteration to the physical and/or chemical processes utilized for potable water treatment.
These common DBP reduction techniques are identified below:
Commonly used DBP Reduction Techniques

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




Eliminating Sources of Surface Water into Production Wells
Removing the Organic Precursor Material
Reducing the Chlorine Dose
Changing the Point(s) of Chlorine Application
Ensuring the WTP processes are absent of organic growth (ie. Ion
Exchange and Activated Carbon Systems)
Reducing the Chlorine Detention Time
Reducing the Chlorine Residual
Ensuring Water Tank Turnover
Reducing Water Distribution System Water Age
Flushing water in slow moving areas and at dead-ends
Removing sediment that creates chlorine demand
Removing biofilm that converts inorganic to organic materials
Note that all of these methods of reducing DBP production are activities that must be
proactively implemented by the water plant operator. How successful these techniques
may be are directly proportional to the level commitment to the DBP reduction plan and
follow up tracking of the affects of changes that actually occur.
Chlorine Residual and production of Disinfection Byproducts
Of all the methods available to an operator, reduction in chlorine residual carried in the
water distribution system is the best method for reducing DBPs. The figure below shows
the result of raising the amount of free chlorine residual and its affect on the production
of DBP’s.
6
In the above example chlorine dose at the water treatment plant was increased from 2.25
mg/l to about 3 mg/l. The effect as can be seen is remarkable. The HAA5 which are
formed faster near the point of application jumped about 60% and the TTHMs jumped
about 25%.
Longer contact with the organic material with these higher levels of chlorine will raise
the TTHMs even further as the water passes through the water distribution system, with
the TTHM increase eventually overtaking the HAA5 increase.
Water Age Considerations in the Production of DBP’s
Water age is the least most identified variable but one of the largest influencers of DBP
production. The figures below illustrate the problems with water age.
Figures Illustrating Increases in TTHM Production due to the Influence of
Water Age and Typical Water Ages found in Water Distribution Systems
In the first figure, the water age has increased in increments in hours over a 48 hour
period. The TTHMs for this water system have increased by 2 ½ times. In the second
figure water ages are given for typical water systems based on large, medium and small.
In every instance the water age for these systems exceeds 48 hours.
7
Water age is controlled by selective flushing in areas such as dead-end pipelines where
the water sits for these extended periods. Both looping of water system dead-end lines
and selective flushing will reduce water age and subsequent DBP production. Excessive
water age encourages the growth of bacteria in the pipelines which convert both organic
and inorganic materials to readily available organic byproducts that can react with free
chlorine.
When setting up flushing strategies, the biggest mistake made by water system operators
is flushing at a rate that scours pipelines. Flushing should always be performed at
velocities in the pipeline that are below 2.5 feet per second. Raising pipeline velocities
above this rate will stir organic sediment making it available for reaction with free
chlorine. It is often forgotten that DBP’s are measured in parts per billion and chlorine
residual is measured in parts per million. It takes a very little amount of organic material
to be stirred up to cause a significant problem.
Sampling for DBP’s should never be undertaken directly after flushing is performed.
Most water systems have found that a one week waiting period after the flushing was
completed to be sufficient to reduce the affects.
Since pipeline velocities are often unknown, it is wise to flush by pipe volumes and not
by velocity estimates. This is simply done by calculating the amount of water moving
from the hydrant in GPM times the minutes that the pipeline is flushed. Remember, it is
only necessary to flush stagnant water out of the dead-end mains. This is typically
accomplished by watching the chlorine residual rise to a target value during the flushgin
process.
Another issue with water age is the fact that HAA5’s will break down with longer
detention times and therefore the problems with these generally occur closer to the WTP
or in the center of the water distribution system. Trending relationships between HAA5’s
and TTHMs quarterly or even yearly, that show large increases and variations in the ratio
where HAA5’s are increasing and TTHM’s are decreasing indicate that that water age
has been reduced. Typically, in an instance like this the chlorine residual maintained by
the system has risen above the target level and can be reduced.
Setting of Activity and Performance Measures for DBP Reduction
In providing technical assistance it is extremely important that actual operating data be
collected. Often preconceived notions about the cause of a DBP problem are the biggest
obstacle in their solution. One must also be careful when providing assistance to ensure
that activity actions are not confused with performance measurement. Activity measures
are the types of proactive actions that are thought to have a high likelihood of reducing
the production of DBP. These are implemented at the front end of technical assistance
work. To achieve success however, it is necessary to collect information about the
success of the recommendations and plot them to ensure success.
8
Performance information that is often used in assessing success includes the following:
Performance Indicators Used in Tracking the
Success of DBP Reduction Activity Strategies
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Tracking Chlorine Dose
Tracking chlorine residual decay
Tracking Water Temperature
Tracking Water pH
Tracking Chlorine Reaction Time in the Water Distribution System
Comparing Laboratory DBP Results
As can be observed, exotic and expensive testing is typically not required to track the
performance of activities implemented by the operator. The parameters describes above
are relatively easy to collect.
Disinfection Byproducts Maximum Contaminant Levels
DBP Limits and their most common causes for alternative oxidants besides chlorine are
shown in the following slide.
Troubleshooting DBP Problems
This purpose of the guidelines are to identify the “Best Management Practices” (BMPs)
that available to help FRWA staff troubleshoot and resolve common signatures that
dictated effective actions.
These guidelines will be periodically updated as new methods and effective
troubleshooting procedures are developed.
9
Troubleshooting Guide #1
DBP - Source Water Changes
Observation/Metric
Probable Cause
Check
1. DBP Significant Excursion
and increase in TOC in Source
Water following Wet
Weather.
1. Heavy Rainfall causing
flooding and intrusion into the
source water
2. Source Water turnover is
lengthened because of moisture
conditions.
3. Surface water is intruding
into groundwater supply.
1. Storage levels for flow
changes.
2. Temperature changes that
cause water stratification
mixing,
3. For high seasonal
temperatures causing
upwelling of organic
materials
TOC or UV254
PH or Alkalinity
Flow Rates
Temperature
Turbidity, Cl demand and
Color Changes
2. DBP Significant Excursion
and some increase in TOC in
Source Water following Dry
Weather event
Bromide Concentration
TOC or UV254
PH, Alkalinity and TDS
Temperature
Flow Rate/ Detention Times
Turbidity
3. DBP Significant Excursion
after Source Water Supply
Changes incorporated.
TOC or UV254
Increase in H2S and/or Iron
Color, pH and Temperature
1. Brackish water Intrusion.
2. Ground Water quality
changes due to aquifer water
level decline
1. Source water supplies have
different levels of TOC.
2. Likely cause is change in
production wells that have
higher levels of inorganics
that exert higher chlorine
demands.
Remedy
1. Observe water quality
changes such as color,
increased chlorine demand
or higher incoming TOC.
2. Perform more frequent
chlorine residual
monitoring
3. Ensure good water
movement in system
4. initiate flushing to remove
organics.
1. Check Bromide levels in
1. Check Chlorine Residual
Source Water in coastal system. Decay and target Residuals
2. Perform water quality
2. Identify temperature,
checks, i.e. temperature, pH,
alkalinity and pH changes for
turbidity, reducing inorganic
possible adjustment of storage
agents and for TOC or UV254
tank cycles.
increases.
3. Increase flushing to ensure
better water movement
especially in stagnant areas of
the water system.
1. Determine water quality
from each source water
points.
1. adjust chlorine dose at the
well site
2. Move to other wells or
maximize their use.
10
Troubleshooting Guide #2
Observation/Metric
DBP – Process Upsets in Water Treatment Plant
Check
Remedy
1. DBP Significant Excursion is 1. Coagulant or Flocculation
noticed following changes in
equipment malfunction.
2. Coagulant and/or pH not
Coagulation Practices at a
Surface Water Plant.
adjusted for source water
conditions.
3. Feed pump failure or
PH and/or Alkalinity
operation at improper rates
Coagulant Dose
4. Flow rate has significantly
Polymer Dose
changed resulting in
Alkalinity, TDS
Flow Rate
changes to water quality
held in storage.
5. There has been a change in
coagulant or coagulant aid.
1. Equipment maintenance
records, calibrations and
settings.
2. Feed equipment, coagulant
dose applied and pH trends.
3. Changes in alkalinity or
higher levels of TDS in
source water.
4. Check for changes in
coagulant or coagulant aid
1. Repair and recalibrate feed
equipment as needed.
2. Identify alkalinity and pH
changes for possible adjustment
(high pH will adversely affect
coagulation.)
3. Run enhanced coagulation
jar tests and reset chemical
addition.
1. DBP Significant Excursion is 1. Changes in dosing at a plant
noticed following changes in
location is producing higher
Chlorination Practices.
levels of DBPs.
2. Chlorine dose is too high for
conditions.
Total and Free Chlorine
Residuals
Temp, pH, Turbidity and
TOC or UV254
1. Prechlorination has been
1. Prechlorination is causing
initiated to control tastes or
premature DBP reactions.
odors higher levels of H2S or
iron.
1. Check Bromide levels in
Source Water.
2. Perform water quality
checks, i.e. temperature, pH,
turbidity, reducing inorganic
agents and for TOC or UV254
increases.
1. Plot chlorine demand curve
and reset dosage to achieve
desired residual.
2. Adjust chlorine dose based
on pH.
1. Check Chlorination Trends
for both Dose and Residual
2. Determine DBP formation
potential by running a
disinfection jar test.
3. Change prechlorination to
well location only.
1. Move point of chlorine
application from blended
system to poor quality well.
2. provide only stoichemtric
dose (0.64 mg/l and 2.0
mg/l for Iron & H2S at
prechlorinated well
Free Chlorine Dose/Residual
Probable Cause
11
Troubleshooting Guide #2
Observation
1. DBP Significant Excursion
noticed with Changes in
Chlorine Residual in plant
processes with no chlorine dose
increases
Free Chlorine Residual
pH
TOC or UV254,
Turbidity
Flow Rate
Detention Times in Basins
1. DBP Significant Excursion
noticed combined with upset in
Sedimentation Basin.
Sludge Blanket Depth
Clarifier Effluent Turbidity
Flow Rate
Weir Conditions for Short
Circuiting
Velocity Currents
DBP - Process Upsets in Water Treatment Plant
(continued)
Probable Cause
1. Source water quality has
changed.
2. Plant flow has significantly
changed, decreasing detention
detention times through plant
facilities.
3. pH has changed resulting in
more reactive disinfectant.
Check
1. Determine source water
quality.
2. Check for equipment
failures, chlorine feed
calibration and for improper
chlorine feed rates.
3. Chlorine feed rates are not
being flow paced.
Remedy
1. Decrease chlorine feed to
establish necessary in-plant
residuals
2. Repair and/or recalibrate
equipment.
3. Calibrate chlorine
monitoring equipment,
including hand held test
equipment.
1. Excess sludge build up in
settling basin causing
resolublization of organics.
2. Carry over of organic solids
has occurred and is combining
with chlorine forming DBPs.
3. Higher flow has decreased
the amount of organics
removed in the sedimentation
tank,
1. Check current sludge blanket
levels and previous records to
determine if carryover has
occurred.
2. Check hydraulic loading
rates to clarifier to determine if
short circuiting has occurred
3. Check weirs for solids
carryover.
1. Lower sludge blanket levels
in the sedimentation tank.
2. Clean weirs as needed.
3. Ensure that baffles are in
place and properly set.
12
Troubleshooting Guide #2
DBP - Process Upsets in Water Treatment Plant (continued)
Observation
1. DBP Significant Excursion
noticed with Filter
Performance problem.
Filter Effluent Turbidity
Chlorine Residual in Filters
Filter Turbidity Spikes
following backwash
Filter Loading rates and
duration
Length of Filter Runs
GAC EBCT and TOC
removal efficiency
1. DBP are higher coming out
of Clearwell.
Chlorine Dose, Flow Rate
Detention Time in Clearwell.
Continuous Plant (not batch)
operation.
TOC or UV254 or Turbidity
increases out of clearwell.
1 DBP are higher following
Maintenance activities.
Residual Chlorine Levels at
select points in distribution
system
Probable Cause
1. There has been a turbidity
or colloidal breakthrough
associated with longer
filter run(s) or backwash
return..
2. High chlorine residual was
retained in filters for an
extended period.
3. Filters were significantly
overloaded by higher flow
rates.
4. GAC filter adsorptive
capacity is exhausted.
1. There are dead zones in the
clearwell.
2. There is excessive sediment
in clearwell.
3. Chlorine Residual levels are
too high
1. Flow patterns or
retention times have
been disrupted
2. Sediment has been retransported into
treatment processes.
Check
1. Check length of filters runs,
turbidity and head loss at
backwash.
2. Check Coagulation and
Flocculation Process.
3. Check Sedimentation
operation.
4. Check for hydraulic filter
overloading
5. A filter has been taken offline causing others to run at
too high a rate or media is
damaged and needs
replacement.
6. Chlorine is being added
ahead of GAC filter
1. Check hydraulic detention
time in clearwell.
2. Check maintenance records
for last sediment removal.
Remedy
1. Verify proper backwash
and headloss operation,
adjust Backwash Cycle as
needed.
2. Make prefilter process
control adjustments as
required.
3. Replace media
2. Check Chlorine Residual
Levels.
2. Review Flushing Records
1. Chlorine Levels
2. Eliminate stirred sediment
3. Re-establish proper
equipment operation.
1. Reduce storage volume.
2. Clean sediment from
clearwell
3. Adjust Chlorinator dose
13
Troubleshooting Guide #3
DBP - Water Distribution System Contributors
Observation
Probable Cause
Check
Remedy
1. DBP Significant Excursion
occurs in Distribution System
at select points
1. Water age is excessive
allowing reaction between
free chlorine and TOC.
1. Determine water age in
water distribution system.
1. Initiate corrective flushing
program.
2. Install automatic flush
valves
1. Biogrowth in distribution
system is concentrating organic
materials that are reacting with
free chlorine.
1. Check for chorine residual.
2. Determine Free Chlorine
potion of total chlorine (>
80%)
3. Perform HPC.
1. Increase flushing
frequencies.
2. Superchlorination may be
needed followed by change
to chloramines as
disinfectant..
1.Biogrowth in distribution
system is concentrating organic
materials that are reacting with
free chlorine producing DBPs.
2. Pipelines are experiencing
tuberculation.
3. System valves are closed
increasing water age in
some isolated pipelines.
1. Check for chorine residual.
2. Determine Free Chlorine
potion of total chlorine (>
80%)
3. Perform system pressure
test.
1. Increase flushing
frequencies.
2. Superchlorination may be
needed followed by change
to chloramines as
disinfectant.
3. Ensure that all system
valves are open.
4. May need to pig lines to
restore hydraulic efficiency.
Free/Combined CL Residual
Temperature
Storage Tank Fluctuations
1. DBP Significant Excursion
are occurring in Distribution
System following long period
of Extended Hot Weather.
Free/Combined CL Residual
Water Temperature
Storage Tank Fluctuations
1. DBP Significant Excursion
occur in isolated areas of Low
Flow or in Areas with Dead
End Pipelines.
Free/Combined CL Residual
System Pressure Analysis
Water Age Calculations
14
Troubleshooting Guide #3
DBP - Water Distribution System Contributors (continued)
Observation
Probable Cause
Check
Remedy
1. DBP Significant Excursion
occur in isolated areas of Near
Water Storage Tanks.
1. Sediment accumulations in
water storage tank is
concentrating organic
material and reacting with
free chlorine producing
DBPs.
2. Stratification and turnover
of stagnant water in tank
has occurred.
3. Changes in tank levels have
occurred because of
hydraulic demands.
1. Flow patterns have been
disrupted and/or sediment
transported.
2. Excess chlorine has entered
water system following
repair or startup.
1. Check maintenance records
for last sediment removal.
2. check tank temperatures for
water stratification.
3. Perform tank fill and
turnover calculations.
1. Ensure that tank is properly
filling and emptying and that
no stratification is occurring;
tank levels should be changing
daily with at least 2/3 of tank
water changing over.
1.Check maintenance records
for last water main repairs or
new main startup.
2. Check t o ensure that system
valves are in open position.
1. Re-institute flushing in
affected areas.
Free/Combined CL Residual
HPC
Water Age Calculations
Water Tank Temperatures.
Water Tank Levels
Tank Fill and Turnover
Calculations.
1. DBP Significant Excursion
occur after Maintenance,
Repair or Start Up of
Distribution Pipelines.
Free/Combined CL Residual
Flushing Frequency and
Locations.
15
References:
To be added at a later date.
16
Table of Contents
Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Formation .............................................................................................. 1
Significance of TOC in Florida Groundwaters ......................................................................................... 3
Variation in Source Water TOC Concentrations found in Florida ........................................................... 3
Strategies for DBP Reduction ................................................................................................................... 6
Chlorine Residual and production of Disinfection Byproducts ................................................................ 6
Water Age Considerations in the Production of DBP’s ........................................................................... 7
Setting of Activity and Performance Measures for DBP Reduction ........................................................ 8
Disinfection Byproducts Maximum Contaminant Levels ........................................................................ 9
Troubleshooting DBP Problems ............................................................................................................... 9
Troubleshooting Guide #1 DBP - Source Water Changes .................................................................. 10
Troubleshooting Guide #2 DBP – Process Upsets in Water Treatment Plant ..................................... 11
Troubleshooting Guide #2 DBP - Process Upsets in Water Treatment Plant (continued) .............. 12
Troubleshooting Guide #3 DBP - Water Distribution System Contributors ....................................... 14
Troubleshooting Guide #3 DBP - Water Distribution System Contributors (continued) ................... 15
17